Historic Residential Suburbs

National Park Service NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN U.S. Department of the Interior

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS

GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION AND DOCUMENTATION FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES -(

CITY OF PORTLAND

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HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS

GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION AND DOCUMENTATION FOR THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES

David L. Ames, University of Delaware Linda Flint McClelland, National Park Service

September 2002 U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places Mission of the National Park Service The National Park Service preserves unimpaired the natural and cultural resources and the values of the National Park System for the enjoyment, education and inspiration of this and future generations. The Park Service cooperates with partners to extend the benefits of natural and cultural resource conservation and outdoor recreation throughout this country and the world.

Above: Monte Vista School (1931), Albuquerque, New Mexico. In keeping with formal Beaux Arts principles of planning, the Spanish Colonial Revival school was designed as an architectural landmark marking the entrance to the Monte Vista and College View neighborhoods. (Photo by Kathleen Brooker, courtesy New Mexico Office of Cultural Affairs) Inside front cover and title page: Plat (c. 1892) and Aerial View (1920), Ladd's Addition, Portland, Oregon. Platted as a streetcar suburb at the beginning of the City Beautiful movement, Ladd's Addition represents one of the earliest documented cases of a garden suburb with a complex, radial plan. (Plat and photograph courtesy Oregon Historical Society, negs. 80838 and 39917) ii NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN FOREWORD

America's Historic Suburbs for the made by many nomination preparers he body of literature on National Register of Historic Places," to the understanding of suburbaniza- TAmerica's suburbanization is which was circulated for review and tion in the United States. vast and growing, covering many dis- comment in fall of 1998. In response Considerable discussion has sur- ciplines and reflecting diverse opin- to the many comments received, we rounded the selection of an inclusive ions. This bulletin attempts to bring broadened our literature search to set of dates covering the historic peri- together information about current additional related areas and expand- od of America's suburbanization. The scholarship and preservation practice ed the project beyond its original dates 1830-1960 should be used as a relating to the history of suburban scope. The conceptual framework of general guide and adjusted to accom- neighborhoods in the United States. chronological periods based on modate local historical events and The focus of this bulletin is the iden- developments in transportation tech- associations. In keeping with ad- tification, evaluation, and registration nology and subdivision planning and vances in transportation technology, of residential historic districts and the contextually-based survey meth- the organizing framework for the associated suburban resources, such odology introduced by Dr. Ames, suburbanization context, we have as schools and shopping centers. The however, remain at the core of the used 1830, the date of the introduc- information and methodology should current bulletin and multiple proper- tion of the steam-powered locomo- also be useful in understanding the ty form. We believe they represent a tive, for the purposes of this bulletin. significance of other resources that sound and useful approach for evalu- i960 was selected as a logical closing have shaped the metropolitan land- ating the nation's rich legacy of sub- date based on the current literature scape, such as parkways and public urban properties. that provides a historical assessment water systems. We greatly appreciate the of twentieth-century suburbanization The bulletin has been developed in comments and recommendations and for the practical purposes of con- tandem with a national multiple offered by the bulletin's many review- textual development and field sur- property listing entitled "Historic ers and the contributions of many veys. The history of specific local and Residential Suburbs in the United other scholars and practitioners metropolitan areas may support States, 1830-1960, MPS" under which involved in the study of suburban other dates that better reflect local related properties may be listed in the neighborhoods across the nation. patterns and trends. While we recog- National Register of Historic Places. Comments came from people repre- nize the potential exceptional signifi- Because the context for suburbaniza- senting different professional disci- cance of planned new towns such as tion, which forms Section E of the plines and various points of view, Columbia, Maryland, and Reston, Multiple Property Documentation indicating a wide range of opinion on Virginia, and model planned unit Form, brings together diverse infor- how the topic should be approached developments (called "PUDs"), and mation nowhere else available in a for National Register purposes. We their roots in the American Garden single source, a condensed version carefully considered all recommenda- City movement, addressing them is has been included in this bulletin to tions in determining the final format beyond the scope of this bulletin. enhance its usefulness. Both the bul- of the bulletin and in deciding what Suburbs are of great interest to letin and multiple property form are subjects to include in the final text. scholars of the American landscape intended to encourage the expansion and built environment and have of existing historic resources surveys, The impressive number of residen- design significance in several areas, foster the development of local and tial historic districts listed in the including community planning and metropolitan suburbanization con- National Register of Historic Places development, architecture, and land- texts, and facilitate the nomination of since 1966 attests to the wealth of pro- scape architecture. Suburban neigh- residential historic districts and other fessional expertise in State historic borhoods were generally platted, sub- suburban resources to the National preservation programs and elsewhere divided, and developed according to a Register. in the preservation field, and the increasing popular interest in recog- plan and often laid out according to The National Park Service is great- nizing and preserving historic neigh- professional principles of design ly indebted to Professor David L. borhoods. We have relied heavily on practiced by planners and landscape Ames of the Center for Historic National Register documentation as a architects. For these reasons, this bul- Architecture and Design, University source of information about letin puts forth a landscape approach, of Delaware, for drawing our atten- American suburbs and as verification consistent with that presented in ear- tion to the rich history of America's of the broad national patterns docu- lier National Register bulletins on suburbs, and for producing "A Con- mented by current literary sources. designed and rural historic districts, text and Guidelines for Evaluating We acknowledge the contributions but adapted to the special character-

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS iii istics of suburban neighborhoods. New technologies are rapidly histories of the programs that created The landscape approach presented changing the ways we gather data them to be told elsewhere. Selected here is based on an understanding about historic neighborhoods and bibliographical entries for these that suburban neighborhoods pos- the ways in which we carry out sur- kinds of communities are included in sess important landscape characteris- veys. The increasing availability of the list of recommended reading tics and typically took form in a computerized databases offering a materials. three-layered process: selection of wealth of detailed tax assessment and Every effort has been made to location; platting and layout; and planning information, coupled with provide the most up-to-date list of design of the house and yard. advances in Geographical Inform- sources of information. These Surveying and evaluating residential ation Systems (GIS), are making it include materials currently in print historic districts as cultural landscapes possible to assemble information or likely available in a strong central will better equip preservationists to about large numbers of residential or university library or through a recognize these important places as subdivisions and to plot this informa- library loan program. With the having multiple aspects of social and tion in the form of detailed property upsurge of interest among scholars in design history, identify significant val- lists and survey maps. We encourage suburbanization in recent years, the ues and characteristics, and assist in the use of these new tools and recog- body of literature is expanding rapid- planning their preservation. nize their value in managing informa- ly. We apologize for any omissions We have profiled the roles of real tion about suburban development, and continue to welcome your rec- estate developers, town planners, organizing surveys, and providing a ommendations for new bibliographi- architects, and landscape architects, comparative basis for evaluation. cal sources that can be included in so that the contributions of each These advances are particularly wel- future revisions. profession to the design of suburban come at a time when many communi- America will be recognized and in ties are just beginning to examine Carol. D. Shull hopes that future nominations will their extensive legacy of post-World Keeper of the War II suburbs. The lack of experi- document similar contributions and National Register of Historic Places ence using these sources and meth- recognize important collaborative September 2002 efforts. The landscape approach also ods to document suburbs, however, offers a suitable framework for inte- makes providing more detailed guid- grating information about the social ance impractical at this time. We history and physical design of hope that future revisions of this bul- America's suburban places because letin will highlight the success and they i) were shaped by economic and results of many of the pioneering demographic factors, 2) resulted projects currently underway. from broadbased decisions about Several reviewers requested our how land could be best used to serve discussion of planning be expanded human needs, and 3) were designed to include company towns, philan- according to established principles of thropic projects, and government- landscape architecture, civil engi- sponsored communities. Providing a neering, and community planning. comprehensive history of such devel- Several topics have been intro- opments was beyond the scope of the duced here that did not appear in the present context, which is primarily earlier draft. These include the Better concerned with the development of Homes movement of the 1920s, the privately-financed and constructed rise of small house architects and neighborhoods. We have included merchant builders, the highly influ- references to specific cases where the ential Federal Housing Administra- planning, design, or history of a com- tion principles of housing and subdi- pany town or philanthropic project vision design of the 1930s, trends in provided an important model or African American suburbanization, exerted substantial influence on the prefabricated methods of house con- design of privately developed sub- struction, and the landscape design urbs. Greenbelt communities, public of home grounds and suburban housing, and defense housing proj- yards. The sources for researching ects are discussed only to the extent local suburban history and historic that they influenced the development neighborhoods and the list of sources of private residential communities or for recommended reading have been illustrate prevailing trends in housing substantially expanded. or subdivision design, leaving their social history and the administrative iv NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Landscape Records in the United Deborah Abele, Phoenix, Arizona; his bulletin was developed States; Rodd Wheaton, NPS-Denver; Dorothy Buffmire, Alexandria, Tunder the supervision of Carol Diane Wray, Englewood, Colorado. Virginia; Charles Birnbaum, Heritage D. Shull, Keeper of the National In addition, the authors extend Preservation Services, NPS; Anne Register of Historic Places. Many their appreciation to the following Bruder, Maryland Historical Trust; individuals representing a variety of individuals for their comments on an William Callahan, Nebraska State preservation organizations con- early draft: Arnold R. Alanen, Univer- Historical Society; Ralph Christian, tributed to its development. The sity of Wisconsin; Mary R. Allman, Iowa State Historical Society; Richard authors recognize the expert survey Littleton Historical Museum, City of Cloues, Georgia Department of and registration activities carried out Littleton, Colorado; Karen Bode Natural Resources; James Draeger, by State historic preservation pro- Baxter, St. Louis, Missouri; Claire F. Wisconsin State Historical Society; grams and the wealth of information Blackwell, Missouri Department of James Gabbert, Oklahoma Historical about America's suburbs contained in Natural Resources; Lauren Weiss Society; Martha Hagedorn-Krass, countless nominations to the National Bricker, California Polytechnical Kansas State Historical Society; Register since its beginnings in 1966. University-Pomona; Richard H. Dwayne Jones, Texas Historical Com- Appreciation is extended to Beth L. Broun, U.S. Department of Housing mission; Terry Karschner, New Jersey Savage and Sarah Dillard Pope of the and Urban Development; Dorene Department of Parks and Forestry; National Register staff who con- Clement, California Department of Shevin Kupperman, Falls Church, tributed substantially to the produc- Transportation; Rebecca Conard, Virginia; Peter Kurtze, Maryland tion of this bulletin through their Middle Tennessee State University; Historical Trust; Sara Amy Leach, comments and editorial assistance. Robert Fishman, Rutgers University - Thanks is also extended to other Historic American Engineering Camden; Betsy Friedberg, Massachu- Record; Suzan Lindstrom, Eichler members of the National Register for setts Historical Commission; J. Bennett their comments and support: Patrick Network, California; Janet McDonnell, Graham, Tennessee Valley Authority; NPS; David Morgan, Kentucky Andrus, Shannon Bell, Beth Boland, Betsy Gurlacz, Western Springs, John Byrne, Marilyn Harper, Paul Heritage Council; Margaret Peters, Illinois; Karen L. Jessup, Roger Virginia Department of Historic Lusignan, Octavia Pearson, Erika Williams University; Thomas F. King, Seibert, and Daniel Vivian. Resources; Greg Ramsey, Pennsyl- Silver Spring, Maryland; Bruce M. vania Historical and Museum Special thanks go to several indi- Kriviskey, Department of Planning Commission; Paula Reed, Hagers- viduals who shared their expert and Zoning, Fairfax County, Virginia; town, Maryland; Lee and Cheryl research, provided extensive com- Antoinette J. Lee, Heritage Preserva- Siebert, Arlington, Virginia; W. Dale ments, and directed us to additional tion Services, NPS; Barbara Mattick, Waters, Department of Community sources and perspectives. They Florida Division of Historical Planning, Housing and Development, include Marty Arbunich, Eichler Resources; Vincent L. Michael, School Arlington, Virginia; Sherda Williams, Network; William Baldwin, U.S. Army of the Art Institute of Chicago; Sheila NPS-Omaha; Sarah A. Woodward, Corps of Engineers; David Bricker, Mone, California Department of Charlotte, North Carolina; Arthur California Department of Transpor- Transportation; Lance M. Neckar, Wrubel, Ridgewood, New Jersey; tation; Claudia Brown, North University of Minnesota; Julie Sherry Joines Wyatt, Charlotte, North Carolina Department of Cultural Osborne, Oregon Parks and Recrea- Carolina. Resources; John A. Burns, Historic tion Department; Barbara Powers, We wish to thank the many American Buildings Survey; Robert W. Ohio Historical Society; John State historic preservation offices, Craig, New Jersey Department of Robbins, National Center for Preser- historical societies, libraries, and Environmental Protection; Timothy vation Technology and Training, NPS; other institutions for the use of illus- Davis, Historic American Engineering Eileen Starr, NPS-Omaha; Don trations from their collections. And Record; Richard S. Harris, McMaster Stevens, NPS-Omaha; Richard D. finally, we extend our appreciation to University, Hamilton, Ontario; James Wagner, Goucher College, Baltimore; Marcia Axtmann Smith for her Rachel Franklin-Weekley, NPS- E. Jacobsen, Des Moines, Iowa; Bruce expertise and recommendations on Omaha; Gwendolyn Wright, Colum- Jensen, Texas Historical Commission; this publication's design. Richard Longstreth, George Washing- bia University; and Barbara Wyatt, ton University; Susan Chase Mulca- Frederick, Maryland. hey, University of Delaware; Marty We also thank the many other indi- Perry, Kentucky Heritage Council; viduals who contributed to this proj- Catha Grace Rambusch, Catalog of ect in various ways, including:

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS V TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD in Figure 2. Federal Laws and Programs Encouraging Home Ownership 30 CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v Planning and Domestic Land Use 31 Deed Restrictions INTRODUCTION i Zoning Ordinances and Subdivision Regulations Comprehensive Planning and Regional Plans Defining Historic Residential Suburbs 4 Trends in Subdivision Design 34 Using Historic Context to Evaluate Eligibility 7 Figure 3. Trends in Suburban Land Understanding Residential Suburbs as Development and Subdivision Design 35 Cultural Landscapes 7 Gridiron Plats 37 Landscape Characteristics 8 Planned Rectilinear Suburbs 37 Land Use and Activities Response to the Natural Environment Early Picturesque Suburbs 38 Patterns of Spatial Organization Riverside and the Olmsted Ideal 39 Cultural Traditions City Beautiful Influences 39 Circulation Networks Boulevards and Residential Parks Boundary Demarcations Early Radial Plans Vegetation Twentieth-Century Garden Suburbs 41 Buildings, Structures, and Objects Garden Suburbs and Country Club Suburbs Clusters Influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement Archeological Sites American Garden City Planning 41 Small-scale Elements Forest Hills Guilford AN OVERVIEW OF SUBURBANIZATION Washington Highlands IN THE UNITED STATES, 1830 TO 1960 15 World War 1 Defense Housing Mariemont TRANSPORTATION 16 The RPAA and Sunnyside Trends in Urban and Metropolitan Radburn and Chatham Village Transportation 16 The Neighborhood Unit and the 1931 President's Conference Railroad and Horsecar Suburbs, 1830 to 1890 16 FHA Principles for Neighborhood Planning 48 Neighborhoods of Small Houses Streetcar Suburbs, 1888 to 1928 17 FHA-Approved Garden Apartment Communities Figure 1. Milestones in Urban and The Postwar Curvilinear Subdivision Metropolitan Transportation 18 HOUSE AND YARD 52 Early Automobile Suburbs, 1908 to 1945 21 The Design of the Suburban Home 52 Post-World War II and Early Freeway Suburbs, 1945 to i960 24 The Suburban Prerequisite: The Invention of the Balloon Frame 52 LAND USE AND SITE DEVELOPMENT 26 Rural Architecture and Home Grounds, Suburban Land Development Practices 26 1838 to 1890 52 Developers and the Development Process 26 Early Pattern Books The Subdivider Landscape Gardening for Suburban Homes The Home Builder Eclectic House Designs and Mail Order Plans The Community Builder The Homestead Temple-House The Operative Builder The Practical Suburban House, 1890 to 1920 56 The Merchant Builder The Open Plan Bungalow Financing Suburban Residential Development 29 The American Foursquare Early Trends Factory Cut, Mail Order Houses President's Conference on Home Building and Home Introduction of the Garage Ownership Home Gardening and the Arts and Crafts Movement Federal Home Loan Banking System Better Homes and the Small House Movement, 3 Home Owners Loan Corporation 1919 to 1945 59 Federal Housing Administration (FHA) The Better Homes Campaign Defense Housing Programs Architect-Designed Small Houses The "GI" Bill vi NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Federal Home Building Service Plan Association with Important Events and Persons Landscape Design for Small House Grounds Distinctive Characteristics of Design Public and Private Initiatives: The Efficient, Ability to Yield Important Information Low-Cost Home, 1931 to 1948 60 Evaluation under Criteria Consideration G Findings of the 1931 President's Conference Selecting Areas of Significance 97 FHA's Minimum House and Small House Program Defining Period of Significance 99 FHA's Rental Housing Program Determining Level of Significance 100 Prefabricated Houses Historic Integrity 101 The Postwar Suburban House and Yard, 1945 to i960 65 Applying Qualities of Integrity 102 From the FHA Minimum House to the Cape Cod Seven Qualities of Integrity The Suburban Ranch House Classifying Contributing and Noncontributing The Contemporary House Resources 106 Postwar Suburban Apartment Houses Nonhistoric Alterations and Additions Contemporary Landscape Design Weighing Overall Integrity 107 Figure 4. Suburban Architecture and Landscape Boundaries 107 Gardening, 1832 to 1960 70 Defining the Historic Property 107 Deciding What to Include 107 IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION, Selecting Appropriate Edges 107 DOCUMENTATION AND REGISTRATION 73 DOCUMENTATION AND REGISTRATION 108 IDENTIFICATION 74 Multiple Property Submissions 108 Developing a Local Historic Context 74 Individual Nominations and Determinations Conducting Historical Research 74 of Eligibility 108 Determining Geographical Scale and Name 108 Chronological Periods 74 Classification 108 Compiling Data from Historic Maps and Plats 75 Description 108 Mapping the Study Area Preparing a Master List of Residential Subdivisions Statement of Significance in Maps and Photographs in Figure 5. Process for Identification, Evaluation, and Documentation 76 ENDNOTES 112 Developing a Statement of Context 77 Figure 6. Historical Sources for Researching Local Patterns of Suburbanization 79 RESOURCES 117 Surveying Historic Residential Suburbs 82 Reference Services and Specialized Repositories 118 Survey Forms 82 Historic Periodicals 120 Field Reference Materials 83 Popular Magazines The Reconnaissance Survey 84 Professional and Trade Periodicals Organizing an Itinerary Recommended Reading 120 Recording Field Observations Related National Register Bulletins 120 Figure 7. Guidelines for Surveying Historic General History 120 Residential Suburbs 86 Methodology, References, and Style Guides 121 Analyzing Survey Results 88 Political and Social History 122 Identifying Significant Patterns of Development Community Planning, Real Estate, and Subdivision Design 123 Conducting an Intensive-Level Survey and Regional Histories and Case Studies 124 Compiling National Register Documentation 89 Transportation, Utilities, and Public Parks 125 Documenting the Physical Evolution of a Historic House Design and Production 126 Residential Suburb Classifying House Types for Inventory Purposes Other Suburban Property Types 129 Yard Design and Gardening 130 EVALUATION 92 Selected Pattern Books, Landscape Guides, and Figure 8. How Residential Suburbs Meet the House Catalogs 131 National Register Criteria for Evaluation 93 Dissertations 133 Historic Significance 94 Selected Theses 133 Applying the National Register Criteria Selected Multiple Property Listings 133 and Criteria Considerations 94

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS vii

INTRODUCTION

Modeled after a Tuscan villa, the Parker House (c. 1870) in the 392-acre Glendale Historic District, Hamilton County, Ohio, shows the widespread influence of mid-nineteenth-century pattern books which offered local builders plans for romantic house types and decorative features, such as roof brackets, hood molds, and porch rails. Platted in 1851 with lots from one to 20 acres by civil engineer Robert C Phillips for the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railroad, Glendale is considered the earliest Picturesque suburb in the United States and the first to feature a naturalistic plan of curvilinear streets closely following the site's undulating topography. (Photo by Glendale Heritage Preservation, courtesy National Historic Landmarks Survey) Suburbanization spurred the rapid 19 million compared to an increase of any of America's residential growth of metropolitan areas in the six million in the core cities. This Mneighborhoods are significant twentieth century. In 1910, the U.S. growth signaled the post-World War II historic places. Even though many Census recognized 44 metropolitan suburban boom. By i960, a greater preservationists think of suburbs as districts—areas where the population number of people in metropolitan relatively recent developments and a of the central city and all jurisdictions areas lived in the suburbs than in the new type of cultural landscape, most within a 10-mile radius exceeded central city, and, by 1990, the majority having been built since the end of 100,000. By the 1920s, suburban areas of all Americans lived in suburban World War II, Americans have been were growing at a faster rate than cen- areas.1 extending their cities outward by build- tral cities—33.2 percent compared to Historically, the residential subdivi- ing suburban neighborhoods since the 24.2 percent in the previous decade. sion has been the building block of mid-nineteenth century. Transpor- During the 1940s, the average popula- America's suburban landscape. Its tation to and from earlier suburbs was tion of core cities increased 14 percent origin can be traced to the eighteenth- provided successively by the horse- while that of the suburbs increased 36 century suburbs of London and, in the drawn carriage, steam-driven train, percent. For the first time, the absolute United States, to the Romantic land- horse-drawn omnibus, electric street- growth of the population residing in scape movement of the mid-nineteenth car and, finally, the mass-produced, suburbs nationwide, estimated at nine century. The two residential develop- gasoline-powered automobile and million, surpassed that of central cities, ments recognized as the design proto- motorbus. estimated at six million. This trend types of the modern, self-contained This bulletin and the corresponding continued, and in the 1950s, the popu- subdivision, where single-family houses multiple property listing, "Historic lation of suburban areas increased by were located along curvilinear roads in Residential Suburbs in the United States," recognize the important role that transportation played in fostering America's suburbanization and in shaping the physical character of American suburbs. For this reason, contextual information has been organized in a chronological format with each time period corresponding to the introduction and rise of a particular method of transportation. Each successive generation of suburb has been named for the predominant mode of transportation that spawned it—"railroad suburb," "streetcar suburb," "automobile suburb," and "freeway suburb." Each of these types produced a distinctive suburban landscape, contributing to the growth of American cities and coinciding with a major event in American history—the emergence of the metropolis. Demographically, suburbanization spurred the growth of population on the edge of cities. In the second half of the nineteenth century, American cities grew rapidly as they industrialized. The degraded conditions of the city, coupled with a growing demand for housing in an environment that melded nature with community, created pressures for suburbanization. Advances in transportation, most notably the introduction of the electric streetcar in 1887 and the mass production of gasoline- powered automobiles after 1908, allowed an increasingly broad spectrum of households to suburbanize.

2 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN a parklike setting, were Llewellyn Park ideal in the form of small, detached Postwar suburbs—the result of one (1857), in Orange, New Jersey, just west houses on the narrow lots of strictly of the largest building booms in of New York City, and Riverside (1869), rectilinear plats or the spacious American history—represented a new Illinois, west of Chicago. The early resi- grounds of garden apartment villages. and distinctive stage in the succession dential suburbs fostered an emerging The passage of Federal legislation in of suburban neighborhood types. They, American aspiration for life in a semi- the 1930s, establishing a system of furthermore, created an almost seam- rural environment, apart from the home-loan banking and creating insur- less suburban landscape in the exten- noise, pollution, and activity of the ance for long-term, low-interest home sive territory they occupied, the man- crowded city, but close enough to the mortgages, put home ownership within ner in which large numbers of homes city for commuting daily to work. reach of many Americans and further were rapidly mass-produced, and the The American ideal of suburban encouraged widespread suburbaniza- dispersed pattern of settlement made life in the parklike setting of a self- tion. With more favorable mortgage possible by the construction of modern contained subdivision fueled the aspi- guarantees and builders' credits by the freeways. rations of rising middle- and lower- end of the 1940s, this system, to a previ- As the postwar suburbs approach 50 income families. These aspirations ously unprecedented degree, helped years of age, they are being included in were increasingly met as advances in finance the great suburban boom of the local surveys and are being evaluated transportation opened fringe land for postwar years. For many Americans, according to the National Register cri- residential development and lowered life in the postwar suburbs represented teria. Several having exceptional impor- the time and cost of commuting to the fulfillment of the dream of home tance are already listed in the National work in the city. Even those having ownership and material well-being. Register of Historic Places. The num- modest incomes would achieve the ber eligible for listing in the National Register is likely to increase dramatically in the next decade, presenting a major challenge to decision makers and preservation planners at the local, State, and Federal and tribal government levels. This bulletin offers guidance to Federal agencies, State historic preservation offices, Indian tribes, Certified Local Governments, preservation professionals, and interested individuals in developing local and metropolitan contexts for suburban development and in preparing National Register nominations and determinations of eligibility for historic residential suburbs. An overview of the national context for suburbanization in the United States provides a chronological framework for understanding national trends that may have influenced local patterns of suburbanization. Guidelines for identification set forth a methodology for developing local contexts and conducting local surveys, while guidelines for evaluation examine the key issues of evaluating the significance, integrity, and boundaries of National Register eligible properties.2

Architect-designed Cape Cod homes built between 1948 and 1955 in Mariemont (1922- 1960), a model Garden City near Cincinnati, reflect the enduring popularity of Colonial Revival house types in twentieth-century domestic design. (Photo by Steve Gordon, courtesy Ohio Historic Preservation Office)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 3 DEFINING HISTORIC interrelated by design, planning, or physical character of other suburbs, on historic association; the other hand, may be the result of any of the following factors: RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS • residential clusters along streetcar lines or major thoroughfares; • a relatively short period of Suburbanization is the process of land development; development on or near the edge of an • entire villages built along railroads, existing city, usually occurring at a trolley lines, or parkways; and • planning specifications for lot size, lower density than the central city. In uniform setbacks, or the relation- • concentrations of multiple family the United States, the development of ship of dwellings to the street and to units, such as duplexes, double and residential neighborhoods has led this each other; triple-deckers, and apartment process and has influenced the physical houses. character of the American landscape as • deed restrictions dictating dwelling cost, architectural style, or condi- cities have expanded outward. First Nonresidential resources located with- tions of ownership; appearing in the mid-nineteenth cen- in or adjacent to a historic neighbor- tury, residential suburbs reflect impor- hood may contribute to significance if • local zoning ordinances and subdi- tant aspects of the decentralization of they are integrally related to the neigh- vision regulations; American cities and towns as well as borhood by design, plan, or associa- important patterns of architecture, tion, and share a common period of • housing of a similar size, scale, style, community planning and development, historic significance. These include: and period of construction, built by landscape design, social history, and a single or small number of archi- other aspects of culture. • shopping centers; tects or builders; For the purposes of the National • parks and parkways; • unifying landscape design, including Register program, a historic residential features such as gateways, signs, suburb is classified as a historic district • institutions and facilities that sup- common spaces, tree lined streets, and is defined as: ported and enhanced suburban walls and curbs, and street patterns; domestic life (e.g. schools, churches, and A geographic area, usually locat- stores, community buildings, libra- ed outside the central city, that ries, parks, and playgrounds); and • adherence to FHA standards to was historically connected to the qualify for mortgage insurance. city by one or more modes of • transportation facilities associated transportation; subdivided and with daily commuting, including For the purposes of this bulletin, a his- developed primarily for residen- train stations, bus shelters, boule- toric suburb is defined by the historical tial use according to a plan; and vards, and parkways. events that shaped it and by its location possessing a significant concen- in relation to the existing city, regard- This bulletin may also be useful in doc- less of current transportation modes or tration, linkage, and continuity of umenting several other property types dwellings on small parcels of the city's legal boundaries. It applies to which, although falling outside the con- the densely built streetcar suburbs of land, roads and streets, utilities, text of suburbanization, share similar and community facilities. design characteristics and patterns of This definition applies to a broad range historic development. These include: (top left) Community park in the Avondale of residential neighborhoods which, by • vacation or resort developments; Estates Historic District (1924-1941), a sub- design or historic association, illustrate urb of Atlanta, features a manmade lake, a significant aspects of America's subur- • company towns; club house, and shaded grounds. (Photo by banization. The following typically • urban residential neighborhoods; James R. Lockhart, courtesy Georgia meet this definition and may be sur- Department of Natural Resources) veyed, evaluated, and documented for • resettlement communities; and (top right) The American Beach Historic National Register listing using the • public housing developments3 District (1935-1965) on Florida's Amelia guidelines found in this bulletin: Island originated as a planned vacation com- Historic residential suburbs exhibit munity for prosperous African Americans dur- • planned residential communities; diverse physical characteristics and ing the era of segregation. (Photo by Joel McEachin, courtesy Florida Division of • residential neighborhoods that reflect national trends in various ways. Historical Resources) through historic events and For example, a subdivision platted in associations have achieved a the 1920s, but developed over a period (bottom) Baltimore City Fire Station of many years due to local economic (c. 1905) in Jacobethan Revival style illustrates cohesive identity; the English village setting and provision of city conditions, availability of mortgage services at Roland Park, one of the nation's • single residential subdivisions of financing, or the relationship between various sizes; most influential planned streetcar suburbs. developers and builders, may exhibit a (Photo by Nancy Miller, courtesy of Maryland • groups of contiguous residential broad range of architectural styles and Department of Housing and Community subdivisions that are historically housing types. The homogeneous Development)

4 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 5 Due to a local "Own Your Own Home" city. Conversely, it applies to newer middle classes, the aspiration for the campaign, Des Moines led other American cities such as Los Angeles, called the freestanding house on a residential street cities in the 1920 Census in the percentage of "suburban metropolis," where the sin- was equally shared by middle-and even homes occupied by their owners. Located near gle-family home in a subdivision working-class families, many of whom streetcar lines, many were bungalows bought became the building block of the entire by the turn of the century had settled in on installment in small subdivisions such as temple-fronted homes or modest bunga- the Woodland Place Plat, listed in the National city as legal boundaries expanded out- Register under the Des Moines Residential ward in response to pressures for new lows on the small rectangular lots and Growth and Development, 1900-1942, MPS. development.4 rectilinear streets of the city's gridiron (Photo by James E. Jacobsen, courtesy State As a dominant trend in American his- plan. Although suburban life has Historical Society of Iowa) tory, suburbanization has progressively appealed to all socioeconomic groups, cut across lines of social and historically the middle class has been the economic class, extending from the largest group to establish homes in sub- the 1890s even though the streetcars wealthy to the working classes. Although urban neighborhoods. To many and trolley tracks that created them the earliest suburbs, distinguished by Americans, especially after World War II, have disappeared and many have been stately houses set on large landscaped home ownership became equated with incorporated into the legal limits of the lots, were developed for the upper- the attainment of middle-class status.

6 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN evaluated for significance at the State suburban development on a regional USING HISTORIC CONTEXT level as well as local level. Those that scale. introduced important trends or design TO EVALUATE ELIGIBILITY A local context, developed for an principles later adopted nationally or individual community or jurisdic- regionally, represent outstanding artis- To qualify for the National Register, a tion within the metropolitan area, tic achievement, or were particularly property must represent a significant would 1) define local patterns of his- influential as prototypes for subsequent aspect of history, architecture, archeol- toric suburban development in design merit study for designation as ogy, engineering, or culture of an area, themes such as transportation, com- National Historic Landmarks. and it must have the characteristics that munity planning, and architecture; In considering National Register eli- make it a good representative of the 2) relate local patterns to both broad gibility, several determinations must be properties associated with that aspect national trends and the specific made: of the past. Historic residential suburbs events that influenced the growth of are historic districts comprised of sites • how the district illustrates an impor- the metropolitan area of which it is a (including the overall plan, house lots, tant aspect of America's suburban- part; and 3) identify specific neigh- and community spaces), buildings ization, and reflects the growth and borhoods illustrating significant (primarily houses), structures (includ- historic development of the locality patterns. ing walls, fences, streets and roads both or metropolitan area where it is serving the suburb and connecting it to A thematically based context would located; and corridors leading to the larger metro- document a single significant pattern politan area), and objects (signs, foun- • whether the district possesses or trend of suburbanization, estab- tains, statuary, etc.). 1) physical features characterizing it lishing its importance and identifying Eligibility for listing in the National as a historic residential suburb, and neighborhoods associated with it. Register of Historic Places is evaluated 2) attributes of historic integrity con- Such a context could be based on a according to the National Register veying its association with important locally significant pattern, such as Criteria for Evaluation. Eligible are historic events or representing signif- the numerous subdivisions of bun- historic residential suburbs and neigh- icant aspects of its historic design. galows and foursquares which borhoods: shaped the character of Des Moines Decisions concerning significance and in the early twentieth century, or an integrity are best made when based on A. that are associated with events that important regional trend, such as factual information about the history of have made a significant contribution merchant-builder Joseph Eichler's a neighborhood and a knowledge of to the broad patterns of our history; modernistic subdivisions in local patterns of suburbanization. Such or California. information may be organized into a B. that are associated with the lives of historic context defined by theme, geo- persons significant to our past; or graphic area, and chronological period. C. that embody the distinctive charac- One or more historic contexts can be UNDERSTANDING teristics of a type, period, or method developed for a metropolitan area or a of construction, or that represent locality within it to bring together RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS AS the work of a master, or that possess information about important events in high artistic values, or that represent transportation, ethnic heritage, indus- CULTURAL LANDSCAPES a significant and distinguishable try, architecture, and community devel- Residential neighborhoods form one of entity whose components may lack opment, which shaped its growth and America's most distinctive landscape development and influenced its subur- individual distinction; or types. For this reason, their significance banization. is best evaluated using a landscape D. that have yielded, or may be likely to Several approaches may be followed approach which recognizes the pres- yield, information important in pre- for developing historic contexts: history or history. ence of historic landscape characteris- • A metropolitan-wide historic con- tics and seeks to understand the inter- An eligible district must meet one of text would 1) identify specific events relationship of these characteristics the above criteria and possess integrity which contributed to the region's spatially and chronologically. of location, design, setting, materials, historic growth and development; Subdivision development typically workmanship, feeling, and association. 2) establish where and when subur- occurred in several clearly defined Criteria Consideration G, requiring banization took place, tracing the stages, which can be read as a series of exceptional importance, should be emergence of suburban communi- layers imprinted on the land: applied to neighborhoods that have not ties outside the central city; and yet reached 50 years of age. Although • The first layer resulted from the 3) define important aspects of com- many will be evaluated for significance selection of a parcel of land dedicat- munity planning, architecture, or at the local level, historic suburbs with- ed for residential use and is defined landscape architecture that material- in major metropolitan areas should be by geographical location and ly contributed to the character of

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 7 relationship to natural topography The length of time in which each layer settings of many historic subdivisions, and cultural factors, such as proxim- took form depends on the particular countless vernacular landscapes have ity to places of employment and history of the subdivision, local build- been shaped in tandem by home- availability of transportation. ing and real estate practices, and fac- builders, seeking conformity with local tors such as economics, availability of zoning regulations and national policy, The second corresponds to the sub- financing, and the demand for housing and home owners, following popular division design, usually the result of in a particular location. trends in home design and gardening. a predetermined plan or plat with Many of America's residential very precise boundaries. This layer suburbs resulted from the collabora- is characterized by an internal circu- tion of developers, planners, architects, Landscape Characteristics lation network, a system of utilities, and landscape architects. The contribu- blocks of buildable house lots, and, The following landscape characteristics tions of these professional groups, indi- sometimes, community facilities. can be used as a guide for examining vidually and collectively, give American these layers, describing the physical suburbs their characteristic identity as The third represents the arrange- evolution of a suburb, understanding historic neighborhoods, collections of ment of each home and yard with its the varied forces that shaped its devel- residential architecture, and designed dwelling, garage, lawn, driveway, opment, and determining aspects of landscapes. In addition to the profes- gardens, walls, fences, and plantings. significance. A knowledge of landscape sionally designed plans and landscaped

8 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN characteristics related to the suburban including demographics, proximity to suburbs, many suburbs also include development of a particular metropoli- transportation, availability of water and common areas that function as parks or tan area is valuable in developing other utilities, and opportunities for playgrounds. typologies for suburban planning, employment. Topographic features, Subdivision development relies on domestic architecture, and landscape such as floodplain, deeply-cut stream the availability of public utilities, includ- design. Information about landscape valleys, and escarpments, often influ- ing water, sewer, electricity, natural gas, characteristics should be gathered dur- enced the choice of land considered telephone, and road maintenance. ing field survey and included in National suitable for residential development. Before the advent of water mains, the Register documentation. For additional Predominantly residential in use, design of many subdivisions included guidance, consult National Register bul- subdivisions typically contain single- reservoirs and water towers and, even in letin How to Evaluate and Nominate family houses, multiple family housing, the twentieth century, apartment villages Designed Historic Landscapes. or a combination of the two. Facilities often included power generating and that support domestic life and provide sewage treatment plants. Land Use and Activities recreational pleasure, such as schools, Private deed restrictions have been shops, community buildings, play- used since the nineteenth century to The selection of land for residential grounds, and parks may also be limit development within suburban subdivision has historically resulted present. While the private yard is a subdivisions to residential use and from a combinations of factors, distinguishing feature of American exclude nonconforming activities such as industry or commerce. Since the 1920s, local zoning ordinances and subdivision regulations have been adopted in many jurisdictions to control the use V and character of residential neighborhoods. In addition, master plans, comprehensive plans, and regional plans have been adopted in many localities to specify both the location and the density of residential construction.

Response to the Natural Environment Climate, topography, soil, and the availability of water historically determined the suitability of sites for residential construction. Water has always been a critical factor for residential development, and many early suburbs incorporated provisions for reservoirs and water towers. The advent of public systems of water, especially in metropolitan areas, facilitated residential subdivision on a large scale. Historically natural topography was a strong determinant of design, influencing street patterns, site drainage, the size and shape of building lots, and provision of community parks.

The subdivision of areas having a varied or dramatic topography, such as the Whitley Heights Historic District (1918-1928) in Los Angeles, required the expertise of master site planners and architects who were able to create efficient systems for traffic circulation and water drainage, make use of natural features for scenic and picturesque effects, and design houses to fit irregular, steeply sloping sites. (Photo by Brian Moore, courtesy California Office of Historic Preservation)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 9 Residential suburbs were designed to ing materials, including stone, brick, Written specifications accompany- follow the natural topography of the adobe, tile, and wood. With the intro- ing a general plan sometimes pre- land. In areas of relatively flat topogra- duction of pre-cut mail order housing scribed design requirements such as the phy, the most common solution was to in the early twentieth century and the distance to which buildings must be set extend the existing rectilinear grid of expanded use of prefabricated compo- back from the street; the size, style, or city streets. The subdivision of areas nents, such as plywood, asbestos board, cost of houses to be built; and any having varied topography—in the form and steel panels, during and after restrictions on the use of land or the of steep hillsides, rocky bluffs and out- World War II, home building materials design of individual housing lots. croppings, or wooded ravines—often became more a function of cost and Private deed restrictions were com- required the design expertise of master taste, rather than geographical avail- monly used to specify the size, scale, landscape architects and engineers, ability. In the 1930s, a national market style, and cost of dwellings and in other who were able to utilize natural fea- began to emerge for materials, such as ways controlled the setback and place- tures for scenic and picturesque effects, California redwood, Northwest red ment of a house on its lot. In addition, as well as create efficient systems for cedar, and Arkansas soft pine, which local zoning ordinances and subdivi- traffic circulation and water drainage. could be shipped anywhere in the sion regulations influenced the charac- Stream valleys, ravines, flood plains, country. The diffusion of regional pro- ter of suburban neighborhoods by and canyons were often left undevel- totypes nationwide in the twentieth cen- placing limits on the density, number of oped to allow for site drainage and pro- tury further severed the relationship dwellings per acre, height of dwellings, vide for outdoor recreation. In some between house design and local sources distance between dwellings, and the places, such sites were avoided because of building materials. distance, or setback of each dwelling of the high cost of construction. In oth- from the street. ers, particularly where there was a mar- Patterns of Spatial Organization Whether the result of popular trends ket for more expensive housing, they or professional landscape design, the were considered desirable for the priva- Spatial organization applies to both the organization of the domestic yard cy, variety, and picturesque qualities subdivision of the overall parcel and includes the arrangement of the house such a setting afforded. the arrangement of the yard, sometimes and garage in relationship to the street Climate, soil, and availability of called the "home ground." The expan- or common areas; the placement of water, as well as decorative value and sion of public utilities, particularly water walks and a driveway; and the division taste, often influenced the retention of and sewer mains, as well as improve- of front, back, and side yards into areas existing trees and the planting of new ments in transportation influenced the for specialized uses. Depending on trees and shrubs, whether native or design of many new neighborhoods. their period of development, domestic exotic. In arid regions, public water and Prevailing trends of city planning yards typically included walks, drive- irrigation made possible the planting of and principles of landscape design ways, lawns, trees and shrubbery, foun- lawns and non-native vegetation. While exerted substantial influence on the dation plantings, and a variety of spe- nineteenth-century yards and neigh- spatial organization of new subdivi- cialized areas, including gardens, borhoods reflected the increasing vari- sions. In some places, the gridiron plan patios, swimming pools, play areas, ety of exotic species becoming available of the city was simply extended out- storage sheds, and service areas. in the United States, those of the early ward, providing rectilinear streets and new blocks of evenly sized house lots. twentieth century exhibited more Cultural Traditions planting of trees and shrubs that were In others, a larger parcel was developed native or better-suited to regional con- to form a more private, or nucleated, The design of American suburbs ditions. enclave separate from busy thorough- springs from advances made in Natural topography, climate, wind fares; such subdivisions frequently England and the United States in the direction, orientation to the sun, and reflected principles of landscape archi- development of picturesque and views may have influenced the place- tecture in the layout of streets and lots Garden City models for suburban liv- ment of houses on individual lots as well to follow the existing topography and ing. With the rise of suburbs, regional as the arrangement of rooms, placement create a parklike setting that fulfilled vernacular forms of housing gave way of windows, and provisions for outdoor the ideal of domestic life in a semi-rural to a wide variety of house types and living (e.g. porches, patios, and gardens.) environment. styles popularized by pattern books, Twentieth-century concerns for domes- A general plan or plat, drawn up in periodicals, mail order catalogs, stock tic reform led designers such as Henry advance and often filed with the local plan suppliers, and small house archi- Wright and the Federal housing agencies government, indicated the boundaries tects. Popular housing forms were often to encourage the design of dwellings, in of the parcel to be developed, provision modest adaptations of high-style reference to sun and wind direction, to of utilities and drainage, and the layout domestic architecture. Similarly, popu- maximize natural lighting conditions of streets and lots. The general plan was lar garden magazines and landscape and air circulation. drawn up by the developer, often with guides exerted influence on the design Early neighborhoods are more likely the assistance of a surveyor, engineer or of domestic yards and gardens. to reflect indigenous or regional build- site planner.

10 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN The romantic allusions to historic ing cultural tastes. In the case of Palos house were adopted by large-scale European prototypes that character- Verdes, California, this meant the builders and appeared in large num- ized mid-nineteenth-century housing Spanish Colonial Revival style, and in bers and multiple variations across the styles, promoted by landscape designer communities like Shaker Village, Ohio, country. Andrew Jackson Downing and others, preference persisted for the English The values and traditions that gave way to an eclecticism of style by Colonial and Tudor Revival styles. shaped life in American suburbs are the end of the century that derived The majority of residential neigh- typically viewed as stemming from a from the mainstream architectural borhoods of the period, however, were mainstream of American culture, one styles and achievements of the Nation's distinguished by a variety of styles often interpreted as quintessentially emerging architectural profession. drawn from many stylistic traditions, middle-class. Such neighborhoods Regionalism, native materials, and local many of which had little association often possess strong cultural associa- building traditions persisted in homes with the cultural identity or traditions tions derived from the social values and of the Arts and Crafts movement before of the region where they are located. experiences shared by past generations. World War I; their widespread publica- Such nationalization of housing styles Having evolved and changed over the tion as modest bungalows by editors, based on historical prototypes, such as course of many years, many neighbor- such as Gustav Stickley and Henry the Cape Cod or Monterey Revival, as Wilson, resulted in the diffusion of small house architects, designers of examples nationwide. Similarly, follow- stock plans, and manufacturers of pre- Dwelling in the romantic Germanic ing World War I, great interest in cut, mail order houses adapted colonial Cottage style (1928) by Milwaukee architect America's rich and diverse cultural her- forms for modern living and marketed William F. Thalman is one of the many fine itage resulted in the popularity of them to a national audience. homes built for Milwaukee's rising professional class in the 133-acre Washington revival house styles and types, typically By the mid-twentieth century, the Highlands Historic District (1916-1940), in drawn from English, Dutch, Spanish, emergence of prefabricated building Wauwatosa, Wisconsin. The winding tree and other Colonial traditions and asso- components further contributed to the lined roads (at the left) and meandering ciated with a particular geographical nationalization of small house types streambed of Schoonmaker Creek (in the fore- region. Deed restrictions in the exclu- and styles that, while American in deri- ground), incorporated in the subdivision's sive planned communities sometimes vation, bore little or no association to 1916 plan by landscape architects Hegemann dictated a homogeneous style of & Peets, reflect the persistence of a naturalistic the history of the region where they tradition drawn from Olmsted's nineteenth- housing adapted to local climate, were located. By the 1950s, types such century suburbs. (Photo by Cynthia Lynch, regional building traditions, or prevail- as the Cape Cod and western Ranch courtesy Wisconsin State Historical Society)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS II hoods have also become identified with well as functional aspects of design. and Henry Wright, and neighborhood a succession of home owners and Streets and roads were typically theorist Clarence Perry. residents representing different eco- recessed below the grade of adjoining Boundaries between housing lots nomic, immigrant, or racial groups that house lots in subdivisions laid out may be unmarked to allow for spacious, contributed to the prosperity and vitali- according to principles of landscape free-flowing lawns between dwellings ty of the growing metropolis. architecture. Grade separations, in the or they may be marked by fences, walls, form of tunnels (underpasses) and hedges, gardens, or walkways. In some Circulation Networks bridges (overpasses), may be present in places, deed restrictions limited or communities having separate circula- prohibited the construction of fences. Roads and walkways provide circulation systems for pedestrians and Retaining walls between house lots or tion for automobiles and pedestrians motorists. along streets are common in areas within a suburban neighborhood. The having steeply sloping topography. In circulation network is a key organizing Boundary Demarcations multiple family housing developments, component of the subdivision site plan a sense of enclosure and privacy may be and often illustrates important aspects Fences, walls, and planted screens of provided by the arrangement of of design. Distinctive street patterns trees and shrubs may separate a subur- dwellings to create recessed entry may reflect a designer's response to ban neighborhood from surrounding courts, private gardens, patios, and natural topography, adherence to development and provide privacy playgrounds. established principles of design, adop- between adjoining homes. Gates, gate tion of popular trends, or imitation of houses, pylons, signs, and planted gar- Vegetation successful prototypes. dens typically signified the entrance to Typically a hierarchy of roads exists, many early planned subdivisions and Trees, shrubs, and other plantings in whereby major roads provide entry may be important aspects of design. the form of lawns, shade trees, hedges, into and circulation through a subdivi- The sense of enclosure created by siting foundation plantings, and gardens sion (e.g. loop or perimeter road, cen- houses on curvilinear streets and cul- often contribute to the historic setting tral boulevard or parkway, and collec- de-sacs was considered a desirable fea- and significance of historic neighbor- tor roads), while others form tiers, spur ture of subdivision design by the FHA hoods. Plantings were often the result roads, cul-de-sacs, or traffic circles. in the 1930s. It was derived from the of conscious efforts to create an attrac- Entry roads provide important links to pioneering work of landscape architect tive neighborhood as well as a cohesive, the surrounding community, metropol- Frederick Law Olmsted, American semi-rural setting. Preexisting trees— itan area, and local and regional sys- Garden City designers, Clarence Stein often native to the area—may have been tems of transportation, including highways, parkways, train lines, subways, and streetcar lines. Sidewalks, paths, and recreational trails form a circulation network for pedestrians, which may follow or be separate from the network of streets. Circulation networks contain specific features such as embankments, planted islands or medians, traffic circles, sidewalks, parking areas, driveway cuts, curbing, culverts, bridges, and gutters, that contribute to aesthetic as

Circulation networks contain features that contribute to aesthetic as well as functional aspects of design, (left) Historic street lighting and brick pavement in the Oak Circle Historic District in Wilmette, a suburb of Chicago, add considerably to the neighborhood's historic setting, (right) Cul-de-sacs at Green Hills, Ohio, were designed with circular islands to accommodate turning automobiles, reduce the cost of paving, and enhance the community's parklike setting. (Photo by Truckenmiller, courtesy Illinois Historic Preservation Agency; photo by Paul Richardson, courtesy Ohio Historic Preservation Office)

12 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN retained. Street trees planted for shade their seasonal display (for example, Bridges, culverts, and retaining walls or ornamental purposes may reflect a flowering apple trees, magnolias, azal- may be present on roads and paths, conscious program of civic improve- eas and rhododendrons, oleanders and especially where the topography is ments by the subdivider, a municipal or crape myrtles, sugar maples, palm rugged and cut by streams, ravines, or local government, village improvement trees, and golden rain trees). In the arroyos. Evidence of utility systems society, or community association. 1950s neighborhood associations in may include water towers, reservoirs, Parks, playgrounds, and public build- some areas engaged landscape archi- and street lighting. Large apartment ings such as schools and community tects to develop landscape plans for villages frequently contained facilities buildings may have specially designed home owners at a modest cost. such as a power-generating plant, plantings. In addition, the grounds of sewage treatment plant, or mainte- individual residences may be notable Buildings, Structures, and Objects nance garage. examples of domestic landscape design or the work of master landscape Dwellings and buildings associated Clusters designers. By the 1930s neighborhood with domestic use, including garages, planting was considered important for carriage houses, and sheds, make up Although a historic residential suburb maintaining long-term real estate value. most of the built resources in a residen- generally reflects an even distribution While the plantings of individual tial neighborhood. Some neighbor- of dwellings, some also contain clusters yards typically reflect the tastes and hoods will include schools, churches, of buildings in the form of apartment interests of homeowners, they may also shopping centers, community halls, villages, shopping centers, educational reflect once popular trends in domestic and even a train station or bus shelter. campuses, and recreational facilities. landscape design or include vegetation Dwellings may conform to a typolo- Such clusters are often integral aspects left from previous land uses. Neigh- gy of models, styles, or methods of con- of neighborhood planning and con- borhood plantings are frequently dom- struction specified in the plans or ini- tribute to design and social history. inated by grassy lawns, occasional tial architectural designs for the sub- specimen trees, shade trees, and shrub- urb, or they may reflect prevailing Archeological Sites bery. Regional horticultural practices, trends and styles related to the period Historic residential suburbs may con- as well as historic trends, may be in which the suburb was developed. tain pre- and post-contact sites, such as reflected in the choice of native species Depending on the subdivision's pattern quarries, mounds, and mill sites, which or exotic species well adapted to the of development, one or more architects have been left undisturbed in a park or local conditions and climate. Plants may be associated with the design of on the undeveloped land of a flood may have a strong thematic appeal for the dwellings. plain, ravine, or outcropping. Existing homes and domestic yards that yield information related to data sets and research questions important in understanding patterns of suburbanization and domestic life may also be contributing archeological sites.

Small-scale Elements Small-scale elements dating from the historic period contribute collectively to the significance and integrity of a historic neighborhood. Such elements include lamp posts, curbs and gutters, stairs and stairways, benches, signs, and sewer covers. Outdoor fireplaces, pergolas, gazebos, fountains, monu- ments, and statuary may be present in common areas or individual yards.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 13

AN OVERVIEW OF SUBURBANIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1830 TO 1960

Historic view (c. 1935) of suburban streetcar and corner drug store, Indianapolis. As the introduction of the electric streetcar spurred the expansion of metropolitan areas across the Nation after 1887, commercial centers emerged at nodes along streetcar lines. The streetcar continued to shape the daily life of commuters and their families well into the twentieth century, eventually to be displaced by automobiles, buses, and motorcycles, which offered greater speed and mobility. (Photo by Bass Photo Company, courtesy William Henry Smith Memorial Library, Indiana Historical Society) TRANSPORTATION

TRENDS IN URBAN Stilgoe has called the "borderland," he evolution of American suburbs where rural countryside and the city, from 1830 to i960 can be divided T AND METROPOLITAN with its modern amenities, merged. The into four stages, each corresponding to railroad simultaneously provided a particular chronological period and TRANSPORTATION access to the center city while insulat- named for the mode of transportation ing communities from the urban, lower which predominated at the time and The laying out of new transportation classes who could not afford the high fostered the outward growth of the city routes, using new technologies, spurred cost of commuting, creating what histo- and the development of residential the outward movement of suburban rian Robert Fishman has called a neighborhoods: development. New circulation patterns "bourgeois utopia."5 1. Railroad and Horsecar Suburbs, formed the skeleton around which new By the mid-i86os, railroad commut- 1830 to 1890; land uses and suburbs became organ- ing was well established in many cities. ized. Farmland near the city was ac- Outside Philadelphia, "mainline" sub- 2. Streetcar Suburbs, 1888 to 1928; quired, planned, and developed into urbs developed along the route of the 3. Early Automobile Suburbs, 1908 to residential subdivisions of varying sizes. Pennsylvania Railroad at places such as Separate from the city, new subdivisions 1945; Swarthmore, Villanova, and Radnor. were designed as residential landscapes, Lines from New York City extended 4. Post-World War II and Early combining the open space, fresh air, north and east to Westchester County, Freeway Suburbs, 1945 to i960. and greenery of the country with an Long Island, and New Haven, Conn- efficient arrangement of houses. The chronological periods listed above ecticut, and west and south into New should be viewed as a general organiz- Jersey. In 1850, 83 commuter stations lay within a 15-mile radius of the city of ing framework, rather than a fixed set Railroad and Horsecar of dates, thereby allowing for overlap- Boston. The building of a railroad ping trends, regional influences, and Suburbs, 1830 to 1890 south of San Francisco in 1864 stimulated the rapid growth of a string of variations in local economic or social With the introduction of the Tom conditions. Within each period, a suburban towns from Burlingame to Thumb locomotive in 1830, the Balti- Atherton.6 distinctive type of residential suburb more and Ohio Railroad became the Outside Chicago, which rapidly emerged as a result of the transporta- first steam-powered railroad to operate developed during the railroad era, tion system that served it, advances in in the United States. Soon after, rail- extensive new suburbs took form in community planning and building road lines rapidly expanded westward places such as Aurora, Englewood, practices, and popular trends in design. from major northeastern cities, making Evanston, Highland Park, Hinsdale, The following overview examines the possible the long-distance transporta- major national trends that shaped tion of raw materials and manufactured Hyde Park, Kenwood, Lake Forest, America's suburbs, including the devel- goods. On the eve of the Civil War, an Wilmette, and Winnetka. Eleven sepa- opment of urban and metropolitan extensive network of railroads existed rate railroad lines operated in the city transportation systems, the evolution of in the eastern half of the United States, between 1847 and 1861, and by 1873 rail- building and planning practices, a connecting major cities as far west as road service extended outward to more national system of home financing, the Chicago. than 100 communities. The most famous was Riverside, a Picturesque design of the residential subdivision, and Seeking new sources of revenue, planned suburb west of the city, devel- trends in the design of the American railroad companies started to build oped by Emery E. Childs of the River- home. passenger stations along their routes side Improvement Company. Designed connecting cities with outlying rural in 1869 by Olmsted, Vaux, and Com- villages. These stations became the pany, Riverside would become a highly focal points of villages that developed emulated model of suburban design in nodes along the railroad lines radiat- well into the twentieth century.7 In 1890 at the urging of real estate devel- ing outward from cities. Land develop- opers, the Burlington and Quincy Railroad Revolutionizing cross-city travel in built an attractive and comfortable suburban ment companies formed with the purpose of laying out attractive, semi-rural the 1830s, horse-drawn cars provided station at Berwyn, Illinois, nine and one-half the first mass transit systems by offering miles west of downtown Chicago. (Photo by residential communities. Charles Hasbrouck, courtesy Illinois Historic Railroad suburbs offered the upper regularly scheduled operations along a Preservation Agency) and upper-middle classes an escape fixed route. Due to the introduction of from the city to what historian John the horse-drawn omnibus and later the

16 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN more efficient horse-drawn streetcar between home and work determined ation of parkways and boulevards that that operated on rails, the perimeters of where different groups settled. The mid- were essentially extensions of park many cities began to expand in the 1850s. dle and working classes settled in neigh- carriage roads. Characterized as wide, By i860, horsecar systems operated in borhoods closer to the central city acces- tree lined roadways often running along- New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, sible by horse-drawn cars, while those side natural brooks and streams, these Pittsburgh, Chicago, Cincinnati, Mon- with higher incomes settled in the railroads quickly became desirable corri- treal, and Boston.8 road suburbs.9 dors along which new neighborhoods Horse-drawn cars increased the dis- Following the precedent of Central and suburban estates were built for tance one could commute in one-half Park in New York City in 1858, large, those wealthy enough to travel by horse hour from two to three miles, thereby publicly-funded, naturalistic parks and carriage. extending the distance between the cen- began to appear in many of America's ter city and land desirable for residential rapidly industrializing cities. Aimed at development from 13 to almost 30 square improving the quality of life, they offered Streetcar Suburbs, 1888 to 1928 miles. Horsecar tracks followed the main city dwellers the refreshing experience The introduction of the first electric- roads radiating out from the center city of open space, natural scenery, and out- powered streetcar system in Richmond, toward the emerging railroad suburbs door recreation. In cities such as Buffalo, Virginia, in 1887 by Frank J. Sprague on the periphery. Transportation began Brooklyn, Boston, and Louisville, the ushered in a new period of suburban- to influence the geography of social and desire to connect parks with the central ization. The electric streetcar, or trolley, economic class, as the cost of traveling city and each other resulted in the cre-

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 17 Figure 1 Milestones in Urban and Metropolitan Transportation

1830 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad introduces 1923 Detroit Rapid Transit Commission the steam locomotive in America. announces comprehensive system of mass transit including a centralized subway. 1868-92 Parkways designed by Olmsted firm for Brooklyn, Buffalo, Boston, and 1928-29 Radburn developed as the "Town for Louisville. the Motor Age." 1887 Electric streetcar introduced by Frank J. 1938 Bureau of Public Roads report, Toll Sprague in Richmond, Virginia. Roads and Free Roads, calls for a master plan for highway development, a series 1893-1915 Kessler Brothers design park and boule- of upgraded interregional roads, and vard system for Kansas City. the construction of express highways 1902 Improvement of Towns and Cities by into and through cities to relieve urban Charles Mulford Robinson calls for civic traffic congestion. improvements such as roads, site plan- 1939 New York World's Fair "Futurama" ning, playgrounds and parks, street plant- presents designer Norman Bel Geddes's ings, paving, lighting, and sanitation. vision for a national highway system 1908 Introduction of the Model-T automobile and the modern city of the motor age. by Henry Ford. 1940 Arroyo Seco Freeway opens in 1911 The Width and Arrangement of Streets Pasadena; first modern, high-speed by Charles Mulford Robinson is pub- turnpike opens in Pennsylvania. lished, later republished as City Dltnm'nn / 1 fl 1 C\ 1944 Federal Aid Highway Act calls for a Planning (1916). limited system of national highways 1916 Federal Aid Highway Act (42 U.S. Stat. and a National System of Interstate 212), commonly called the "Good Roads Defense Highways; Interregional Act," establishes Bureau of Public Roads Highway Committee recommends cre- and authorizes Federal funding of 50 ation of a 32,000-mile national network percent of State road projects within a of express highways, now known as the Federal aid highway network. Eisenhower Interstate System. 1916-24 Construction of Bronx River Parkway, New York.

allowed people to travel in io minutes availability of land for residential class, with the great majority being as far they could walk in 30 minutes. It development. Growth occurred first in middle class. By keeping fares low in was quickly adopted in cities from outlying rural villages that were now cost and offering a flat fare with free Boston to Los Angeles. By 1902,22,000 interconnected by streetcar lines, and, transfers, streetcar operators encour- miles of streetcar tracks served Amer- second, along the new residential corri- aged households to move to the subur- ican cities; from 1890 to 1907, this dis- dors created along the streetcar routes. ban periphery, where the cost of land tance increased from 5,783 to 34,404 In cities of the Midwest and West, and a new home was cheaper. In many miles.10 such as Indianapolis and Des Moines, places, especially the Midwest and By 1890, streetcar lines began to fos- streetcar lines formed the skeleton of West, the streetcar became the primary ter a tremendous expansion of subur- the emerging metropolis and influ- means of transportation for all income ban growth in cities of all sizes. In older enced the initial pattern of suburban groups.12 cities, electric streetcars quickly development.11 As streetcar systems evolved, cross- replaced horse-drawn cars, making it Socioeconomically, streetcar sub- town lines made it possible to travel possible to extend transportation lines urbs attracted a wide range of people from one suburban center to another, outward and greatly expanding the from the working to upper-middle and interurban lines connected

18 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Nineteenth-century public parks were pleasure grounds with gardens of exotic plants, fountains and ponds, paths for strolling, and sometimes a spacious greensward. In Buffalo (at the left), the creation of a system of parks and parkways by Frederick Law Olmsted spurred the transformation of adjoining land into attractive, tree lined neighborhoods, such as the Parkside East Historic District. In St. Louis (below), Lafayette Square became the heart of a growing residential district distinguished by some of the city's finest homes. (Photo by L Newman, courtesy New York Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation; historic photo courtesy Landmarks Association of St. Louis)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 19 outlying towns to the central city and to demand for transportation increased, few cities—Boston, Chicago, New York, each other. Between the late 1880s and the automobile was adopted by increas- and Detroit—mass transit included ele- World War I, a number of industrial ing numbers of upper-middle to upper- vated trains and subways.^ suburbs appeared outside major cities, income households, while streetcars By the 1940s, streetcar ridership had including Gary, Indiana, outside continued to serve the middle and dropped precipitously. The vast Chicago, and Homestead and Vander- working class population. Streetcar increase in automobile ownership and grift, both outside Pittsburgh.^ companies, however, in the 1920s decentralization of industry to loca- Concentrated along radial streetcar remained confident about their indus- tions outside the central city after lines, streetcar suburbs extended out- try's future. By the 1930s, many became World War II brought an end to the role ward from the city, sometimes giving mass transit companies, adding buses of the streetcar as a determinant of the growing metropolitan area a star and trackless trolleys to their fleets to American urban form. shape. Unlike railroad suburbs which make their routes more flexible. In a grew in nodes around rail stations, streetcar suburbs formed continuous corridors. Because the streetcar made numerous stops spaced at short intervals, developers platted rectilinear subdivisions where homes, generally on small lots, were built within a five- or io-minute walk of the streetcar line. Often the streets were extensions of the gridiron that characterized the plan of the older city. Neighborhood oriented commercial facilities, such as grocery stores, bak- eries, and drugstores, clustered at the intersections of streetcar lines or along the more heavily traveled routes. Multiple story apartment houses also appeared at these locations, designed either to front directly on the street or to form a u-shaped enclosure around a recessed entrance court and garden. In many places the development of real estate closely followed the introduction of streetcar lines, sometimes being financed by a single operator or developer. East of Cleveland, Ohio, the community of Shaker Village took form after 1904 when O. P. and M. J. van Sweringen set out to create a residential community for middle- and upper-class families. To ensure the fastest and most direct service for home owners they eventually purchased a right-of-way and installed a high-speed electric streetcar to downtown Cleveland. By 1911, the community of Shaker Village was incorporated, establishing a system of local government that would ensure the community's development as a residential suburb for decades to come.'4 Streetcar use continued to increase until 1923 when patronage reached 15.7 billion and thereafter slowly declined. There was no distinct break between streetcar and automobile use from 1910 to 1930. As cities continued to grow and the

20 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Early Automobile Suburbs: quintessential American landscape of the twentieth century. 1908 to 194s Between 1910, when Ford began pro- The introduction of the Model-T auto- ducing the Model-T on a massive scale, mobile by Henry Ford in 1908 spurred and 1930, automobile registrations in Bird's eye view (1974) of Shaker Square, the third stage of suburbanization. The the United States increased from outside Cleveland, Ohio, shows the transit rapid adoption of the mass-produced 458,000 to nearly 22 million. Auto- right-of-way, planned shopping center, nearby apartment houses, and outlying subdivisions automobile by Americans led to the mobile sales grew astronomically: 2,274,000 cars in 1922, more than of detached houses which attracted residents creation of the automobile-oriented to the newly incorporated town of Shaker suburb of single-family houses on 3,000,000 annually from 1923 to 1926, Heights in the early decades of the twentieth spacious lots that has become the and nearly four and a half million in century. (Photo by Eric Johannesen, courtesy 1929 before the stock market crashed. Ohio Historic Preservation Office)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 21 According to Federal Highway Admin- mechanical road. Automobiles required become a polluted and unsightly water- istration statistics, 8,000 automobiles smooth, hard surfaces, and before 1900, shed. Featuring a right-of-way ranging were in operation in 1900, one-half a even in cities, most roads were from 300 to 1,800 feet, the parkway was million in 1910, nine-and-a-quarter unpaved. Asphalt, introduced in the extensively planted with trees and million in 1920, and nearly 27 million 1890s, became the common road sur- shrubs, provided scenic river views, in 1930.l6 face by 1916.18 and achieved the illusion of being The rise of private automobile own- Beginning in the 1890s, the City totally separated from adjoining devel- ership stimulated an intense period of Beautiful movement spurred advances opment. The alignment featured grace- suburban expansion between 1918 and in city planning and urban design. ful curves and gently followed the un- the onset of the Great Depression in Transportation planning, as well as the dulating topography to give motorists, 1929. As a result of the increased mobil- improvement of streets, was recognized many of whom were daily commuters, ity offered by the automobile, suburban as central to the coordinated growth of a pleasurable driving experience.^ development began to fill in the star- urban areas. In cities such as Kansas Metropolitan areas expanded as shaped city created by the radial street- City, Denver, and Memphis, the collab- streets, parkways, and boulevards car lines. Development on the periph- oration of planners, landscape archi- extended outward, opening up new ery became more dispersed as workers tects, architects, and local political land for subdivision. As new radial were able to commute longer distances leaders, forged a rich legacy of park- arterials were built, suburban develop- to work, as businesses moved away ways and boulevards that linked new ment became; decentralized, creating from the center city, and as factories, residential suburbs with the center city. fringes of increasingly low densities. warehouses, and distribution centers Highly influential were the writings of With commuters no longer needing to were able to locate outside the railroad Charles Mulford Robinson, a journalist live within walking distance of the corridors due to the increased use of and advocate for Denver's park and streetcar line, residential suburbs could rubber-tired trucks."7 parkway system. These included be built at lower densities to form self- The popularity of the automobile Improvement of Towns and Cities (1901), contained neighborhoods that afforded brought with it the need for a new Width and Arrangement of Streets (1911), more privacy, larger yards, and a park- transportation infrastructure that and City Planning, with Special like setting. Neighborhood improve- included the construction and Reference to the Planning of Streets and ments typically included paved roads, improvement of roads and highways, Lots (1916). curbs and gutters, sidewalks, and development of traffic controls, build- Proposed in 1906 and built between driveways, as well as connections to ing of bridges and tunnels, and widen- 1916 and 1924, the Bronx River Parkway municipal water systems and other 20 ing and reconstruction of downtown was one of the first modern parkways public utilities. streets. One of the most unheralded designed for automobiles. Sixteen miles Concerns over pedestrian safety structures that facilitated the growth of in length, the parkway connected sub- emerged as automobile use the suburbs was the urban communities in Westchester increased, and by the late perfected County with downtown New York. 1920s, subdivision The parkway followed the Bronx River designers and through a reservation initially housing established to reclaim what had

22 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN reformers alike were examining ways to the development of divided highways, speeds. A ring highway surrounded the separate neighborhood traffic from bridges and tunnels, and cloverleaves, city interconnecting with radial freeways arterial traffic and to design neighbor- made automobile travel faster and that guided suburban commuters to the hoods that remained safe, quiet, and safer.22 center city where exit ramps eventually free of speeding traffic. The "Radburn Suburban areas continued to grow led to underground garages.24 Idea," first introduced by Clarence faster than central cities, and the plan- In its 1938 report, Toll Roads and Stein and Henry Wright in their 1928 ning of metropolitan highway systems Free Roads, the Bureau of Public design for a "Town for the Motor Age," gained increasing attention. High speed Roads called for a master plan for called for separate circulation systems roads extending outward from central highway development, a series of to serve pedestrians and automobiles. cities appeared in major metropolitan upgraded interregional roads, and the Published a year later in the regional areas: Lakeshore Drive to Chicago's construction of express highways into plan for metropolitan New York City, northern suburbs opened in 1933; and, and through cities to relieve urban Clarence Perry's Neighborhood Unit in 1936, the Grand Central Parkway was Formula called for a hierachy of streets added to the already extensive system of varying widths to control automobile of roads on Long Island built under (left) Historic photograph (c. 1928) of a typical new subdivision of "better homes" traffic. Robert Moses's direction. In 1940, the in Indianapolis. By the 1920s, improvements in In 1916 the United States Congress opening of the Arroyo Seco Freeway in suburban street design to accommodate the passed the Federal Aid Highway Act, Los Angeles heralded a new age of free- automobile, the growing acceptance of land- authorizing expenditure of Federal way construction connecting city and use controls, and the development of public funds for up to 50 percent of the cost of suburb.23 utilities resulted in a host of suburban ameni- State road projects within the Federal The Futurama exhibit sponsored by ties, including paved roads, mandatory set- aid network. During the 1920s, most backs, sidewalks and driveways, concrete General Motors Corporation at the 1939 curbs, street lighting, and underground utili- States established highway depart- New York World's Fair presented one of ties. (Photo by Bass Photo Company, courtesy ments, and the total miles of surfaced the most influential and memorable William Henry Smith Memorial Library, Indiana 2I highway in the Nation doubled. visions for the future of highway engi- Historical Society) During the "golden age of highway neering, and with it suburban life. (right) Streetcar Waiting Station at building" from 1921 to 1936, more than Designed by Norman Bel Geddes, the Brentmoor Park, Clayton, Missouri, one of 420,000 miles of roads were built in the exhibit featured a huge diorama of the three residential parks designed by Henry United States. The increase in intercity American landscape overlaid with an Wright and featured in a 1913 Architectural highways and roads connecting farms intricate network of high-speed, multi- Record article, entitled "Cooperative Group with markets made new land available lane, limited-access highways joining Planning." Each subdivision featured an arrangement of fine houses along a private for suburbanization. Advances in high- country and city. Called "magic motor- curvilinear drive, commonly owned gardens way engineering, including ways," the highways featured total and grounds, and a perimeter service road. separation of grades and graduated (Photo by Esley Hamilton, courtesy Missouri Department of Natural Resources)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 23 traffic congestion. The report also out- ing technology, and the Baby Boom. A lined the routes for six transcontinental critical shortage of housing and the highways and debated the feasibility of availability of low-cost, long-term using tolls to support highway con- mortgages, especially favorable to vet- 1 struction.^ erans, greatly spurred the increase of yt**ll i u • it. H Ml M The emergency of World War II home ownership. III II Hi" 1 •IN* intervened, and Federal highway Highway construction authorized la i«» H"l 1 »« • n under the 1944 act got off to a slow start, •"• >••« spending was limited to the improve- II • •• • ment of roads directly serving military but by 1951, every major city was work- II •*«Hid installations or defense industries. In ing on arterial highway improvements 1 III: 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt with 65 percent of Federal funds being appointed a seven-member Inter- used for urban expressways. Under regional Highway Committee to work President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the with Public Roads administrator Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 provid- Thomas H. MacDonald on recommen- ed substantial funding for the accelerat- dations for national highway planning ed construction of a 41,000-mile, following the war. The committee's rec- national system of interstate and defense ommendations for an extensive 32,000- highways which included 5,000 miles of mile national network of expressways urban freeways.28 resulted in the Federal Aid Highway Act By the late 1950s, the interstate sys- of 1944. The act authorized a National tem began to take form and already System of Interstate Highways, which exerted considerable influence on pat- included metropolitan expressways terns of suburbanization. As the net- designed to relieve traffic congestion work of high-speed highways opened and serve as a framework for urban new land for development, residential redevelopment.26 subdivisions and multiple family apart- Since Congress did not appropriate ment complexes materialized on a scale additional funds for the system's con- previously unimagined. Increasing struction until the mid-1950s, State national prosperity, the availability of highway departments were forced to low-cost, long-term mortgages, and the rely on other sources, including public application of mass production and bonds, toll revenues, and the usual prefabrication methods created favor- matching Federal funds earmarked for able conditions for home building and the improvement of the Federal aid home ownership. These factors gave highway network.27 rise to merchant builders, who with From the end of World War I until loan guarantees and an eager market, 1945, increasing automobile ownership were able to develop extensive tracts of accelerated suburbanization and signif- affordable, mass produced housing at icantly expanded the amount of land unprecedented speeds. available for residential development. The increase of large, self-contained This trend further stimulated the residential subdivisions, connected to design and construction of a new infra- the city by arterials and freeways, creat- structure of roads, highways, bridges, ed a suburban landscape dependent on and tunnels, laying the groundwork for the automobile for virtually all aspects highway systems that would transform of daily living. Retailing facilities metropolitan areas after World War II. migrated to the suburbs and were clustered in community shopping centers or along commercial strips. Large Post-World War II and Early regional shopping centers began to Freeway Suburbs: 194s to i960 appear first along arteries radiating from the center city and then along the The fourth and most dramatic stage of new circumferential highways. By i960, suburbanization in the United States the construction of suburban industrial followed World War II. The postwar and office parks added further impetus housing boom, manifested in the to the decentralization of the American so-called "freeway" or "bedroom" city and the expansion of America's suburbs, was fueled by increased auto- suburban landscape. mobile ownership, advances in build-

24 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN (above) The Park-and-Shop (1930) in the Cleveland Park Historic District, Washing- ton, D.C., designed by architect Arthur B. Heaton for real estate developers Shannon & Luchs, illustrates the convenience of shopping in one's neighborhood. Located on a busy street leading out of the city this early shopping center provided an innovative front automobile parking lot and a collection of stores serving daily needs that were planned, developed, owned and managed as a single unit. (Photo courtesy Library of Congress, Theodor Horydczak Collection, LC-H814-T-1049)

Designed as the "Town for the Motor Age," Radburn, New Jersey, featured separate circulation systems for pedestrians and automobiles. A network of interconnected pedestrian paths and a grade separation (visible at the right), similar to the "arches" Olmsted designed for Central Park in New York City, enabled residents to reach their neighborhood park on foot and pass from one park to another without crossing busy streets. (Photo by Louis DiGeronimo, courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 25 LAND USE AND SITE DEVELOPMENT

SUBURBAN LAND natural topography and layout of plantings, and facilities such as railroad streets. Power plants and maintenance depots or streetcar waiting stations. DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES facilities were also included to support These developers continued to view many of the larger planned develop- their business as selling land, not hous- The basic landscape unit of residential ments of multiple family dwellings. es, and the realization of subdivision suburban development is the subdivi- Historically the subdivision process plans took many years.3° sion. The development process starts has evolved in several overlapping with a parcel of undeveloped land, stages and can be traced through the The Community Builder often previously used for agricultural roles of several groups of developers. purposes, large enough to be subdiv- The term "community builder" came ided into individual lots for detached, The Subdivider into use in the first decade of the twen- single-family homes and equipped with tieth century in connection with the Beginning in the nineteenth century, improvements in the form of streets, city planning movement and the devel- the earliest group of developers, called drainage, and utilities, such as water, opment of large planned residential "subdividers," acquired and surveyed neighborhoods. Developers of this type sewer, electricity, gas, and telephone the land, developed a plan, laid out were real estate entrepreneurs who lines. In other suburban neighbor- building lots and roads, and improved acquired large tracts of land that were hoods, groups of attached dwellings the overall site. The range of site to be developed according to a master and apartment buildings would be improvements varied but usually plan, often with the professional arranged within a large parcel of land included utilities, graded roads, curbs expertise of site planners, landscape and interspersed with common areas and sidewalks, storm-water drains, tree architects, architects, and engineers. used for walkways, gardens, lawns, planting, and graded common areas Proximity to schools, shopping centers, parking, and playgrounds. and house lots. Lots were then sold country clubs and other recreational either to prospective homeowners who facilities, religious structures, and civic Developers and the would contract with their own builder, centers, as well as the convenience of to builders buying several parcels at commuting, became important consid- Development Process once to construct homes for resale, or erations for planning new neighbor- 1 to speculators intending to resell the hoods and attracting home owners.3 Until the early twentieth century, most land when real estate values rose. Land Community builders, such as subdivisions were relatively small, and improvement companies typically Edward H. Bouton of Baltimore and suburban neighborhoods tended to organized to oversee the subdivision of J. C. Nichols of Kansas City, greatly expand in increments as adjoining larger parcels, especially those forming affected land use policy in the United parcels of land were subdivided and the new communities along railroad and States, influencing to a large extent the existing grid of streets extended out- streetcar lines. Most subdividers, how- design of the modern residential subdi- ward. Subdivisions were generally ever, operated on a small scale—laying vision. Nichols's reputation was based out, improving, and selling lots on only on the development of the Country planned and designed as a single devel- 2 opment, requiring developers to file a a few subdivisions a year. 9 Club District in Kansas City-an area plat, or general development plan, with that would ultimately house 35,000 res- the local governmental authority indi- The Home Builder idents in 6,000 homes and 160 apart- cating their plans for improving the ment buildings. Because they operated By the turn of the twentieth century, land with streets and utilities. Homes on a large scale and controlled all subdividers discovered they could were often built by different builders aspects of a development, these devel- enhance the marketability of their land and sometimes the owners themselves. opers were concerned with long-term by building houses on a small number As metropolitan areas established planning issues such as transportation of lots. At a time of widespread real and economic development, and large public water systems and other estate speculation and fraud, home public utilities, developers could install extended the realm of suburban devel- building helped convince prospective opment to include well-planned boule- utilities at a lower expense and often buyers that the plan on paper would used enhancements, such as paved vards, civic centers, shopping centers, materialize into a suburban neighbor- and parks.32 roads, street lighting, and public water, hood. Subdividers still competed in the to attract buyers. Early planned subdi- market through the types of improve- To promote predictability in the visions typically included utilities in the ments they offered, such as graded and land market and protect the value of form of reservoirs, water towers, and paved roads, sidewalks, curbs, tree their real estate investments, drainage systems designed to follow the community builders became strong

26 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN advocates of zoning and subdivision reflect the most up-to-date principles Historic view (c. 1940) of Colonial Village, regulations. Nichols and other leading of design; many achieved high artistic Arlington, Virginia, the first FHA-approved members of the National Association of quality and conveyed a strong unity of large-scale rental community. Begun in 1935 Real Estate Boards (NAREB) sought design. By relying on carefully written with financing from the New York Life Insurance Company, it was the first of many alliances with the National Conference deed restrictions, as a private form of such projects by operative builder Gustave on City Planning (NCCP), American zoning, they exerted control over the Ring which capitalized on the insurance indus- Civic Association (ACA), and American character of their subdivisions, try's need for secure investments and the loan City Planning Institute (ACPI) to bring attracted certain kinds of home buyers, protection offered under the National Housing the issues of suburban development and protected real estate values. Many Act of 1934. Designed by architects Harvey Warwick and Frances Koenig in the Georgian within the realm of city planning.33 became highly emulated models of sub- Revival style, the community was influenced Community builders often sought urban life and showcases for period by models of American Garden City planning, expertise from several design profes- residential design by established local particularly Chatham Village and World War I sions, including engineering, landscape or regional masters.34 communities, such as Seaside Village and architecture, and architecture. As a Yorkship. (Photo courtesy Library of Congress, Theodor Horydczak Collection, neg. LC-H814- result, their subdivisions tended to 1-2497-001)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 27 Crestwood (1920-1947) was one of many The Operative Builder dwellings and apartments. Depression- subdivisions developed in Kansas City's era economics and the demand for By the 1920s, developers were building Country Club District by J. C Nichols, one of defense-related and veterans' housing more and more homes in the subdivi- the Nation's most influential community devel- which followed encouraged them to opers. The high standard of design for which sions they had platted and improved, apply principles of mass production, Nichols became known relied upon the use of thereby taking control of the entire standardization, and prefabrication to deed restrictions that were comprehensive and operation and phasing construction as lower construction costs and increase renewable and the collaboration of designers money became available. In the 1930s representing different professions. Landscape production time. architects Hare & Hare laid out the streets, when the home financing industry was restructured, such "operative builders" designed entry portals, and developed plans The Merchant Builder for many small parks, wrjile a host of local were able to secure FHA-approved, pri- architects designed spacious "garden homes" vate financing for the large-scale devel- Federal incentives for the private con- in a variety of revival styles. The city's first opment of neighborhoods of small struction of housing, for employees in neighborhood association was founded here single-family houses as well as rental defense production facilities during in 1922. (Photo by Brad Finch, courtesy communities offering attached Missouri Department of Natural Resources) World War II and for returning

28 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN veterans immediately following the By greatly increasing the credit Financing Suburban War, fostered dramatic changes in available to private builders and liberal- home building practices. Builders izing the terms of FHA-approved home Residential Development began to apply the principles of mass mortgages, the 1948 Amendments to the production, standardization, and pre- National Housing Act provided ideal Early Trends fabrication to house construction on a conditions for the emergence of large- Until the mid-twentieth century, home large scale. Builders like Fritz B. Burns scale corporate builders, called "mer- ownership was costly and beyond the and Fred W. Marlow of California chant builders." Because of readily reach of most Americans. In the nine- began to build communities of an available financing, streamlined meth- teenth century, most well-established unprecedented size, such as West- ods of construction, and an unprece- families purchased their homes out- chester in southeast Los Angeles, where dented demand for housing, these right. By the early twentieth century, more than 2,300 homes were built to builders acquired large tracts of land, several organizations were making FHA standards between 1941 and laid out neighborhoods according to home ownership possible for many 1944.35 FHA principles, and rapidly con- moderate-income families by offering structed large numbers of homes. Since installment plans that required a small completed homes sold quickly, devel- down payment and modest monthly opers could finance new phases of con- payments. These included building and struction and, as neighborhoods loan associations, real estate develop- neared completion, move on to new ers, such as Chicago's Samuel Gross, locations. and even companies, such as Sears & On Long Island, William Levitt Roebuck, which were in the business of began building rental houses for veter- selling mail order houses. ans in 1947. Soon after he shifted to In the 1920s, it was common practice home sales and perfected the process of for home owners to secure short-term on-site mass production which became loans requiring annual or semi-annual the basis for the large-scale "Levit- interest payments and a balloon pay- towns" he created in New York, New ment of the principal after three to five Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Outside years. This meant that home owners Chicago, Philip Kluztnick, former needed to refinance periodically and administrator of the National Housing often carried second and third mort- Agency, with the expertise of town gages. This system worked well during planner Elbert Peets, created the town times of prosperity, but during a period of Park Forest. In 1949 Fritz B. Burns of economic downturn and declining and Henry J. Kaiser of Kaiser Com- real estate values, it was disastrous.37 munity Homes built 1,529 single-family Beginning in the early 1930s, a series homes at Panorama City in California, of Federal laws dramatically expanded a suburban community which resulted the financing available for the purchase from the collaboration of Kaiser's of owner-occupied dwellings and stim- industrial engineers and the Los ulated private investment in the home Angeles architectural firm of Wurde- building industry through the con- man and Becket. In the late 1940s, struction of suburban subdivisions and Joseph Eichler began the first of his rental apartment villages. The program forward looking subdivisions of con- 6 of Federal home mortgage insurance, temporary homes in California.3 established under the National Housing Merchant builders greatly influ- Act of 1934, set the stage for the emer- enced the character of the post-World gence of large operative builders, and War II metropolis. The idea of selling after World War II, merchant builders. both a home and a lifestyle was not simply a marketing ploy by developers President's Conference on Home to ensure sales, it represented the inte- Building and Home Ownership gration of the suburban ideals of home ownership and community in a single President Herbert Hoover drew atten- real estate transaction. For many, this tion to housing as a national priority, meant the attainment of middle-class especially in the aftermath of the stock status, financial prosperity, and family market crash in 1929 when the growth stability—the fulfillment of the of the home building industry came to American dream. an abrupt halt and the rate of mortgage foreclosures quickly accelerated.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 29 Figure 2. Federal Laws and Programs Encouraging Home Ownership

1932 Federal Home Loan Bank Act (47 Stat. 1942 Federal defense housing and home loan 725) establishes home loan bank system programs consolidated in the National authorizing advances secured by home Housing Agency under Executive Order mortgages to member institutions. 9070. 1933 Home Owners' Loan Act (48 Stat. 129) 1944 Servicemen's Readjustment Act (58 Stat. establishes Home Owners' Loan 291), commonly known as the "Gl Bill," Corporation, an emergency program authorized Veteran's Administration to (1933-36) introducing the concept of low- provide loan guarantees for home mort- interest, long-term, self-amortizing loans gages for World War II veterans. and enabling home owners to refinance 1946 Veterans' Emergency Housing Act of 1946 mortgages with five percent, 15-year amortizing loans. (60 Stat. 215) authorizes Federal assistance in housing returning veterans and 1934 National Housing Act (48 Stat. 1246) cre- extends FHA authority to insure mort- ates Federal Housing Administration gages under Title VK (FHA) to establish national standards for the home building industry and authoriz- 1947 National Housing Agency renamed es Federal insurance for privately- Housing and Home Finance Agency (61 financed mortgages for homes, housing Stat. 954). subdivisions, and rental housing. First FHA 1948 Housing Act of 1948 (62 Stat. 1276) liber- mortgages require a 20 percent down alizes FHA mortgage terms by allowing payment and monthly payments amor- insurance on up to 95 percent of a home's tized over 20 years. value and loan payment periods extending as much as 30 years (Section 203). 1938 Amendments to the National Housing Act Also adds Section 611 to Title VI of the (52 Stat. 8) allow Federal mortgage insur- National Housing Act to encourage the ance on as much as 90 percent of home's use of cost-reduction techniques through value and extend payments up to 25 years (Title II). Law authorizes the creation of large-scale modernized site construction the Federal National Mortgage of housing. Association (Fannie Mae) to buy and sell 1949 Federal Housing Act of 1949 (63 Stat. 413) mortgages under the Reconstruction establishes a national housing directive to Finance Corporation. provide Federal aid to assist in community development, slum clearance, and rede- 1941 Amendments to the National Housing Act velopment programs. (55 Stat. 31) adds Title VI, creating a program of Defense Housing Insurance tar- 1954 Housing Act of 1954 (68 Stat. 590) pro- geting the construction of housing in vides comprehensive planning assistance areas designated critical for defense and under Section 701. defense production.

In December 1931, he convened the The conference was forward looking system of home mortgage credit President's Conference on Home in seeking solutions for lowering con- that provided better protection for Building and Home Ownership to struction costs, for modernizing houses both home owners and lending examine all aspects of the housing for comfort and efficiency, and for sta- institutions.38 industry. The conference attracted sev- bilizing real estate values. Conference eral thousand participants, including committees strongly endorsed ad- Federal Home Loan Banking System many of the Nation's experts in home vances in zoning, construction, com- financing, community planning, house munity planning, and house design. Of As an initial remedy, the Federal Home design, and zoning. prime concern, however, was broaden- Loan Bank Act of July 22,1932, created ing home ownership and creating a the Federal home loan bank system by establishing a credit reserve and

30 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN authorizing member institutions, tutions for as much as 80 percent of a Planning and primarily savings and loan associations, property's value. Mortgages were to be Domestic Land Use to receive credit secured by first mort- fully amortized through monthly pay- gages. This was an important and last- ments extending over 20 years. Interest Beginning in the 1890s, the City ing step in organizing the system of rates were to be relatively low, not Beautiful movement sparked renewed mortgage financing that remains in exceeding six percent at the time, and interest in the formal principles of place today. Legislation in 1938 created required down payments were set at 20 Renaissance and Baroque planning, the Federal National Mortgage Assoc- percent of the cost of a home. Amend- especially in the design of downtown iation, commonly known as "Fannie ments to the Act in 1938 allowed Federal civic centers and planned industrial Mae," to buy and sell mortgages from mortgage insurance on as much as 90 towns. The Columbian Exposition of member institutions, making additional percent of a home's value and extended 1893 demonstrated the value of a com- money available for home mortgages.39 payments up to 25 years. The Housing prehensive planning process that called Act of 1948 further liberalized FHA for the development of a master plan Home Owners' Loan Corporation mortgage terms by allowing insurance and the collaboration of public officials on as much as 95 percent of a home's and designers representing several pro- When the Roosevelt Administration value and extending the period of fessions. The writings of Charles began in 1933, home foreclosures were 1 repayment up to 30 years.4 Mulford Robinson and the example of occurring at a rate of 1,000 per day. Daniel Burnham's Chicago Plan (1909) Through the emergency Home Owners' Defense Housing Programs stimulated interest in city improve- Loan Corporation, established by law ments and offered models for imposing June 13,1933, the Federal government The addition of Title VI to the National a rational and orderly design upon the forestalled the avalanche of foreclo- Housing Act on March 28,1941, created Nation's growing industrial cities.43 sures and began to stabilize real estate a program of Defense Housing Insur- values. For the first time, home owners ance, targeting rental housing in areas Calling for a synthesis of aesthetics were able to secure home loans that designated critical for defense and and functionalism, the City Beautiful were fully amortized over the length of defense production. This was contin- movement gained momentum in the the loan-in this case 15 years at five per- ued to provide veterans' housing after early twentieth century, becoming cent rate of interest. Although the the War and eventually enabled opera- inseparable from the broader move- short-lived program lasted only three tive builders to secure Federal mortgage ment for efficiency, civic improve- years, it was considered a success eco- insurance on as much as 90 percent of ments, and social reform that marked nomically and set an important prece- their project costs. The FHA and other the Progressive era. The movement dent for the use of long-term, low- World War II housing programs, exerted considerable influence beyond interest amortized home mortgages, including the Defense Homes Corp- the center city, principally in the form which would a year later become the oration, financed through the Recon- of extensive boulevard and parkway foundation of the FHA mortgage insur- struction Finance Corporation, and systems, public parks and playgrounds, ance program.4° public housing projects, funded under public water systems, and other utili- the Lanham Act (54 Stat. 1125), were ties. In many cities, these measures established an infrastructure that Federal Housing Administration (FHA) consolidated in the National Housing Agency in 1942, which was renamed the would support and foster suburban The creation of a permanent, national Housing and Home Finance Agency in development for decades to come. program of mutual mortgage insur- 1947.42 Concerned with metropolitan ance, under Title II of the National growth, city planners became advo- Housing Act of 1934 signed into law by cates for a coordinated planning The "Gl" Bili President Franklin D. Roosevelt on process that embraced transportation June 27,1934, revolutionized home Under the Servicemen's Readjustment systems, public utilities, and zoning financing and set in motion a series of Act of 1944, commonly called the "G.I. measures to restrict land use. Dialogue events that effectively broadened home Bill of Rights," the Veterans Admin- took place among community builders, ownership. The FHA was authorized to istration (VA) provided guarantees on who made up the National Association provide Federal insurance for privately- home mortgages for veterans returning of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) and financed mortgages for homes, housing from military service. The liberalized typically relied on deed restrictions to subdivisions, and rental housing. terms of FHA-approved loans enabled control land use, and planners in Through the development of standards, veterans to use their "GI" benefit in organizations such as the American as well as its review and approval of place of cash, thereby eliminating the Civic Association (ACA), American properties for mortgage insurance, the down payment on a new house City Planning Institute (ACPI), and FHA institutionalized principles for altogether. National Conference on City Planning both neighborhood planning and small (NCCP). Together these groups pro- house design. moted local zoning and comprehensive The Federal government insured planning measures, and encouraged the loans granted by private lending insti- development of residential suburbs

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 31 according to established professional The use of such private restrictions planner and theorist renowned for principles of landscape architecture was upheld at the 1916 meeting of the work in St. Louis and Des Moines.47 and community planning. NCCP by leading representatives of Within the context of worsening several professions, including Kansas economic conditions, developers and Deed Restrictions City community builder J. C. Nichols, community builders alike examined the city planner John Nolen, and landscape use of such deed restrictions in creating Early land developers maintained architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. pleasing neighborhoods of moderate control over the development of their During the 1920s, deed restrictions priced homes under the new FHA subdivisions through the use of deed became the hallmark of a range of programs. Real estate practices and the restrictions. The placement of restric- planned residential communities, fash- rating system used to approve suburban tions on the deed of sale ensured that ioned as country club or garden sub- neighborhoods for FHA-insured loans land was developed according to the urbs, that were attracting an increasing encouraged the use of restrictions in original intent; it also protected real professional and rising middle class of the 1930s and 1940s as a safeguard for estate values for both home owners and 6 American cities.4 maintaining neighborhood stability and the subdivider, who expected to sell In 1928 the Institute for Research property values. The Urban Land improved lots over the course of many in Land Economics and Public Util- Institute's Community Builder's Hand- years. According to Marc Weiss, restric- ities in Chicago published Helen C. book, first published in 1947, advocated tions "legitimized the idea that private Monchow's Use of Deed Restrictions in deed restrictions, including ones estab- owners should surrender some of their Subdivision Development, which set lishing design review committees, to individual property rights for the com- forth a comprehensive list of items to ensure that neighborhoods were main- mon good" and became the "principal be included in deed restrictions, tained in harmony and conformity with vehicle by which subdividers and tech- including design factors such as the the original design intent. nicians tested and refined the methods height of buildings and lot frontage as By mid-century the use of deed of modern land use planning." Restric- well as limitations on occupancy and restrictions to qualify prospective home tions were attached to the sale of land commercial activities. The Committee owners and residents based on factors, and considered binding for a specified on Subdivision Layout at the 1931 period of time, after which they could President's Conference adapted be renewed or terminated. Restrictions Monchow's list in its recommendations were enforceable through civil law suits and endorsed deed restrictions-the filed by the developer or other property principal means for ensuring neighbor- owners.44 hood stability, maintaining real estate Deed restrictions were used to values, and protecting residential establish neighborhood character by neighborhoods from nonconforming controlling the size of building lots and industrial or commercial activities— dictate the design and location of hous- especially in jurisdictions lacking zones. With the advice of Olmsted and Vaux ing ordinances. The idea that deed about 1870, the Riverside Improvement restrictions were the foundation of Company introduced guidelines requir- good subdivision design was under- ing a mandatory 30-foot setback and scored by the committee's membership, setting a minimum cost of construc- which included preeminent designers tion. In the exclusive neighborhoods of John Nolen, Henry Hubbard, and St. Louis, called "private places," deed Henry Wright, and was chaired by restrictions set a minimum cost on Harland Bartholomew, an urban dwellings to be built and established mandatory setbacks to ensure that the neighborhood assumed a cohesive and dignified character. Developer Edward Streetscape of early Tudor Revival homes H. Bouton's Roland Park (1891), in in the Shaker Village Historic District (1919- 1950), Shaker Heights, Ohio. Covering almost Baltimore, Maryland, became recog- 3000 acres and including more than 4500 nized as one of the Nation's most suc- contributing resources, the district retains the cessful residential developments in large cohesive architectural character envisioned by part due to an extensive set of deed original developers Oris P. and Mantis J. van restrictions that controlled numerous Sweringen. Set forth in the Shaker Village aspects of design and land use, includ- Standards and enforced through deed restrictions, special design principles required that ing lot sizes, building lines, setbacks, homes be professionally designed and adhere minimum dwelling values, and require- to one of four architectural styles, a uniform ments for owner residency.45 setback from the street, and a minimum cost of construction. (Photo by Patricia J. Forgac, courtesy Ohio Historic Preservation Office) •' El •

32 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN such as race, ethnicity, and religion, regulations on the height and mass of In the 1926 case, Village of Euclid, Ohio became challenged in American courts. buildings through local legislation. v. Ambler Realty Co. (272 U.S. 365), the In the landmark decision, Shelley v. In support of the Better Homes U.S. Supreme Court upheld the consti- Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1,1948, the U.S. movement following World War I, the tutionality of zoning in which exclu- Supreme Court determined such U.S. Department of Commerce joined sively residential development of restrictions based on race "unenforce- private advocacy groups, such the single-family houses was supported as able," providing a legal foundation for NCCP, ACA, and ACPI, in encouraging the most inviolate of land uses.5° the principle of equal access to housing local legislation for zoning. The The 1931 President's Conference and influencing changes in Federal Department began publishing an upheld zoning regulations and compre- housing policy.48 annual report, Zoning Progress in the hensive planning measures as the pri- United States, and a series of manuals mary means for controlling metropoli- Zoning Ordinances and Subdivision including A Zoning Primer (1922), A tan growth and as an essential factor in Regulations City Planning Primer (1928), The designing and regulating stable residen- Preparation of Zoning Ordinances tial neighborhoods. This was primarily Local governments began to impose (1931), and Model Subdivision Regula- the work of the Committee on City zoning ordinances in the early twenti- tions (1932). In 1924 the Department's Planning and Zoning, under the leader- eth century as a means of controlling Advisory Committee on Zoning issued ship of Frederic A. Delano who had land use and ensuring the health, wel- a model zoning enabling act for State previously chaired the committee for fare, and safety of the American public. governments. By 1926 zoning ordi- New York's Regional Plan, which con- In 1909 Los Angeles passed the first nances had been adopted by more than cluded that zoning provisions should zoning ordinance, creating separate 76 cities, and by 1936, 85 percent of promote a sense of community and that districts or "zones" for residential and American cities had adopted zoning residential development throughout the industrial land uses. In 1916 New York ordinances.49 metropolitan region should be organ- City was among the first to impose Zoning proposals faced opposition ized in neighborhood units based on and legal challenges in many localities. Clarence Perry's model.51

Comprehensive Planning and Regional Plans Comprehensive planning, coupled with zoning and subdivision regulations, became the focal point of discussions between the Nation's leading community builders and urban planners beginning in 1912. Organizations such as the ACPI, NCCP, and ACA brought planners, builders, and real estate interests together to promote controls over land use in the Nation's growing metropolitan areas. A joint statement of the NAREB and ACPI in 1927 led to the U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce's issuance of a model statute, A Standard City Plan- ning Act, to encourage State governments to pass legislation enabling local and metropolitan land-use planning. California became a leader in real estate and planning reform, establishing the Nation's first State planning statute and enabling subdivision regulations by local ordinance in the late 1920S.52 Regional planning commissions and associations began to form in burgeon- ing metropolitan areas such as New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, for the purpose of planning and

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 33 c

coordinating metropolitan growth and provided a compelling image of life in a gridiron plats to planned curvilinear developing regional plans. Planning semi-rural village where dwellings in a suburbs.56 documents such as the multiple volume host of romantic revival styles blended In the 1890s advances in city plan- Regional Survey of New York and Its into a horticulturally rich, naturalistic ning associated with the City Beautiful Environs reflected some of the most landscape. In such an environment, the movement began to influence both the advanced thinking of the time and home became a sanctuary from the evils location and design of residential sub- addressed a variety of suburban issues and stresses of life in the city and a divisions. While the expansion of such as neighborhood planning, com- proper setting for the practice of demo- streetcar lines fostered widespread sub- mercial and industrial zoning, recre- cratic ideals.54 urban development, park and parkway ation, and transportation. Plans would In the Treatise on the Theory and systems in many cities became a mag- receive substantial attention at the 1931 Practice of Landscape Gardening (1841), net for upper middle-income neighbor- President's Conference, and would have Downing provided extensive instruc- hoods. Nineteenth-century influences far-reaching influence on the develop- tions on the location, layout, and plant- of informal, naturalistic landscape ment of FHA standards for the design of ing of rural homes. For an American design gave way to more formal plans residential suburbs.53 audience, Downing reinterpreted the based on the Beaux Arts principles of principles of the English landscape gar- Renaissance and Baroque design, often dening tradition of Humphry Repton mirroring the form of planned towns and Capability Brown and the writings and cities. TRENDS IN of English theorist John Claudius In the years preceding and following SUBDIVISION DESIGN Loudon. He introduced readers to the World War I, American landscape tra- principles of variety, unity, and harmo- ditions fused with English Garden City Beyond transportation, an important ny, which could be applied to the natu- influences to form distinctive American set of "push and pull" factors motivated ralistic design of home grounds that garden suburbs with gently curving, families in the mid-nineteenth century attained an aesthetic ideal character- to establish their home in the "border- ized as "picturesque" or "beautiful."55 Rows of bungalows characterize the rectilin- land" outside the city. First was the In coming decades, Downing's ideas ear grid of the Santa Fe Place Historic District "push" factor: as American cities rapid- would transform the American coun- (1897-1925) in Kansas City, Missouri. Low in tryside and attract many followers who profile and structurally simple, the bungalow ly industrialized, they became increas- with an open floor plan and prominent porch, ingly crowded and congested places would give material form to the subur- replaced the ornate Victorian suburban home, perceived to be dangerous and ban ideal. Naturalistic gardening prin- giving rise in the first decades of the twentieth unhealthy. Creating a "pull" factor, ciples espoused by Downing, Robert century to the ubiquitous "bungalow suburbs" domestic reformers, such as Catharine Morris Copeland, H.W. S. Cleaveland, of many midwestern cities. (Photo by Patricia Beecher and Andrew Jackson Down- Maximilian G. Kern, Jacob Weiden- Brown Glenn, courtesy Missouri mann, and others left their imprint in a Department of Natural ing, provided a strong antidote for Resources) urban living by extolling the moral variety of subdivision types from virtues of country living and domestic economy. The Romantic landscape movement, often called the Picturesque,

34 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Figure 3. Trends in Suburban Land Developmentand Subdivision Design

1819 Early rectilinear suburb developed at 1904 American Civic Association (ACA) formed Brooklyn Heights, New York. by the merging of the American League for Civic Improvement and American Park 1851 Early curvilinear suburb platted at and Outdoor Art Association. Glendale, Ohio. 1907-50s Country Club District, Kansas City, devel- 1853 First village improvement society founded oped by community builder J. C. Nichols, at Stockbridge, Massachusetts. with landscape architectural firm of Hare 1857-59 Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, platted out- and Hare. side New York City. 1909 Los Angeles passes first zoning ordinance 1858 First urban park in U. S., Central Park, creating separate districts or zones for developed in New York City by Olmsted residential land use. and Vaux. 1909 Raymond Unwin's Town Planning in 1869 Riverside, outside Chicago, platted by Practice published, adopted in England Olmsted and Vaux, establishes ideal model and United States. of the Picturesque curvilinear suburb. 1909-11 Forest Hills Gardens developed by Russell 1869-71 Garden City, Hempstead, Long Island, Sage Foundation, with architect platted by Alexander Tunney Stewart. Grosvenor Atterbury, and landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. 1876-92 Sudbury Park, Maryland, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. 1909 National Conference on City Planning (NCCP) founded; First National 1889 Camillo Sitte (Austria), author of Der Conference on City Planning and Stadtebau, calls attention to the informal Problems of Congestion convened. character of Medieval towns, as a model for village design. 1911-29 Shaker Village, near Cleveland, Ohio, by the van Sweringen Brothers. 1891-1914 Roland Park, Baltimore, developed by Edward H. Bouton, designed by the 1915 Kingsport, Tennessee, laid out by city Olmsted firm using extensive deed restric- planner John Nolen. tions and featuring cul-de-sacs. 1916 New York City establishes zoning 1893 Columbian World's Exposition, Chicago, ordinance. introduction of comprehensive planning 1917 American City Planning Institute (ACPI) and City Beautiful movement founded, renamed the American Institute 1898 Ebenezer Howard, Garden City diagram of Planners (1938). published in Tomorrow (republished as 1918-19 World War I emergency housing programs Garden Cities of Tomorrow, 1902). under United States Housing Corporation 1902-05 Garden cities of Letchworth (1902) and (U.S. Department of Labor) and Emer- Hampstead Gardens (1905), England, gency Fleet Housing Corporation (U.S. designed by Parker and Unwin, introduc- Shipping Board). ing cul-de-sacs, superblock planning. 1922 Publication of The American Vitruvius: An open-court clustering, and other Garden Architect's Handbook of Civic Art by City features. Werner Hegemann and Elbert Peets. 1902 Improvement of Towns and Cities by 1923 U.S. Division of Building and Housing Charles Mulford Robinson calls for civic (U.S. Department of Commerce) issues improvements such as roads, site plan- model zoning enabling act for State ning, playgrounds and parks, street plant- oovernments ings, paving, lighting, and sanitation. VJ \^ V *— 1 1 1 1 • 1 X* • ' *—f •

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 35 Figure 3,continued 1935 First phase of construction begins at Colonial Village, Arlington, Virginia, the 1921 John Nolen makes the first plan for the first privately financed, large-scale rental Garden City at Mariemont, Ohio. housing community insured by the FHA 1923 Regional Planning Association of America under Section 207 of the National (RPAA) founded. Housing Act of 1934. 1924 Sunnyside Gardens, New York City, 1935-38 Resettlement Administration establishes designed by Clarence Stein and Henry greenbelt communities at Greenbelt, Wright of RPAA for the City Housing Maryland; Greenhills, Ohio; Greendale, Corporation. Wisconsin; and Greenbrook, New Jersey (never executed). Standard State Zoning Enabling Act published by Secretary of Commerce Herbert 1936 FHA publishes Planning Neighborhoods Hoover's Advisory Committee on Zoning. for Small Houses, with the first standards for the design of neighborhoods of small 1926 U.S. Supreme Court upholds constitution- houses, encouraging patterns of curvilin- ality of zoning (Village of Euclid, Ohio, v. ear streets, cul-de-sacs for safety and Ambler Realty Company, 272 U.S. 365, economy, and neighborhood character. 1926). Urban Land Institute founded (independ- 1927 Publication of John Nolen's New Towns ent nonprofit research organization). for Old: Achievements in Civic Improvement in Some American Small 1939 Early large-scale FHA-approved neighbor- Towns and Neighborhoods. hoods of single-family dwellings developed, including Edgemore Terrace, 1928 Standard City Planning Enabling Act pub- Wilmington, Delaware, and Arlington lished by U.S. Department of Commerce's Forest, Arlington, Virginia. Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning following 1927 joint resolution by 1941 Developer Fritz Burns begins Westchester, ACPI and NAREB. Helen C. Monchow's The Los Angeles, using FHA mortgage insurance Use of Deed Restrictions in Subdivision for housing defense workers under Title VI Development published by Institute for of National Housing Act, as amended. Research in Land Economics. 1942 Establishment of the National Association 1928 Radburn, New Jersey, designed as a of Home Builders (NAHB), Home Builders "Town for the Motor Age" by RPAA- and Subdividers Division split from NAREB. planners Clarence Stein and Henry 1946-47 Former NHA administrator Phillip Wright. Klutznick, and town planner Elbert Peets, 1929 Clarence Perry's Neighborhood Unit plan begin planning of Park Forest, Illinois; published in volume 7 of the Regional and William Levitt begins development of Survey of New York and Its Environs. the first Levittown on Long Island. 1929 Wall Street Crash, Great Depression 1947 Urban Land Institute publishes first edi- follows. tion of Community Builder's Handbook. 1931 President's Conference on Home Building 1948 United States Supreme Court rules that and Home Ownership convened; Neigh- covenants based on race to be "unen- borhoods of Small House Design by Robert forceable" and "contrary to public Whitten and Thomas Adams published. process" {Shelley v. Kraemer 334 U.S. 1). 1932 U.S. Department of Commerce publishes 1949 Joseph Eichler develops his first tract of Model Subdivision Regulations. modern housing at Sunnyvale, California. 1932-36 Chatham Village, Pittsburgh, developed 1951 Publication in England of Toward New by Buhl Foundation, providing a model Towns by Clarence S. Stein. for Garden City planning incorporating 1961 Innovative proposal for 260-home subdivi- superblock and connected dwellings. sion published in Arts & Architecture's 1934 The Design of Residential Areas by Case Study Series. Thomas Adams published.

36 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN tree lined streets; open landscaped ward between 1890 and 1920, fulfilling and New York City by a private lawns and gardens; and attractive the demand for low-cost houses and commuter railroad. Engineer homes in a panoply of styles. While providing the template for what has Delameter S. Denton developed a plan American designers looked to the been named the "bungalow suburb."58 subdividing the tract into uniform historic precedents offered by the A similar pattern occurred in the building lots along two parallel streets, European continent for inspiration, the cities laid out after the introduction of and architect John Kellum designed residential communities they fashioned the mass produced automobile. In the several model homes in picturesque were unequivocally American in the San Fernando Valley near Los Angeles, revival styles. Thousands of mature treatment of open space, accommoda- development after 1940 took place on a shade trees were planted along the tion of the automobile, the entrepre- grid of arterial and collector streets that streets, and 15 miles of picket fences neurship of real estate developers, and conformed to the section lines of the were constructed to give the new com- reliance on American industry to make rectilinear survey; the grid, measuring munity the character of a small vil- housing functional yet aesthetically one square mile, was further subdivided lage.61 appealing. to allow more intensive development.59 In the Midwest, landscape designer By the end of the 1930s, the Amer- Gridiron plats received serious criti- and park planner, Maximilian G. Kern ican automobile suburb of small, mod- cism in the twentieth century for sever- exerted considerable influence on the erately priced homes along curving tree al reasons: the uniformity of housing, landscape design and embellishment of lined streets and cul-de-sacs had taken lack of fresh air and sunlight afforded neighborhoods based on the rectilinear form. Reflecting a synthesis of design by their narrow lots, the lack of ade- grid. Kern's Rural Taste in Western influences that spanned a century, it quate recreational space, and the spec- Towns and Country Districts (1884) was the product of the 1931 President's ulative nature of home building they offered developers advice on improving Conference on Home Building and fostered. Planners and landscape archi- the design of residential streets and Home Ownership and the institutional- tects looked first to nineteenth-century public spaces while working within the ization of FHA housing standards Picturesque principles of design and ubiquitous grid of western town plan- among the Nation's home builders and later more formal designs with radial ning. With civil engineer Julius home mortgage lenders. It provided the curves as an antidote to the endless Pitzman, Kern designed Forest Park template for the quintessential suburb monotonous grid of American cities. Addition (1887) in St. Louis, a residen- that in the years following World War II tial subdivision featuring private streets would come to typify the American and long landscaped medians, which experience. Planned Rectilinear Suburbs became a model for the city's exclusive neighborhoods known as "private The idea for a residential suburb—set places."62 apart from center city and accessible by Gridiron Plats Highly influential was the modified some form of horse-drawn or mecha- In the United States, the gridiron city nized transportation—is believed to gridiron plan used by community plan provided the most profitable have originated in the early nineteenth builder J. C. Nichols in developing the means to develop and sell land for resi- century. These contrasted to urban Country Club District in Kansas City, dential use. Most American cities laid enclaves with enclosed private gardens, Missouri, and Kansas. Developed as a out in the second half of the nineteenth such as Boston's Louisburg Square, or garden suburb between 1907 and the century were platted in extensive grids. residential streets arranged around early 1950s, the District's many residen- These gridiron plats would guide their public squares, such as the Colonial- tial subdivisions formed a grid of long, future growth, many following the rec- period plan for Savannah, Georgia, narrow rectangular blocks interspersed tilinear land surveys called for by the which were within walking distance of by an occasional curvilinear or diago- Northwest Ordinance and the the center city. nal avenue or boulevard. The landscape architecture firm of Hare and Hare, Homestead Act.57 One of the earliest documented resi- working for Nichols over a 20-year The introduction of the streetcar in dential suburbs is Brooklyn Heights, period beginning in 1913, modified the many cities extended the opportunity established in 1819 across the East River rectilinear grid so that many of the for home ownership in suburban from lower Manhattan. Accessible by roads running east to west followed the neighborhoods to middle- and work- ferry, the suburb featured a 60-acre plat ing-class households by the end of the laid out in a grid with streets 50 feet in contours of the rolling topography nineteenth century. Streetcar lines width and blocks measuring 200 by 200 rather than the straight, parallel lines helped form the initial transportation feet.6° drawn by the land surveyor. Departure from the grid enabled the designers to system, overlaying the grid plan of In 1869, merchant and philanthro- create triangular islands at the site of streets and creating a checkerboard of pist Alexander Tunney Stewart pur- intersecting roads which were devel- major arterial routes. The gridiron chased a 500-acre parcel of land on oped as small parks and gardens.63 remained the most efficient and inex- Long Island for the purpose of creating pensive way to subdivide and sell land a model planned city, "Garden City," in small lots. Many cities extended out- which was to be connected to Brooklyn

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 37 FOHEST PARK

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P/an (7887> o^ Forest Par/r Addition, the curvilinear design of suburban villages The most influential of the early largest and most elaborate of St. Louis's appeared in his essays, "Hints to Rural Picturesque suburbs was Llewellyn "private places," was the collaborative design Improvements" (1848) and "Our Park, New Jersey, located west of New of engineer Julius Pitzman and the city's for- York City, and platted in 1857 by mer park superintendent Maximilian G. Kern, Country Villages" (1850) which were who was also the influential author of Rural published in the HorticulturalistM Llewellyn Haskell. Haskell carried out Taste in Western Towns and Country Districts Early Picturesque, curvilinear sub- his idea for a protected, gated country (1884). (Lithograph by Gast, courtesy Missouri urbs, such as Glendale (1851), Ohio, park with the advice of Downing's for- Historical Society, neg. 21508) drew from the Picturesque theories of mer partner Alexander Jackson Davis Downing and Loudon as well as the and landscape architects Eugene A. Rural Cemetery movement, which fol- Baumann and Howard Daniels. The Early Picturesque Suburbs lowed the example set in 1831 by Mount design featured a layout of curvilinear roads and a common natural park, The Picturesque suburb with its plat of Auburn Cemetery outside Boston. By called the "ramble," and was influenced curvilinear streets and roads, the prod- mid-century, rural cemeteries exhibit- in large part by Downing's writings and uct of the Romantic landscape move- ing curvilinear roadways, naturalistic Olmsted and Vaux's plans for Central ment, became the means by which landscape gardening, and irregular lot Park, which was taking form in nearby upper-income city dwellers sought to divisions that followed the natural New York City. Illustrated and satisfy their aspiration for a suburban topography were appearing outside described in Henry Winthrop Sargent's home within commuting distance of most major U.S. cities. On a larger supplement to the Sixth Edition of the city. Although Downing's books scale, early subdivisions reflected simi- Downing's Theory and Practice (1859), focused on the landscape design of lar principles of design, creating a naturalistic, parklike environment for Llewellyn Park became one of the best individual homes in a rural or 6 semi-rural setting, his ideas for the domestic life. 5

38 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN known and most highly emulated the United States. Olmsted had many example of Riverside and later examples of suburban design.66 followers including, Ernest Bowditch, advances in curvilinear subdivision Stephen Child, Herbert and Sidney design would be applied to neighbor- Hare, Henry V. Hubbard, George E. hoods of small homes by the FHA in Riverside and the Olmsted Ideal Kessler, and Samuel Parsons, Jr. the mid-i93os and the community Parsons and Hubbard became highly building standards of the Urban Land Riverside, Illinois, outside Chicago, 2 influential through their writings, Institute in the 1940s and 1950S.7 platted by Frederick Law Olmsted and which provided instructions in keeping Calvert Vaux in 1869 for the Riverside with the Olmsted principles of subdivi- Improvement Company, further articu- sion design. Parsons, who was the City Beautiful Influences lated the ideal for the Picturesque sub- superintendent of New York's Central urb, earning a reputation as the arche- A movement for the design of cohesive Park for many years and the designer of typal example of the curvilinear suburban neighborhoods in the form of the Albemarle Park subdivision in American planned suburb. Located on residential parks and garden suburbs Asheville, North Carolina, provided the banks of the Des Plaines River began to emerge in the 1890s and con- detailed instructions on laying out along the route of the Burlington tinued into the early decades of the home grounds and siting houses along Railroad, Riverside is recognized as the twentieth century. A general plan of steep, hillside slopes in How to Plan the first clearly documented example in the development, specifications and stan- Homegrounds (1899) and The Art of United States where the principles of dards, and the use of deed restrictions Landscape Architecture {i^i^)J° landscape architecture were applied to became essential elements used by First published in 1917 and used as the subdivision and development of developers and designers to control 6 the standard professional text into the real estate. 7 house design, ensure quality and har- 1950s, the Introduction to the Study of mony of construction, and create spa- Olmsted's plan provided urban Landscape Design by Hubbard and amenities and homes that, built at a tial organization suitable for fine homes Theodora Kimball, influenced several in a park setting. comfortable density, afforded privacy generations of landscape architects. To in a naturalistic parklike setting. The demonstrate the layout of subdivisions first design requirement was a tranquil to follow a site's natural topography, the Boulevards and Residential Parks site with mature trees, broad lawns, and text illustrated the example of Moss City Beautiful principles, which were some variation in the topography. The Hill, a subdivision Hubbard and his expressed in the writings of Charles second was good roads and walks laid partner James Sturgis Pray designed in Mulford Robinson and the creative out in gracefully curved lines to "sug- the western suburbs of Boston that was genius of designers such as George E. gest leisure, contemplativeness, and connected to the center city by Kessler and the Olmsted firm, resulted happy tranquility," and the third was Olmsted's "Emerald Necklace" of parks in the design and redesign of many the subdivision of lots in irregular and parkways. In a 1928 article in American cities. They called for the shapes. Designed to follow the topogra- Landscape Architecture on the influ- coordination of transportation systems phy, the curving roads were built with- ence of topography on land subdivi- and residential development, and fos- out curbs and placed in slight depression, Hubbard showed his readers how tered improvements in the design of sions, making them less visible from the a curvilinear plan could be fit to vary- suburban neighborhoods, such as tree individual lots and enhancing the com- 68 ing slopes and subdivided into small, lined streets, installed utilities, and munity's pastoral character. regularly shaped lots.71 neighborhood parks, many of which Riverside established the ideal for The 1930s brought renewed interest were part of the city park systems. the spacious, curvilinear subdivision in Olmsted's principles after Landscape Across the Nation, suburbs following which would be emulated by develop- Architecture reprinted Olmsted and naturalistic Olmsted principles ers, planners, and home owners for Vaux's Preliminary Report upon the emerged such as Druid Hills (1893), in generations to come. Between 1857 and Proposed Suburban Village at Riverside Atlanta, begun by Olmsted, Sr., and 1950, Olmsted's practice, which was (1868) and several other selections from completed by the successor Olmsted continued by Frederick Law Olmsted, the papers of Frederick Law Olmsted. firm; Hyde Park (1887) in Kansas City Jr., and John Charles Olmsted under Several months later in a well-illustrat- and the first phase of Roland Park the Olmsted Brothers firm, planned ed article, "Riverside Sixty Years Later," (1891) in Baltimore, both designs by 450 subdivisions in 29 States and the Howard K. Menhinick praised the vil- George E. Kessler. District of Columbia, many of them in lage atmosphere, beauty of the mature They also gave rise to grand land- conjunction with park or parkway sys- plantings, and unified setting created scaped boulevards such as Cleveland's tems.^ by spacious lots, planting strips, and Fairmount Boulevard and parkways By the early twentieth century, numerous parks. In the Design of such as Boston's Jamaicaway, which Olmsted's principles had become the Residential Areas (1934), prominent city extending outward from the city center basis for laying out suburban neighbor- planner Thomas Adams recognized became a showcase of elegant homes hoods within the emerging professional Riverside as a leading example of and carriage houses on wide spacious practice of landscape architecture in American suburban design. The lots, often built by the Nation's leading

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 39 1869 Plan (above) for Riverside, Illinois, by Olmsted, Vaux and Company with present day streetscape. Riverside is considered the archetypal example of the American curvilinear planned suburb. Along the broad, gently curving streets, houses on spacious facing lots were offset and informal groupings of shrubs and trees furnished to provide privacy and create an informal, pastoral setting. (Plan courtesy Frederick Law Olmsted National Historical Site; photo courtesy National Historic Landmarks Survey)

40 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN architects and echoing popular Beaux and by 1910 city landscape architect E. having community centers or club Arts forms. In more modest western T. Mische had begun an active program houses, and nearby country clubs pro- cities such as Boise, Idaho, boulevards of planting. Ladd's Addition predated, vided recreational advantages. became major corridors from which yet appears to have anticipated, the for- Examples such as Myers Park in cross streets, following the city's grid, mality of Ebenezer Howard's English Charlotte, North Carolina, developed led to quiet neighborhoods of modest Garden City diagram, which was pub- between 1911 and 1943 according to homes built by local builders. lished several years later.73 plans by John Nolen, Earl Sumner Subdivisions built for the upper- Because radial plans were relatively Draper, and Ezra Clarke Stiles, would income and professional classes could simple to lay out, especially on flat ter- receive national recognition for their be laid out according to Olmsted princi- rain, they maintained some popularity quality of design and become impor- ples, with roads designed to follow the into the 1920s appearing in Tucson's El tant regional prototypes.75 natural topography and natural features Encanto Estates in the late 1920s and in such as knolls or depressions shaped Hare and Hare's plan for Wolflin Influence of the Arts and Crafts into traffic circles or cul-de-sacs. Deep Estates in Amarillo, Texas. Their great- Movement ravines or picturesque outcroppings est expression would occur later in were often left undeveloped or retained response to the English Garden City The Arts and Crafts movement, with its as a natural park for the purposes of movement and relate to advances in emphasis on craftsmanship, native recreation or scenic enjoyment. The American city planning that went well materials, harmony of building con- spacious layout of curving streets and beyond the turn-of-the-century resi- struction with natural environment, gently undulating topography gave way, dential park to impose a garden-like and extensive plantings became a pop- however, to more compactly subdivided setting on the larger and more compre- ular idiom for suburban landscape tracts for rising middle-income resi- hensive scale of a self-contained improvements, especially on the West dents by the 1890s. community. 74 Coast. Promoted by editors such as Gustav Stickley and Henry Saylor, these ideas were quickly imitated nationwide Early Radial Plans Twentieth-Century Garden by designers intent on creating residen- Influenced by the City Beautiful move- tial parks that offered housing in vari- ment, a formalism unknown to the Suburbs ous price ranges from clustered bunga- early Olmsted and Picturesque suburbs low courts to spacious upper-income began to influence the design of resi- Garden Suburbs and Country Club subdivisions such as Prospect Park dential suburbs. Formal principles of Suburbs (1906) in Pasadena, in large part the Beaux Arts design, drawn from As developers like J. C. Nichols defined work of master architects Charles and European Renaissance and Baroque their role as community builders, they Henry Greene. Country club suburbs periods, emphasized radial and axial sought increasing control over the design by Hare and Hare, such as Crestwood components that provided an orderly of their subdivisions, devised ways to (1919-1920) in Kansas City, featured rus- hierarchy of residential streets and enhance a neighborhood's parklike set- ticated stone portals and corner parks. community facilities. ting and to reinforce the separation of In Henry Wright's residential parks, Ladd's Addition (1891) in Portland, city and suburb. Entrance ways with Brentmoor Park, Brentmoor, and Oregon, would be one of the earliest plantings, signs, and sometimes portals, Forest Ridge (1910-1913) outside St. attempts to adopt a radial plan drawn reinforced a neighborhood's separation Louis, service entrances were separated from Baroque principles of planning from noisy and crowded arterials and from carriage drives, elegant homes for the design of a garden suburb built outlying commercial and industrial activ- were arranged around common park- to accommodate streetcar commuters. ity. The circulation network, often laid land, and signs of forged iron and trol- Laid out by engineers Arthur Hedley out in the formal geometry of axial lines ley waiting shelters of rusticated stone 6 and Richard Greenleaf for developer and radial curves, imposed a rational added to the Craftsman aesthetic.7 William S. Ladd, the plan makes use of order on many new subdivisions. four wide, diagonal avenues emanating Community parks and nearby country from a central circular park to the four clubs provided recreational advantages. American Garden City corners of the parcel. Narrower streets By the 1920s efforts were being undertak- Planning running east to west and north to south en to create compatible commercial cen- extended outward to intersect with ters on the periphery or at major points English Garden City planning had con- diagonal cross streets, forming in each along the streetcar lines or major auto- siderable influence in the United States, quadrant a small diamond-shaped mobile arteries. coinciding with advances in city plan- park. A commercial corridor and the The laying out of traffic circles, ning spurred by the City Beautiful streetcar line formed the subdivision's residential courts, and landscaped movement and widespread interest northern edge. The maintenance and boulevards provided open spaces for during the Progressive era for housing planting of the parks became the planting shade trees, ornamental trees, reform which extended to the design of responsibility of the city park authority, neighborhoods for lower-income resi- and gardens. Community parks, often dents. English social reformer Ebenezer

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 41 Howard, introduced the Garden City suburbs of Letchworth (1902) and which could be developed in a unified idea in Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Hampstead Gardens (1905) by Barry manner, with architectural groupings Real Reform (1898), which was repub- Parker and Raymond Unwin, whose alternating with open parks. A hierar- lished as Garden Cities of Tomorrow theories would have substantial influ- chical circulation system made exten- (1902). Howard diagramed his ideal city ence on subdivision design in the sive use of cul-de-sacs that created a as a series of concentric circles devoted United States. Designed as socially inte- sense of enclosure and privacy within to bands of houses and gardens for res- grated communities for working-class each large block.77 idents of mixed income and occupa- families, the English suburbs resulted English Garden City planning influ- tions. A large park, public buildings, from comprehensive planning and enced American residential suburbs in and commercial shops formed the cen- encompassed a unified plan of archi- several ways. It strengthened an already ter of the city, while an outer ring pro- tectural and landscape design. Limited strong interest in developing neighbor- vided for industrial activities, an agri- in both geographical area and popula- hoods as residential parks, giving cultural college, and social institutions tion to promote stability, they were emphasis to both architectural charac- and linked the community to an outly- designed to provide a healthy environ- ter and landscape treatments as aspects ing greenbelt of agricultural land. ment offering sunlight, fresh air, open of design. It was consistent with the Howard's conceptual diagrams were space, and gardens. Innovative was the emerging interest in collaborative plan- first translated into the English garden subdivision of the land into superblocks ning, whereby residential development

42 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN was to be based on sound economic designers Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., was a collaboration between developer analysis and draw on the combined John Nolen and Werner Hegemann and Edward H. Bouton, landscape architect design expertise of planners, architects, Elbert Peets, would give great complex- and planner Frederick Law Olmsted, and landscape architects. It provided ity to town planning and subdivision Jr., and architect Grosvenor Atterbury. models for higher-density residential design by integrating the principles of Located on the route of the Long Island development that offered attractive and English planning with the American Railroad, Forest Hills was designed to healthful housing at lower costs. Olmsted tradition of naturalistic Through traveling lectures and his design. influential Town Planning in Practice Panoramic view of intersecting streets in (1909), English Garden City designer Forest Hills Guilford (1912-1950), a Baltimore suburb, Raymond Unwin called for a formal shows the formality and precision of design, town center, often taking a radial or In the United States, the influence of as well as conventions such as landscaped the English garden suburbs melded medians, which characterized the work of the semi-radial form that, extending out- Olmsted Brothers following Olmsted, Jr. 's ward in a web-like fashion, gradually with interest in Beaux Arts planning and first appeared in the design of European tour as a member of the McMillan blended into more informally arranged Commission and the firm's introduction to streets and blocks. The Garden City Forest Hills Gardens (1909-1911), a phil- English Garden City principles. (Photo by Greg movement, under the influence of the anthropic project sponsored by the Pease, courtesy Maryland Department of Russell Sage Foundation. The design Housing and Economic Development)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 43 house moderate-income, working-class Guilford with curvilinear streets, including a families and served as a model of major street that formed a peripheral Guilford (1912), Edward Bouton's sec- domestic reform. The design of both arc and followed a low-lying stream ond large suburb for Baltimore, built the community and individual homes bed that functioned as a linear park. adjacent to Roland Park and also laid reflected progressive ideas that upheld Through The American Vitruvius: out by Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., the value of sunshine, fresh air, recre- An Architect's Handbook of Civic Art applied many planned features such as ation, and a garden-like setting for (1922), Hegemann and Peets would radial streets, landscaped medians, cul- healthy, domestic life. Unlike the spa- exert considerable influence on the de-sacs, and planted circular islands to cious Olmsted-influenced curvilinear design of metropolitan areas in the the American idiom of the residential suburbs built for the rising middle United States. During the New Deal, park for the rising middle class. class, the early Garden City influenced Peets would design the Resettlement Integrated with public parks and land- designs in the United States were in- Administration's greenbelt community scaped streets, it attained a highly con- tended to house lower-income, at Greendale, Wisconsin.80 trolled artistic expression based on working-class families. The spacious- Garden City principles.79 ness of the American garden suburb World War I Defense Housing was replaced by a careful orchestration of small gardens, courts, and common Washington Highlands During World War I, the short-lived United States Housing Corporation of grounds shaped by the architectural The plan for Washington Highlands 8 the U.S. Labor Department and the grouping of dwelling units.7 (1916) in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, by Emergency Fleet Corporation of the Werner Hegemann and Elbert Peets U.S. Shipping Board, encouraged town reflected a fusion of formal and infor- planners and designers of emergency mal elements-allees of evenly spaced housing communities for industrial trees, symmetrical formal plantings,

44 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN workers to adopt Garden City models. Under the leadership of prominent planners and architects Nolen, Olmsted, Jr., and Robert Kohn, these programs encouraged the collaboration of town planners, architects, and landscape architects, and advocated a comprehensive approach to community planning. The AIA sent architect Frederick Ackerman to England to study the new garden cities with the purpose of infusing American defense housing projects with similar principles of design. For many young designers, working on emergency housing provided an unprecedented opportunity to work on a project of substantial scale and to work collaboratively across disciplines. Dozens of projects appeared across the ing types that ranged from apartment Developed 1925 to 1929, Alters Place in country in centers of shipbuilding and houses to large period revival homes. Mariemont, Ohio, illustrates one of planner other defense industries. Many would The plan embodied a combination of John Nolen's conventions for organizing space serve as models of suburban design in formal and informal design principles to create a cohesive village setting by adopt- subsequent decades. Among the most ing a single architectural theme, clustering and integrated parks and common dwellings around a short court having a nar- influential were Yorkship (Fairview) in areas. row circular drive and open central park, and Camden, New Jersey; Seaside Village in American towns and the residential unifying the space with common walls and Bridgeport, Connecticut; Union suburbs that followed similar design plantings of trees and shrubs. (Photo by Steve Gardens in Wilmington, Delaware; principles were frequently hybrid plans Gordon, courtesy of the Ohio Historic Atlantic Heights in Portsmouth, New where a radial plan of a formal core Preservation Office) Hampshire; Hilton Village in Newport area extended outward along axial cor- News, Virginia; and Truxtun in ridors, interspersed by small gridiron the proceedings of the 1931 President's Portsmouth, Virginia. areas, and eventually opened outward Conference. along curvilinear streets that more While providing a variety of housing closely fit the site's natural topography Mariemont types for mixed incomes, the plan for and followed Olmsted principles. John Nolen's town plan for Mariemont Mariemont introduced an innovative Streets were laid out to specific widths (1921), Ohio, was heralded for its design of interweaving cul-de-sacs and to allow for border plantings, land- achievement in integrating a variety of avenues that accommodated a wide scaped medians and islands, and land uses into a well-unified communi- range of housing types from rowhouses shaped intersections that gave formality ty, which provided commercial zones, to duplexes to spacious detached and unity to residential streets. Noted industrial zones, and a variety of hous- homes that were grouped into clusters architects were invited to design houses serving particular income groups. in a variety of styles. Often designed by a single firm, clusters Hilton Village (1918), Newport News. Mariemont received considerable exhibited a cohesive architectural style. Virginia, one of the earliest and most com- recognition as a model of community The plan also called for convenient plete examples of U.S. government-sponsored planning. It was featured in Nolen's town planning during World War I. It was commercial services at the core of the designed by the short-lived Emergency Fleet New Towns for Old: Achievements in community in cohesive architectural Corporation to house the families of defense Civic Improvements in Some American groupings characteristic of the English workers at the Newport News Shipbuilding Small Towns and Neighborhoods (1927), garden cities. Mariemont was designed and Dry Dock Company. The community's which popularized suburban planning design illustrates the close collaboration of with a separate industrial zone intend- and provided a number of highly emu- ed to attract a number of industries. town planner Henry V. Hubbard and architect lated models including Myers Park in Francis Y. Joannes. Variations in the design of English Tudor Revival influences blend- roofs, entranceways, and materials in the Charlotte, North Carolina, initially ed with the American Colonial Revival grouping of similar house types, as well as planned by Nolen in 1911, and complet- to form attractive housing clusters and landscape features, such as staggered set- ed under landscape architect Earl a shopping district. In Nolen's design, backs and the retention of existing trees, were Sumner Draper. Mariemont was also introduced to avoid the monotony and auster- tree lined streets were designed at vary- highly praised in the Regional Survey of ing widths to accentuate the village set- ity characteristic of earlier industrial housing. New York and Its Environs (1929) and (Photograph courtesy Mariners Museum, ting and accommodate transportation Newport News)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 45 within the community and the needs of each housing group.81

The RPAA and Sunnyside In 1923 architect-planners Clarence Stein and Henry Wright, along with Frederick Ackerman, Charles Whitaker, Alexander Bing, Lewis Mumford, Benton MacKaye, and others, founded the Regional Planning Association of America (RPAA) to promote Garden City principles as a basis for metropolitan expansion. Although the RPAA was broadly concerned with the retention of open space and agricultural zones, their practical accomplishments were focused on the creation of satellite communities that melded Garden City principles with the immediate needs of housing reform. Its first project, Sunnyside Gardens (1924-1928), was built in Queens outside New York City as a model community for moderate-income families and funded by the City Housing Corporation, a limited dividend company formed by the RPAA and headed by Bing. Although local regulations required the designers to adhere to the gridiron street system, the location's industrial use zoning allowed them to develop each block as a single parcel instead of subdividing it into separate lots. Using architectural groupings to create alternating areas of open and closed space, the designers arranged attached single- and multiple family dwellings to form the perimeter of each block, enclosing a central common set aside for gardening and recreation.82

Radburn and Chatham Village At Radburn, beginning in 1928, Stein and Wright applied Garden City planning principles to the problem of creating an attractive and healthy community of moderately-priced homes. Radburn, initially financed by the City Housing Corporation, was envisioned as a "Town for the Motor Age" derived from the Garden City principles and adapted to the practical needs of an automobile age. Located 16 miles from TOWN PLAN New York City in Fair Lawn, New Jersey, Radburn was planned as three APAt-.l MPNT3 interconnected neighborhoods each —• E3 RADBURN. NJ .,»»• PLANNED FOR. PLAYGJLOL'NDJ housing up to 10,000 residents. Each , CITY HOUSING CORPORATION

46 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN (far left) Aerial view (c. 1930) and Town Plan (c. 1928), Radburn, New Jersey. Designed by RPAA planners Clarence 5. Stein and Henry Wright as a satellite Garden City for New York City, Radburn was a radical departure from the typical American suburb. Innovations included the use of superblocks having a central swathe of open park land, the grouping of residences to face gardens and grounds and back on service courts, separate circulation networks for pedestrians and automobiles, and a hierarchy of streets to reduce construction costs and ensure safety. The new town was the embodiment of Clarence Perry's Neighborhood Unit, a model for community planning presented in the Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs (1929) and enthusiastically endorsed by the 1931 President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership. (Photo and plan courtesy Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library)

(left) Aerial view (1943), Chatham Village, Pittsburgh. An enduring model of American Garden City planning, Chatham Village (1932- 1936) resulted from a careful study of economic neighborhood was to consist of a significantly reduced construction costs conditions and the collaboration of local archi- superblock that was served by a circu- by limiting the amount of space occu- tects Ingrahm and Boyd, landscape architects lation system that separated pedestrian pied by streets and enabling the use of Griswold and Kohankie, and advisors Stein and and automobile traffic and instituted a smaller water and sewer mains.83 Wright. Developed as both a philanthropic venture and financial investment by the Buhl hierarchy of roads to reduce construc- A philanthropic venture of the Buhl Foundation, the community received high tion costs and promote traffic safety. A Foundation begun in 1929, Chatham acclaim for its integration of a large number of variety of house types—detached, semi- Village in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, moderately-priced rental units with spacious detached, row, and apartment—was further refined Garden City principles grounds and woodland, the artistry of its integrated into the design, as well as and made important aesthetic and Colonial Revival styling, and its accommodation of interconnected dwellings within a steeply schools, recreational facilities, and a functional advances in the design of sloping site. (Photo by Aerial Survey of Pittsburgh shopping center. low-to-moderate income, multiple fam- Inc., courtesy Pennsylvania Historical and Each superblock was carefully ily housing. The design resulted from Museum Commission) designed with an interior park or the collaboration of Stein and Wright, green, which served as the backbone of who acted as site planners and project the neighborhood with houses fronting advisors, and a team of local architects, The Neighborhood Unit and the 1931 on it and pedestrian walks running Charles T. Ingham and William T. President's Conference along its length. The superblocks, Boyd, and landscape architects Ralph merged together to form a continuous E. Griswold and Theodore Kohankie. Radburn exemplified the Neighbor- swathe of park, and underpasses were The designers utilized superblock plan- hood Unit Formula, developed by to be introduced to allow pedestrians ning, groups of connected dwellings Clarence Perry of the Russell Sage to pass beneath the motor roads, mak- efficiently adjusted to the steeply slop- Foundation, and incorporated in ing it possible for children to walk to ing site, and landscaped garden courts Volume 7, "Neighborhood and Com- school without crossing streets. Narrow that blended with natural ravines and munity Planning," of the 1929 Regional cul-de-sacs penetrated each superblock woodland that surrounded the commu- Survey of New York and Its Environs. from perimeter feeder streets. Houses nity on three sides. The project repre- Perry's formula called for the creation were oriented so that living rooms and sented the ultimate fusion of Garden of communities large enough to sup- bedrooms faced private gardens and City planning and Colonial Revival port an elementary school, preferably the central green, while kitchens and design and received international about 160 acres with ten percent garages faced cul-de-sacs that provided acclaim as a highly successful model of reserved for recreation and park space. automobile access and functioned as Garden City planning. It served as an Interior streets were to be no wider short service courts. Radburn's hierar- enduring model for large-scale, FHA- than required for their use with cul-de- chy of roads not only afforded the ben- insured rental communities in the 1930s sacs and side streets being relatively efits of safety and convenience, but also and I94os.84 narrow. Community facilities were to be centrally located, and a shopping

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 47 district was to be located on the edge of depending on the size and character of been endorsed by the 1931 President's the community where neighborhood the buildings, cost of the land, commu- Conference, including Perry's Neigh- streets joined the main arterials. Perry's nity tradition, and potential home borhood Unit Formula, into written concept was overwhelmingly endorsed owner. The use of longer blocks with standards and basic design principles at the 1931 President's Conference and fewer cross streets and the subdivision that could be uniformly applied across laid a solid foundation for the develop- of land into wide, shallow lots were the Nation to the design of neighbor- ment of FHA standards in the 1930s.85 encouraged, departing from previous hoods of small houses. Between 1936 The recommendations of the 1931 practices. Homes were to be "located and 1940, FHA published standards President's Conference for the design upon narrow winding streets away and recommended designs in a series of of residential neighborhoods reflected from the noise and dangers of traffic" circulars, including Subdivision widespread acceptance of the idea of and to have proper orientation for Development, Planning Neighborhoods community planning and Perry's con- sunlight.88 for Small Houses, Planning Profitable cept of the self-contained neighbor- Spaciousness was upheld as a "pri- Neighborhoods, and Successful hood unit. Mention was made of the mary principle in good subdivision lay- Subdivisions.9° advances made in the 1920s, and out." The ideal neighborhood was The FHA set forth seven minimum Radburn was praised for "producing described as one protected by proper requirements for new subdivisions: desirable homes with ample open zoning regulations, where trees and the 1. Location exhibiting a healthy and spaces at reasonably low cost." Such natural beauty of the landscape were active demand for homes. planning served two purposes-the preserved, and where streets were gently grouping of homes into "reasonably curving and adjusted to the contour of 2. Location possessing a suitable site in compact residential neighborhoods the ground. Open space was viewed as terms of topography, soil condition, with spaciousness for health and recre- one of the most important considera- tree cover, and absence of hazards ation," and creating "sub-centers for tions for home ownership. It could be such as flood, fog, smoke, obnoxious industry" with the object of "lessening achieved in three ways: (1) by subdivid- odors, etc. the density of congested centers." The ing into large lots, (2) by reserving large report stated: open areas in the interior of blocks, or 3. Accessibility by means of public (3) by creating parks, playgrounds, or transportation (streetcars and Stability of investment in a home 8 large private spaces nearby. 9 buses) and adequate highways to is best assured when the subdivi- schools, employment, and shopping sion is a community or neighbor- centers. hood unit, which is amply protect- FHA Principles for ed by deed restrictions that sup- 4. Installation of appropriate utilities plement the zoning regulations, Neighborhood Planning and street improvements (meeting city or county specifications), and developed by real estate dealers of The National Housing Act of 1934 cre~ proved ability, and in which there carefully related to needs of the ated the Federal Housing Administra- development. is a strong homes association tion to restructure the collapsed private permanently concerned with the 5. Compliance with city, county or 86 home financing system and stimulate welfare of the neighborhood. private investment in housing. It called regional plans and regulations, particularly local zoning and subdivi- Location was to be selected for "good for the development of housing stan- sion regulations to ensure that the access, good setting, public services, dards, a process for real estate apprais- neighborhood will become stable schools, parks and neighborhood unity," al, and a comprehensive program of (and real estate values as well.) and subdivision plats were to be devel- review for approving subdivisions for oped by an experienced landscape engi- mortgage insurance. 6. Protection of values through neer or site planner and were to follow a "appropriate" deed restrictions "balanced plan" that took advantage of Neighborhoods of Small Houses (including setbacks, lot sizes, mini- "topography, sunlight, natural features, FHA's Land Planning Division under mum costs of construction). and all sensible engineering and land- Seward H. Mott, an experienced site scape considerations."8? 7. Guarantee of a sound financial set planner, was responsible for establish- up, whereby subdividers were finan- Streets were to be designed for safe- ing principles for neighborhood plan- ty and economy and drawn at varying cially able to carry through their sales ning and for reviewing subdivision and development program, and widths depending on the required set- plans submitted by developers seeking where taxes and assessments were in backs, with deeper setbacks allowing FHA approval. This approval would line with the type of development for narrower streets. For example, a not only enable developers to secure contemplated and likely to remain 60-foot width allowed for a 26-foot private financing but would also make stable. roadway and a sidewalk of four to six low-cost mortgages available for feet. The size and shape of lots were to prospective home owners. Mott's staff be determined by the proposed type of translated many of the prevailing ideas housing, with the width of each lot about neighborhood design that had

48 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN In addition, FHA issued a set of "desirable standards," which, although not strict requirements, were additional factors that influenced the approval of a project. • Careful adaptation of subdivision layout to topography and to natural features • Adjustment of street plan and street widths and grades to best meet the traffic needs • Elimination of sharp corners and dangerous intersections • Long blocks that eliminated unnecessary streets • Carefully studied lot plan with gen- erous and well-shaped house sites • Parks and playgrounds • Establishment of community organizations of property owners • Incorporation of features that add to the privacy and attractiveness of the 1 community.9 SUGGESTED REVISED PLAN In 1936, FHA published Planning Neighborhoods for Small Houses as "a subdivision primer" setting forth redirect the design of suburban FHA redesigned plan for a subdivision standards for the design of new subdi- America and to create conditions that near Pontiac, Michigan, from Planning visions that provided safe, livable would force public officials and Profitable Neighborhoods (1938). FHA's curvi- neighborhoods and ensured stable real planners alike to adopt planning meas- linear plan featured irregularly shaped blocks estate conditions that justified mort- of evenly-sized house lots and the integration ures and to abandon the rectilinear grid of long, sweeping feeder streets punctuated gage lending and FHA mortgage insur- in favor of plans of curvilinear streets. by narrow courts, circles, and cul-de-sacs. ance. The FHA encouraged large-scale Curvilinear plans had many advantages Such plans discouraged through traffic, elimi- operations, where development was when compared to rectilinear gridiron nated dangerous four-way intersections, and financed and carried out under the plans: they provided greater privacy reduced the cost of constructing roads and direction of an "operative builder" who and visual interest; could be adapted to utilities. (Plan courtesy Library of the U.S. arranged for the purchase of land, the greater variations in topography; Department of Housing and Urban Development) design of the subdivision plat, and the reduced the cost of utilities and road design and construction of the houses. construction; and, by eliminating the Such large-scale operations offered a need for dangerous four-way intersec- subdivision of land based on topogra- "broader and more profitable use of tions, provided a safer environment for phy and the development of curvilinear capital" and permitted the introduction domestic activities.93 streets that joined at oblique and acute of "industrial methods that resulted in The curvilinear layouts recommend- angles and ended in cul-de-sacs in savings in overhead, construction, and ed by FHA in the 1930s set the stan- hollows or on hillside knolls. By the merchandising costs." Developers were dards for the design of post-World War 1930s, such principles of design had able to develop neighborhood plans in II subdivisions. They evolved from been absorbed into the mainstream a consistent and harmonious manner, Garden City suburbs such as Seaside practices of the landscape architectural and in addition develop "commercial Village and Radburn, and the organic profession. services such as retail stores and gaso- curvilinear designs of the nineteenth- line stations necessary to the life of the century Picturesque suburbs. Highly FHA-Approved Garden Apartment 2 new community."9 influential were Olmsted and Vaux's Communities To Seward Mott, who headed FHA's Riverside, with its spacious plan of Through its Large-Scale Rental Land Planning Division, the legislation's undulating and recessed, curvilinear Housing Division in the 1930s, FHA mandate provided an opportunity to streets, and Roland Park with its careful became involved in the approval of

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 49 designs and the creation of standards try. FHA mortgage insurance mini- economies of large-scale production and for large-scale rental housing commu- mized the risk of investing for lenders. the use of standardized components. nities under Section 207 of the National The program gained momentum in the FHA architect Eugene Henry Klaber Housing Act. Financed privately by mid-i93os when the market for single- worked closely with operative builders, insurance companies or others with family housing was still uncertain, and many of whom hired architects and large capital, or through public housing expanded in the 1940s when additional landscape architects to ensure that bonds issued by municipalities or affili- insurance was authorized for housing in approved projects were efficiently ated agencies, such developments critical defense areas and later veterans' designed cost-wise, had a solid plan for offered low-cost rents for middle-and housing. Rental housing developments, management, and were likely to materi- low-income Americans while providing especially those with a sizeable number alize into sound, long-term investments. incentives to the private building indus- of units, could take advantage of the Efficiency of design required that each housing community be built at a large 1949 aerial view (right) and present day streetscape (below), Arapahoe Acres, Englewood, enough scale to take advantage of the Colorado. Built between 1949 and 1957, the 33-acre postwar subdivision reflects the vision of savings offered by superblock planning developer-architect Edward Hawkins and site planner-architect Eugene Sternberg for a community and the use of standardized materials of moderately-priced small houses using modern principles of design. Breaking the ubiguitous and methods. Most of these communi- grid of metropolitan Denver, the plan is distinctive for its curvilinear arrangement of streets, place- ties incorporated two- and three-story, ment of houses on small uniformly sized lots to provide both views and privacy, and integration of landscape features, such as lawns, fences, hedges, shrubbery, and specimen trees, to organize multiple family dwellings in a variety of space and give the landscape a flowing, sculptural quality. (Aerial photo courtesy of Clyde floor plans, often having private Mannon; streetscape by Diane Wray courtesy Colorado Historical Society) entrances and sometimes intermingled

50 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN with rowhouse or duplex units. A sub- development of superblocks with gar- from the Olmsted, City Beautiful, and urban location and neighborhood den courts, ample throughways with Garden City models to the FHA- amenities further contributed to the pedestrian underpasses and walkways, approved standard, which had become stability of real estate values and pro- parking and garage compounds, cen- the legally required form of new resi- tected the investment of lenders. In tralized trash stations, and the elimina- dential development in many localities 1940, the FHA issued a series of "Archi- tion of service alleys. Clearance in the United States. Based on the tectural Bulletins," which provided eco- between buildings was carefully con- Garden City idea, the greenbelt com- nomical and efficient designs for all sidered to provide adequate light, free munities built by the U.S. government aspects of multiple family house design, circulation of air, and privacy. A maxi- under the Resettlement Administration from the layout of kitchens to the mum height of three stories was recom- during the New Deal became models of planting of common areas.94 mended unless elevators could be pro- suburban planning, incorporating not Many of the reforms and concerns vided. Landscaping around founda- only the Radburn Idea but also the for safety that the RPAA had intro- tions, common areas, and the circula- FHA standards for neighborhood duced at Sunnyside, Radburn, and tion network, was recommended design.97 Chatham Village were carried over into depending on rental costs and project's The curvilinear subdivision layout the design of apartment communities. capitalization. In addition to play- was further institutionalized as the These included: the arrangement of grounds and common areas, larger building industry came to support housing units to afford privacy, sun- developments included stores, recre- national regulations that would stan- light, and fresh air; separation of inter- ation centers, and medical offices.96 dardize local building practices and nal pedestrian circulation from perime- reduce unexpected development costs. ter motor traffic; and provision of land- The Postwar Curvilinear Subdivision One of the most influential private scaped gardens and grounds away from organizations representing the building the noise and activity of major arterial Through FHA's publication of stan- industry was the Urban Land Institute streets. Housing units in developments dards for neighborhood planning and (ULI), established in 1936 as an inde- such as Colonial Village in Arlington, its comprehensive review and revision pendent nonprofit research organiza- Virginia, were carefully arranged to fit of subdivisions for mortgage approval, tion dedicated to urban planning and the existing topography and designed curvilinear subdivision design became land development. Sponsored by the to provide visual appeal, variety, and a the standard of both sound real estate National Association of Real Estate village-like atmosphere.95 practice and local planning. As FHA- Boards (NAREB) and serving as a con- backed mortgages supported more and Such designs would provide attrac- sultant to the National Association of more new residential development on tive dwellings at a higher density and Home Builders (NAHB), ULI provided the edge of American cities, local plan- lower cost than neighborhoods of sin- information to developers about com- ning commissions adopted some form gle family homes. To achieve the high- munity developments that supported of the FHA standards as subdivision est standards of safety and quiet, the land-use planning and promoted the regulations. Thus, by the late 1940s, the standards for projects containing idea of metropolitan-wide coordina- curvilinear subdivision had evolved 8 several hundred units called for the tion as an approach to development.9 In 1947 the ULI published its first edition of the Community Builder's Handbook. Providing detailed instructions for community development based on the curvilinear subdivision and neighborhood unit approach, it became a basic reference for the community development industry and, by 1990, was in its seventh edition. In 1950 the NAHB, the primary trade organization for the industry, published the Home Builders' Manual for Land Development. Thus, by the late 1940s, the concept of neighborhood planning had become institutionalized in American planning practice. This form of development, in seamless repetition, would create the post-World War II suburban landscape.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 51 HOUSE AND YARD

THE DESIGN OF beam and masonry methods, balloon for efficiency and family comfort. With framing could be quickly assembled at the publication of Cottage Residences THE SUBURBAN HOME a lower cost with fewer and less experi- (1842) and Architecture of Country enced workers. Allowing considerable Houses (1850), Andrew Jackson The central motivation for the inven- freedom of design in both exterior mass- Downing soon after popularized a mar- tion of the suburban house was the ing and interior layout, it was well-suited ket for pattern books that offered a desire of Americans to own a single- for building homes in the Romantic variety of house types and styles suited family house in a semi-rural environ- Revival and Picturesque styles that were for country or village living. ment away from the city—what would coming into vogue in the mid-nine- Downing gave detailed architectural become the American dream. Several teenth century.99 expression to the ideal of living in a factors influenced the evolution of sub- semi-rural environment, offering urban house design: designs for villas for the well-to-do and Rural Architecture and Home less expensive cottages for lower- • The lowering of construction costs, Grounds, 1838 to 1890 income households. Through designs accomplished with the invention of that conformed to a romantic aesthetic the balloon-frame method of con- The suburban home first appeared as a for the "beautiful" or the "picturesque " struction in the 1830s and successive rural villa for the fairly well-to-do fami- Downing promoted revival styles stages of standardization, mass ly in the mid-nineteenth century. described as "Italianate," "Tudor Re- production, and prefabrication. Located "on the edge of the city," it was vival," "Bracketed," "Swiss," "Gothic • The translation of the suburban ideal intentionally designed as a therapeutic Revival," and "Tuscan." His books also into the form an individual dwelling refuge from the city, offering tranquili- illustrated decorative architectural ele- usually on its own lot in a safe, ty, sunshine, spaciousness, verdure, and ments, such as brackets and verge- healthy, and parklike setting. closeness to nature—qualities opposite boards, that could be crafted by most those of city. This ideal was aggressively country builders to embellish the • The design of an efficient floor plan and persuasively articulated through simplest home.100 believed to support and reinforce pattern books, the writings of domestic Pattern books appeared by a num- the ideal family. reformers, and popular magazines. As ber of architects, including Calvert The evolution of the American home house designs became adapted for Vaux, A. J. Bicknell, George E. Wood- reflects changing concepts of family life more modest incomes and as advances ward, Orson Squire Fowler, William H. and the ideal suburban landscape. in transportation lowered the cost of Ranlett, and Gervase Wheeler. Godey's From 1838 to i960, the design of the sin- commuting, suburban living became Lady's Book, a popular magazine, also gle-family, detached suburban home in affordable to an increasingly broad offered its readers designs for rural vil- a landscaped setting evolved in several spectrum of the population. las and cottages, thereby establishing broad stages from picturesque country the important role of periodicals in fos- villas to sprawling ranch houses on Early Pattern Books tering domestic reform and affecting 101 spacious suburban lots. Alexander Jackson Davis's Rural popular taste. Residences (1838) marked the transition from builders' guides, which focused Landscape Gardening for Suburban The Suburban Prerequisite: The on techniques of joinery and architec- Homes Invention of the Balloon Frame tural detailing, to a new generation of Downing's Treatise on the Theory and pattern books. Pattern books were Practice of Landscape Gardening (1841) The widespread adoption of the bal- directed at the prospective home owner loon-frame method of construction, was the first American published guide and featured plans and elevations for for laying out and planting domestic invented in Chicago in the 1830s, along ornamented villas and cottages in a with the invention of wire nails and the grounds. A nurseryman by trade, variety of romantic revival styles all set Downing fostered an avid interest in circular saw, transformed the character in a semi-rural, village setting. of American housing in the mid-nine- horticulture, encouraging home own- Catharine E. Beecher's Treatise on ers to enhance village streets and teenth century. The lightweight balloon Domestic Econ-omy (1841) called for frame consisted of narrow wooden domestic grounds with plantings drawn domestic reform, promoting the idea from the vast numbers of native and studs and larger joists arranged in a that rural living was ideally suited for box-like configuration capable of exotic trees and shrubs becoming avail- family life, and offering elevations and able in the United States. His books absorbing load-bearing stresses. In floor plans for simple houses designed comparison to traditional post-and- offered simple layouts, extensive

52 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN instructions, and plant lists for land- 1856 and 1870, plan books appeared by and foundation plantings. His influence scaping villas and cottages, often on a number of other landscape gardeners, was extensive, and by the 1870s, modestly-sized rectangular parcels of including Henry W. Cleaveland, Robert suburban streets began to take on a land. To Downing, even the smallest Morris Copeland, George E. and F. W. unified landscape character with paved domestic yard was a pleasure ground Woodward, and Jacob Weidenmann.102 roads, shade trees, entry walks, fences, that offered a sense of enclosure and Frank J. Scott was among the first to and stairways, giving definition to the privacy from the outside world and recognize that the new homes being ideal suburban landscape.IO3 could be developed with curvilinear built outside cities formed neighbor- paths, lawns, overlooks, tree planta- hoods that were suburban, not rural, in tions, specimen trees, and a variety of character. His comprehensive land- Queen Anne cottage (1904) in the Harrison gardens. scape manual, Art of Beautifying Sub- Boulevard Historic District, Boise, Idaho, repre- Instructions and site plans for urban Home Grounds of Small Extent sents one of the city's modest "home- embellishing the grounds of suburban (1870), was intended to help the mid- dwellings, " typically built by local builders. The homes appeared regularly in a number dle-class home owner achieve beautiful imaginative treatment of houses to face street of periodicals, including The Horticul- landscape effects that were low in cost corners and the presence of mature street trees reflect a vernacular expression of land- turalist, Hovey's Magazine of Horticul- and easy to maintain, including graded scape design. (Photo by Duane Garrett, cour- ture, and Garden and Forest. Between lawns, ornamental trees and shrubs, tesy Idaho State Historic Preservation Office)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 53 Eclectic House Designs and Mail stylistic appeal. Such books popular- a small fee. The Ladies' Home Journal, Order Plans ized late nineteenth-century styles under the editorship of Edward Bok including the Shingle, Stick, Eastlake, beginning in 1889, and a host of cata- After the Civil War, a new generation of Second Empire, and Queen Anne logs by architects George F. Barber, pattern books appeared offering Revival styles.IO4 Robert W. Shoppell, William A. greater variety and complexity in house Radford, and others similarly made design and plans well-suited to subur- Mail order services further democ- available architect-designed plans for a ban house lots. Henry Hudson Holly's ratized home building and added vari- nominal cost. This practice continued Modern Dwellings in Town and Country, ety and complexity to Victorian-era in the twentieth century, carried on by Adapted to American Wants and Climate house design. Model Homes for the architect-sponsored small house serv- (1878) was among the first to advocate People, A Complete Guide to the Proper ice bureaus and stock plan companies, architectural eclecticism in which visual and Economical Erection of Buildings such as Garlinghouse of Topeka, and artistic effects—in the design of (1876) was the first in a series of best- Kansas.IO5 chimneys, gables, and porches, for selling, inexpensive catalogs by George example— became important aspects of and Charles Palliser which offered detailed architectural plans by mail for

54 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN The Homestead Temple-House Working-class families sought separation from the city and privacy from neighbors in modest, detached homes on the narrow, rectangular lots of gridiron subdivisions. By the 1860s, a freestanding house type, the "homestead temple-house," gained popularity in the rapidly growing industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest. Derived from the earlier Greek Revival house and typically adorned by a stylish doorway or colonnaded porch, the house was turned so that the gabled end faced the

(above) A regional expression of the "homestead temple-house," the simple s- one-story shotgun houses (c. 1925) in the Rocksprings Shotgun Row Historic District were built to house African American laborers who settled in Athens, Georgia, following World War I. (Photo by James R. Lockhart, courtesy Georgia Department of Natural Resources) (far left) Gothic Revival house designed by James H. McGill for LeDroit Park in Washington, DC, exemplifies the romantic revival designs promoted by mid-nineteenth- century pattern books, such as Andrew Jackson Downing's Cottage Residences (1842) and The Architecture of Country Houses (1850). Developed between 1873 and 1877, LeDroit Park was originally planned as an architecturally unified subdivision of detached and semi-detached houses, many designed by McGill, an enterprising architect who adver- tised his services through the publication of LeDroit Park Illustrated (1877) and Architectural Advertiser (1879). (Photo by Jack E. Boucher, courtesy Historic American Buildings Survey) (left) Brick row houses (c. 1882) in Queen Anne style designed for working-class families (many immigrants from Germany and Ireland) in the William D. Bishop Cottage Development (c. 1840-1894), Bridgeport, Connecticut. Attributed to George and Charles Palliser, houses exhibit the eclecticism and complexity of design for which the architects became known through a series of inexpensive catalogs, such as Model Homes for the People (1876), which offered detailed architectural drawings that could be purchased by mail for a small fee. (Photo by D. Palmquist, courtesy Connecticut Historical Commission)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 55 street and the floor plan extended These houses, and a somewhat large evenly sized rooms on each floor. Often deeply into the lot.106 type known as the foursquare, were crowned with a pyramidal roof and The popularity of this house type sold by catalog and became the first dormers, the foursquare appeared in a persisted throughout the nineteenth mass-produced houses in the United variety of architectural styles, the most century, allowing working-class fami- States.108 popular being the Colonial Revival.110 lies to live in suburban neighborhoods close to railroad stations and later The Open Plan Bungalow Factory Cut, Mail Order Houses along streetcar routes. It appeared in several forms from a simple one-story, By 1910, the bungalow had become the The availability of complete, factory cut "shotgun" home in the South to the ideal suburban home and was being homes, which could be ordered by mail double- and triple-decker multiple fam- built by the thousands, giving rise to from illustrated catalogs, was largely ily dwellings of the Northeast, this type what has been called the "bungalow responsible for the widespread popu- assumed a variety of architectural styles suburb." The typical bungalow was a larity of the bungalow and foursquare. ranging from Classical and Gothic one- or one-and-a-half-story house The Hodgson Company of Dover, Revivals to Italianate and Queen Anne having a wide, shallow-pitched roof Massachusetts, was one of the first to Revival. The crowded and repetitious with broad overhanging eaves. The market factory cut dwellings, sheds, character of such neighborhoods would interior featured an open floor plan for and cottages. During the first decade of attract the criticism of twentieth- family activities at the front of the the twentieth century, several compa- century reformers. house and private bedrooms at the nies—Aladdin of Bay City, Michigan; back or upstairs. The wide open front Sears and Roebuck; and Montgomery porch, a distinctive feature of the ideal Ward—began to market pre-cut homes The Practical Suburban House, bungalow, provided a transition that could be shipped by railroad and between interior and outdoors.IO9 assembled on site. This trend grew in 1890 to 1920 The design of the bungalow was popularity and at the height of its pop- The expansion of streetcar transporta- influenced by the Prairie School move- ularity in the 1920s the industry includ- tion in American cities coincided with ment of the Midwest, the California ed a host of other companies, including fundamental changes in the perception Arts and Crafts movement, and a num- the Gordon-Van Tine Company of of the ideal family and a revision of ber of vernacular housing types. Part of Davenport, Iowa, and Pacific Ready- what constituted the best suburban the bungalow's appeal was its adapta- Cut of Los Angeles. home. Progressive ideals emphasizing tion of these and other architectural The success of mail order home simplicity and efficiency called for influences in the form of a small com- building depended on inexpensive house designs that reflected less hierar- fortable house. The suburban bunga- transportation, vast selection of hous- chical relationships, technological low—in styles ranging from English ing types and prices, financial arrange- innovations, and a more informal and Cottage styles to the Mission Revival ments where home owners could pay in relaxed lifestyle.IO7 style of the Southwest—was popular- installments, and marketing programs New subdivisions provided utilities ized nationwide by periodicals such as whereby designs were constantly being and amenities not available elsewhere. Western Architect, Ladies' Home revised and retired as new ones reflect- In many places, they benefitted from Journal, Craftsman, and Bungalow ing changing popular taste were intro- the street improvements, park and Magazine. Numerous catalogs and duced. Thousands of pre-cut houses boulevard systems, and public utility books appeared, many in multiple edi- were sold and shipped annually. Sears systems that resulted from the City tions, including William A. Radford's alone offered approximately 450 ready- Beautiful movement and an emerging Artistic Bungalows (1908), Henry L. to-build designs ranging in style, type, interest in city planning as the means Wilson's Bungalow Book (1910), Henry and size from small bungalows to mul- for Progressive reform. H. Saylor's Bungalow Book (1911), H. V. tiple family apartment houses. Sears's Von Hoist's Modern American Homes sales reached 30,000 by 1925 and nearly Technological innovations intro- m duced to improve household life— (1913), Gustav Stickley's Craftsman 50,000 by 1930. central heating, gas hot water heaters, Homes (1909) and More Craftsman indoor plumbing, and electricity— Homes (1912), and Charles E. White's Introduction of the Garage entailed expensive mechanical systems Bungalow Book (1923). Shelter for the automobile became an that increased the cost of construction. increasingly important consideration The American Foursquare The reduction of floor space and the after 1900. Driveways were readily use of standardized plans helped offset The American foursquare made its accommodated in the progressive the rising cost of home construction appearance in the 1890s, and by the design of new neighborhoods having and put home ownership within reach 1930s, was a fixture of American neigh- road improvements such as paved sur- of more Americans. First appearing in borhoods. A typical foursquare was a faces, gutters and curbs, and sidewalks. the 1890s, the bungalow reflected the two-and-one-half-story house having a The earliest garages were placed behind desire for an affordable single-family raised basement, one-story porch the house at the end of a long driveway house for households without servants. across the front, and plan of four that often consisted of little more than

56 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN a double tract of pavement. By the end Home Gardening and the Arts and Out Suburban Home Grounds (1907 and of the 1920s, attached and underground Crafts Movement 1915), Elsa Rehmann's The Small Place: Its garages began to appear in stock plans Landscape Architecture (1918), and Grace The American Arts and Crafts move- for small homes as well as factory-built Tabor's Gardening Book (1911), Making ment spurred an avid interest among houses. Among the earliest homes with the Grounds Attractive with Shrubbery homeowners in gardening and a desire built-in garages were the detached and (1912), Suburban Gardens (1913), and to integrate a home's interior space semi-detached models designed by Planting Around the Bungalow (1914). with its outdoor surroundings. To unify architect Frederick Ackerman in 1928- Plan books such as Eugene O. Mur- house and garden and integrate indoor 1929 for Radburn, New Jersey. The mann's California Gardening (1914) pro- and outdoor living, many bungalow design of an expandable two-story vided gardening advice, planting plans, designers used natural construction house with a built-in garage and addi- and plant lists for home owners accord- materials, incorporated porches and tional upper-story bedroom was intro- ing to local climate and growing courtyards into their designs, and duced by the FHA in 1940. By the 1950s, conditions. encouraged the arrangement of yards garages or carports were integrated Garden writing flourished in popular 112 with simple terraces, rustic paths, and into the design of many homes. garden rooms. Periodicals such as The magazines, such as Ladies' Home Keith's Magazine, Carpentry and Craftsman featured articles for embel- Journal, House and Garden, Country Building, Building Age, and American lishing the grounds of bungalows with Life in America, House Beautiful, Garden Carpenter and Builder were among the patios, gates, fountains, pools, arbors, Magazine, and Woman's Home Com- first magazines to offer instructions for pergolas, and rockery. Features such as panion. Garden columns—by Frances building garages. William A. Radford is hanging vines, water gardens, and Duncan, Wilhelm T. Miller, and Grace credited with popularizing the term creeping ground covers added to the "garage" and introducing the first cata- variety and rich textures of the Arts and log devoted to the type in 1910. Crafts garden. Compound garages flanking a central Manufacturers of pre-cut homes, such Books by landscape architects edu- service court accommodated automobiles in as Aladdin Homes, began to offer a cated home owners about domestic Greenbelt, Maryland, one of three planned variety of mail order garages, often Garden City communities built by the Federal yard design; these included Ruth B. matching the materials and styles of Resettlement Administration during the New Dean's The Liveable House, Its Garden popular house types."3 Deal. (Photo by Elizabeth Jo Lampl, courtesy (1917), Herbert J. Kellaway's How to Lay National Historic Landmarks Survey NPS)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 57 (right) A Monterey Revival house with garden of desert plants in Tucson's Colonia Solana Historic District, which was platted in 1927 and developed with the expertise of landscape architect Stephen Child. Inspired by the native landscape, Child used naturalistical- ly curving lines and native plants in his designs for both individual home grounds and neighborhood streets. (Photo by Larry Wilson, courtesy Arizona Office of Historic Preservation) (bottom) Present day view across one of Radburn's interior parks illustrates mature plantings of native trees and shrubs designed in the late 1920s by landscape architect Marjorie Sewell Cautley and homes in the popular revival styles of the period by "small house" architect Frederick Ackerman. Stein and Wright's vision for a garden city called for the integration of landscape and architecture into a unified design and required the collaboration of designers having special areas of expertise. (Photo by Paula Reed, courtesy National Historic Landmarks Survey, NPS)

58 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Tabor—and articles by noted designers, wide network of local committees that private trade groups and manufactur- nursery keepers, and amateur gardeners, encouraged both the construction of ers, including the American Face Brick showcased successful gardens, provided new homes and home remodelling Association, Curtis Woodwork horticultural information, and offered projects. A national demonstration Company, and National Lumber gardening advice.n4 home, "Home Sweet Home," a modern- Manufacturers Association.n9 Horticulturalist Liberty Hyde Bailey ized version of songwriter John Popular magazines—including of Cornell University bridged the gap Howard Paynes's Long Island birth- Better Homes and Gardens, American between science and practical land- place, was constructed on the National Home, House and Garden, Garden and scape gardening. As editor of Country Mall in 1923, and "Better Homes Week" Home Builder, McCalVs, and Sunset— Life in America and author of Garden- activities and competitions were held reflected the growing interest in home Making: Suggestions for the Utilizing of nationwide. Annual competitions rec- improvement and appealed increasing- Home Grounds (1898) and The Practical ognized the work of architects, such as ly to owners of small homes. They car- Garden Book (1904), he translated his Royal Barry Wills of Boston and ried articles on new house designs, extensive botanical knowledge into sim- William W. Wurster of San Francisco, interior decoration, and gardening, as ple principles for suburban gardeners.n5 whose small house designs would influ- well as advertisements for the latest With the publication of Helena ence popular taste nationwide for innovations in manufactured products. Rutherford Ely's A Woman's Hardy homes described as New England Trade pamphlets such as Richard n Garden in 1903, Victorian practices of Colonial or Monterey Revival. 7 Requa's Old World Inspiration for carpet bedding and lush displays of American Architecture by the Monolith exotic plantings gave way to simpler Architect-Designed Small Houses Portland Cement Company of Los gardens featuring harmonies of color, Angeles reflected emerging alliances The Small House Architects' Service seasonal changes, and perennial dis- between the building industry and Bureau was established in Minneapolis plays. Numerous books by successful designers interested in promoting in 1919 with the purpose of providing amateur gardeners followed including, regional trends. architect-designed plans and technical Louise Shelton's The Seasons in a The small house of the 1920s specifications to builders of small hous- Flower Garden (1906), Louise Beebe appeared in many forms and a variety es. A "small house" was defined as one Wilder's Colour in My Garden (1918), of bungalow and period revival styles, having no more than six rooms. Spon- and Nellie Doubleday's American the most popular being drawn from the sored by the AIA, the bureau was a English Tudor Revival and a host of Flower Garden (1909) written under the nonprofit organization made up of 116 American Colonial influences, includ- pseudonym Neltje Blanchan. architects from all parts of the country ing Dutch, English, French, and Span- devoted to the problem of designing ish. The movement resulted in a great small homes in a variety of popular diversity of architectural styles and Better Homes and the Small forms and styles. Home builders could types nationwide as regional forms and House Movement, 1919 to 1945 order complete working drawings from the work of regional architects attract- The Small House, a periodical, or plan After World War I, improving the ed the interest of an increasingly edu- catalogs such as Small Homes of quality of American domestic life took Architectural Distinction (1929). The cated audience of prospective home on special importance. Alliances bureau endeavored to raise the public's owners. formed among architects, real estate awareness of the value of professional developers, builders, social reformers, design and encouraged homeowners Federal Home Building Service Plan manufacturers, and public officials— and builders to secure a local architect Although the demand for architect at both national and local levels—to to supervise construction.118 encourage home ownership, standard- designed small houses was seriously ized home building practices, and In New York, the Home Owners curtailed during the Great Depression, neighborhood improvements. Service Institute, headed by architect AIA-sponsored service bureaus contin- Henry Atterbury Smith in the 1920s, ued to operate in a number of major The Better Homes Campaign ran the weekly "Small House Page" of cities across the United States, includ- the Sunday New York Tribune, spon- ing Boston, New York, Memphis, Better Homes in America, Inc., a pri- sored local design competitions and Houston, and Los Angeles, where they vate organization founded in 1922, model home demonstrations, and pub- found support from local savings and spearheaded a national campaign for lished The Books of A Thousand Homes loan associations interested in ensuring domestic reform focused on educating (1923). The institute raised the variety that the homes they mortgaged were a homeowners about quality design and and quality of American homes by dis- sound investment. In 1938, the Federal construction. Promoted by The Delin- seminating a large number of working Home Loan Bank Board, Producers eator, a popular Butterick publication drawings and plans nationwide—all the Council of the NAREB, and the AIA for women, the organization gained the work of professional architects such as joined together to sponsor the Federal support of U.S. Secretary of Commerce Frederick L. Ackerman and Whitman S. Home Building Service Plan, a program Herbert Hoover and formed a nation- Wick—and forming alliances with of certification which, during the next

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 59 decade, helped make home financing available to home owners who used service bureau plans and retained the services of registered architects to supervise construction. Although regionally-inspired Colonial Revival designs dominated, new forms such as the California Ranch house, appeared in the portfolios of approved architect- designed plans.

Landscape Design for Small House Grounds By the late 1920s, professional landscape architects, such as Stephen Child and Sidney and S. Herbert Hare, had well established reputations for subdivision design and small residential projects in upper-income planned suburbs, such as Tucson's Colonia Solana and Kansas City's Country Club District. In 1923, the Home Owners Service Insti- tute drew attention to the value of using the services of a professional landscape House A elevations and plan from Principles of Planning Small Houses (1936). Measuring 534 architect to arrange dwellings on site, square feet. House A was the simplest FHA design and became known in the home building lay out home grounds, and develop industry as the "FHA minimum house." The basic two-bedroom model could be varied by using planting schemes in neighborhoods of different building materials, adding stylistic ornamentation, or by turning the house so that the small suburban homes. Garden City gable faced the street. (Courtesy Library of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban planners Stein and Wright recognized Development) the profession's role in creating moderate-income neighborhoods when they financing, improving the quality of hired Marjorie Sewell Cautley to assist and Mediterranean influences, encour- housing for moderate and lower- their work at Sunnyside and Radburn, aged the development of regional gar- income groups, and stimulating the and encouraged the Buhl Foundation dening forms that corresponded to building industry. For house design, in Pittsburgh to hire Ralph E. Griswold emerging trends in house design and were suited to the warmer climates of these measures meant improving the to assist with the layout and planting of 121 120 design and efficiency of the American Chatham Village. California and Florida. home while lowering its cost. Through Mrs. Francis King (Louise Yeomans a combination of private and public King), a leader in the garden club Public and Private Initiatives: efforts, the design of efficient, low-cost movement, introduced the "Little The Efficient Low-Cost Home, housing—in the of form single, two- Garden Series" in 1921, marking an family, and multiple family dwellings— increasing interest in the design of the 1931-1948 became a national priority, reflecting to small suburban lot. The series, which As the Great Depression deepened, a large extent the recommendations included Fletcher Steele's Design in the made by the conference committees. Little Garden (1924), brought home housing starts declined precipitously, coming almost to a standstill. The Committee on Design brought owners practical and aesthetic advice together experienced architects and from professional landscape architects Discussion of the ideal small house took on new urgency with the collapse developers who called for improve- and successful gardeners. Other books ments in small house design such as by landscape architects reflecting this of the home building industry and the rising rate of mortgage foreclosures. building houses in well planned groups trend included Myrl E. Bottomley's to avoid the monotony created by the Design of Small Properties (1926), repetition of uniform houses on nar- Cautley's Garden Design (1935), Frank Findings of the 1931 President's Conference row lots and siting houses to benefit A. Waugh's Everybody's Garden (1930). from sunlight, air, and outdoor space. Helen Morgenthau Fox's Patio Gardens With the recommendations of the Representatives from trade organiza- (1929) and Richard Requa's Architect- Nation's leading experts, the 1931 con- tions, building associations, and ural Details of Spain and the Mediter- ference endorsed the objective of materials manufacturers formed the ranean (1927), both featuring Spanish reforming the Nation's system of home Committee on Construction, which

60 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN upheld the need for labor and time conserving methods, standard building codes, improved standards of workmanship, education and research by trade associations, and economies of prefabrication. Another committee examined the affordabiliry of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning, and set basic requirements for plumbing and sanitation, electric wiring, and refrigeration.122 The Committee on Landscape Planning and Planting, which brought together landscape architects experienced in residential design and representatives of the organizations such as the Garden Club of America and National Council of State Garden Club Federations, upheld the importance of attractive yard design and landscape plantings to enhance a home owner's comfort and enjoyment as well as increase property values.I23 *x*ifaut

FHA's Minimum House and Small House Program I Through its approval of properties for mortgage insurance and the publication •i taa of housing and subdivision standards, leu 1 the FHA instituted a national program that would regulate home building 1 practices for many decades. House bfrD OOC M designs, first published in FHA's Principles of Planning Small Houses (1936), were updated periodically. Circulars, such as Property Standards, 1 Recent Developments in Building Construction, and Modern Housing, 1P r r—| addressed issues of prefabrication &ATU UAUL methods and materials, housing stan- 1 1 dards, and principles of design. |n The five FHA house types that appeared in Planning Small Houses in 1 [ ' 1936 offered "a range in comfort of liv- 1 ing," and in succession a "slightly 1 <*** 1 ftANOt I increasing accommodation." Illustrated |SL_J| urn 1 by floor plans and simple elevations, each type was void of nonessential LJVING tiOOM I spaces, picturesque features, and unnecessary items that would add to W-yx 2Y-A' 1| their cost, following FHA's principle for I "providing a maximum accommoda- u tion within a minimum of means." Houses could be built in a variety of b materials, including wood, brick, t n concrete block, shingles, stucco, or » 1 mm •1 1 II 1 stone. To increase domestic efficiency,

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 61 new labor saving technologies were "attractively designed without excessive ments of exterior design in ways that introduced: kitchens were equipped ornamentation."126 avoided repetition and gave the neigh- with modern appliances, and the utility FHA's 1940 edition of Planning borhood an interesting and pleasing room's integrated mechanical system Small Homes introduced a dramatically character, for example, by varying the replaced the basement furnace of different, flexible system of house placement of each house on its lot and earlier homes.I24 design based on the principles of introducing a variety of wall materials The simplest FHA design became expandability, standardization, and and roof types. The principles were known in the home building industry variability. Praised for its livability, the directed at operative builders who, as the "FHA minimum house." simple one-story "minimum" house taking advantage of the cost-reducing Measuring 534 square feet and having became the starting point from which practices of standardization and more no basement, House A was a one-story, many variations arose as rooms were liberal financing terms, were becoming two-bedroom house designed for a added or extended to increase interior increasingly aware of the advantages of family of three adults or two adults and space, often forming an L-shaped plan. building homes on a large scale and, for two children. A small kitchen and larg- Exterior design resulted from the com- the first time, were creating what has er multipurpose living room extended bination of features such as gables, become known as "tract" housing.128 across the front of the house, while two porches, materials, windows, and roof bedrooms and a bathroom were locat- types. Factors such as orientation to FHA's Rental Housing Program ed off a small hallway at the back of the sunlight, prevailing winds, and view house. The slightly larger House B pro- became as important as the efficient FHA's Large-Scale Rental Housing vided 624 square feet of living space layout of interior space. Fireplaces and Division worked closely with operative and had more lasting appeal.I25 chimneys could be added, as well as builders to design apartment villages that were efficient cost-wise, but also Houses C and D were two-story basements. The revised edition also attractive and desirable places for mod- homes, having two upstairs bedrooms, included designs for two-bedroom, erate-income renters. Utilizing with the latter offering a simple two-story houses having central-hall superblock planning and incorporating attached garage. House E, a compact and sidewall-stair plans, some offering garden courts and common greens, two-story, three-bedroom house, was built-in garages and additional bed- 12 they were strongly influenced by Stein the largest and most elaborate of FHA's rooms. ? and Wright's Garden City projects at early designs. Illustrated with a classi- The new FHA principles provided Sunnyside Gardens, Radburn, and cally inspired doorway and semi- instructions for grouping similarly Chatham Village, as well as the highly circular light in the street-facing gable, designed houses in cul-de-sacs and recognized World War I defense hous- it demonstrated that a house could be along streetscapes by varying the ele-

62 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN ing communities of Seaside Village at apartments within each dwelling unit. ciples for Bemis's three-volume The Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Yorkship Influenced by Henry Wright, who had Evolving House (1936), which became Village at Camden, New Jersey. advised on the design of Buckingham a standard reference work on prefabri- The overall aesthetic effect of garden and whose Rehousing Urban America cation. Bemis pursued a three-fold apartment villages relied on the varied was published in 1935, FHA architect strategy: first, simplify the house by and irregular massing of units within a Eugene H. Klaber developed a series of eliminating seldomly used space; superblock, separation from automo- efficient "unit plans," which published second, streamline the construction bile traffic, an interlocking arrange- in FHA's monthly Architectural Bulletin ment of housing units to fit a site's (1940), guided much market-rate rental topography which avoided the appear- housing construction through World Tract housing had its origins in the late 1930s as builders sought ways to reduce the ance of either rowhouses or large War II.»9 cost of construction, capture the growing apartment blocks, and the provision of market of FHA-qualified home buyers, and landscaped walkways, gardens, and Prefabricated Houses take advantage of the time and cost saving recessed entry courts. Staggered roof benefits of building homes on a large scale. By lines and unifying cornices, fascia, and The 1930s became a decade of experi- moving the entrance to one side and using dentil friezes, and the repetition of mentation. A number of private organi- newly-available asbestos shingles and steel modest and similar architectural zations assumed the role of "scientific casement windows, local architects Schreier & housers" with the purpose of creating a Patterson adapted FHA's House E (far left), a embellishments—doorways, transoms, popular two-story design, for houses in a new mouldings, window surrounds, roof house that a majority of American wage neighborhood (middle) in metropolitan designs—unified each complex's overall earners could afford. Others explored Washington, D.C. (Illustration courtesy Library design. the principles of mass production and of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Economies of scale and the use of prefabrication to reduce the cost of Development; historic photo courtesy Library building materials and housing.'3° of Congress, Theodor Horydczak Collection, standardized building components dic- neg. LC-H814-T-2387-016 DLC) tated the design of communities such as Bemis Industries, Inc., under the Buckingham in Arlington, Virginia. direction of Albert Farwell Bemis, Built in 1936 by newspaper publisher Functional efficiency and cost reduction experimented with prefabricated mod- Charles A. Mitten, the Mesa Journal-Tribune FHA Demonstration House in Mesa, Arizona, relied on the use of standardized com- ular systems using a variety of materials including steel, gypsum-based blocks sparked great local interest in home owner- ponents and appliances, the develop- ship and stimulated a local boom in FHA- ment of consolidated mechanical and slabs, and composition board and approved construction in the late 1930s. systems, and an efficient arrangement steel panels to create a series of model (Photo by Shirley Kehoe, courtesy Arizona of rooms within each apartment, and of homes; this work established the prin- Historic Preservation Office)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 63 (above) Samester Parkway Apartments process by using time and labor-saving Agriculture developed a "stress-skin" (1939) in Baltimore, Maryland. A central gar- equipment, materials, and techniques; plywood house, which spurred a series den court sheltered from nearby streets and a third, apply principles of modern indus- of efforts to develop insulated, prefab- series of attractive entrances demonstrate the trial management for production based ricated wood panels that could be man- value of superblock planning and use of stan- on economies of scale and the sequen- ufactured on a large scale and shipped dardized unit-plans in the design of large- tial production of components.^1 for easy assembly onsite. Such prefabri- scale, FHA-approved rental communities. Sun- filled stairwells with glass-block sidelights, The John B. Pierce Foundation of cated systems were adopted by a num- porthole windows, and streamlined aluminum New York City examined the American ber of manufacturers, including the railings illustrate FHA's practical concerns for home from the standpoint of efficiency. Celotex Company of Chicago and creating a healthy, well-organized environ- Through space-and-motion studies of Homasote Company of Trenton, New ment, as well as the aesthetic influences of family living habits, the foundation Jersey, which would both become lead- European Modernism and the Art Moderne ing manufacturers of housing for style. (Photos by Betty Bird, courtesy Maryland developed the prototype for a 24 by 28 Department of Housing and Community foot house, having four rooms and a defense workers during World War Development) bath which became a community building standard. The foundation devel- In its annual revision of Recent (far right) House made of prefabricated oped a number of models, including a Developments in Building Construction, "Cemesto"panels at the U.S. nuclear research facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. This demonstration village at its laboratory FHA reported on new developments system of prefabrication was originally devel- in Highbridge, New Jersey, and worked and provided a list of the materials and oped by the John B. Pierce Foundation and with manufacturers to develop small methods approved by the U.S. Bureau Celotex Corporation for employee housing at marketable dwellings using innovative of Standards. In 1940 the list included the Glenn L Martin Aircraft Company near materials and prefabricated compo- methods ranging from a system of steel Baltimore, Maryland. During World War II, it nents, which were manufactured on a panel construction manufactured by was adapted on a large-scale for both single- large scale and purchased by the U.S. Steel Buildings, Inc., of Ohio to and multiple family dwellings to house X 2 defense workers and their families. (Photo by government during World War II. 3 concrete construction methods Kimberley A. Murphy, courtesy Tennessee In 1935, the Forest Products promoted by the Portland Cement Historical Commission) Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Association.:34

64 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Prefabricated methods took on Carl Strandlund and architect Morris Postwar Suburban House and increasing importance with the onset of Beckman. Yard, 1945-1960 World War II as the construction of To architects such as William both temporary and permanent hous- Wurster and Walter Gropius, prefabri- By 1945, several factors—the lack of ing in places determined critical for cation promised a solution to housing new housing, continued population defense production became a national America's lower-income families. growth, and six million returning veter- priority. The need to speed production During the 1940s, Gropius worked ans eager to start families—combined and lower construction costs guided closely with Konrad Wachsmann and to produce the largest building boom in these efforts, many of which were fund- the General Panel Corporation to the Nation's history, almost all of it ed under the Lanham Act and public develop a system of prefabrication that concentrated in the suburbs. From 1944 housing programs. After the war, man- would markedly reduce the cost of to 1946, single-family housing starts ufacturers continued to shape the sub- housing. Although the final model increased eight-fold from 114,000 to urban landscape based on principles of called "the Packaged House" was tech- 937,000. Spurred by the builders' cred- mass production and prefabrication. nically a success, the company's efforts its and liberalized terms for VA- and Federal loans for the construction of to market the system and remain finan- FHA-approved mortgages by the end of : 6 manufacturing plants through the cially solvent failed. 3 the 1940s, home building proceeded on Reconstruction Finance Corporation More successful were house manu- an unprecedented scale reaching a made it possible for manufacturers facturers such as National Homes record high in 1950 with the construc- such as Carl Strandlund of Chicago and Corporation of Lafayette, Indiana, and tion of 1,692,000 new single-family Harvey Kaiser in California to fund Gunnison Homes of New Albany, houses.:38 large-scale efforts to produce housing Indiana, which readily adapted their The experience of World War II components that could be shipped and factory operations to postwar condi- demonstrated the possibilities offered assembled onsite to provide housing tions and offered a number of designs r by large-scale production, prefabrica- for the families of returning veterans. 35 suited to the needs, incomes, and tastes tion methods and materials, and Many attempts to produce factory- of postwar middle-income home buy- streamlined assembly methods. In 1947 made prefabricated dwellings experi- ers. These companies engaged the serv- developer William Levitt began to enced limited success and failed, ices of well-known architects, includ- apply these principles to home building including the demountable Acorn ing Royal Barry Wills and Charles M. in a dramatically new way, creating his houses introduced in 1945 by Carl Koch Goodman, and offered expanding first large-scale suburb, Levittown on and John Bemis of Massachusetts and portfolios with the latest in interior and Long Island, which would eventually the porcelain-enamel steel Lustron exterior features, such as heat-insulated accommodate 82,000 residents in more House, manufactured from 1947 to windows and exposed redwood than 17,500 houses.I39 1950, the invention of manufacturer ceilings.:37

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 65 Levitt's idea was to lower construc- groups of varying sizes, sometimes revival styles to a suburban house type tion costs by simplifying the house, numbering the hundreds. Often located suited for middle-income families. The assembling many components off-site, on curvilinear streets and cul-de-sacs house was typically built of natural and turning the construction site into a that reflected the FHA guidelines for materials such as adobe or redwood streamlined assembly line. The econo- neighborhood planning, Cape Cods and was oriented to an outdoor patio my of using factory produced building appeared in a variety of materials, and gardens that ensured privacy and components, such as pre-cut wall pan- including sheets of insulated asbestos intimacy with nature. Promoted by els and standardized mechanical sys- shingles available after the war in an Sunset Magazine between 1946 and 1958 tems, significantly lowered the cost of increasing assortment of colors. and featured in portfolios such as construction. By adapting assembly The Cape Cod that eager prospec- Western Ranch Houses (1946) and line methods for horizontal or serial tive renters lined up to inspect in the Western Ranch Houses by Cliff May production, Levitt and Sons was able to first Levittown in June 1947, was one" (1958), May's work gained considerable systematically and efficiently assemble and-a-half stories and built on a con- attention in the Southwest and across the components on site. The construc- crete slab. Its 750 square feet of living the nation.r45 tion process was divided into 27 steps, space was divided into a living room, a In the late 1940s popular magazine each performed in sequence by a spe- kitchen, two bedrooms, and a bath. Set surveys indicated the postwar family's cialized crew. The tasks, skills, and on a lot of 6,000 square feet, the exteri- preference for the informal Ranch manpower to complete each step were or of the house—with a steeply pitched house as well as a desire to have all precisely defined and each member was gable roof pierced by two dormers their living space on one floor with a trained to perform a set of repetitive above a clapboarded first story—was a basement for laundry and other utilities tasks, enabling work crews to move variation on a Cape Cod cottage and and a multipurpose room for hobbies efficiently and quickly through each was a somewhat larger version of the and recreation. Builders of middle and site, thus establishing the firm's reputa- FHA minimum house, which had been upper-income homes mimicked the tion for completing a house every 15 improved and expanded in FHA's 1940 architect-designed homes of the South- minutes. H0 Principles for Planning Small Houses M2 west, offering innovations such as slid- The vast subdivisions of Cape Cods Large-scale subdivisions not only ing glass doors, picture windows, car- and later Ranch homes, mocked by took form on the periphery of the ports, screens of decorative blocks, and critics as suburban wastelands, repre- Nation's largest metropolitan areas, but exposed timbers and beams, which sent not only an unprecedented build- also around many smaller cities. For derived as much from modernistic ing boom, but the concerted and middle- and upper-middle-income influences as those of traditional organized effort by many groups, families, especially in the East, simpli- Southwestern design.*46 including the Federal government, to fied versions of pre-war "small house" Builders of low-cost homes, howev- create a single-family house that a designs such as brick or clapboarded er, sought ways to give the basic form of majority of Americans could afford. Cape Cod and other Colonial Revival FHA-approved houses a Ranch-like Levitt actually perfected a construction forms continued in popularity, in large appearance. By late 1949, Levitt & Sons process that had been in the making for part due to architect Royal Barry Wills, had modified the Cape Cod into a more than two decades. Other develop- who published numerous plan books, Ranch-like house called "The Forty- ers did the same, including Harvey including Houses for Good Living Niner," by leaving the floor plan intact Kaiser at Panorama City, near Los (1940), Better Homes for Budgeteers and giving the house an asymmetrical Angeles, and Philip M. Klutznick of (1941), Houses for Homemakers (1945), facade and horizontal emphasis by American Community Builders, Inc., at and Living on the Level (1955). *43 placing shingles on the lower half of Park Forest, Illinois. The success of the front elevation and fitting horizon- Levitt and others resulted in the emer- The Suburban Ranch House tal sliding windows just below the gence of large-scale developers, called eaves. Picture windows, broad chim- "merchant builders," who would apply The suburban Ranch house of the 1950s neys, horizontal bands of windows, their successful formulas for building reflected modern consumer prefer- basement recreational rooms, and large communities in one location after ences and growing incomes. With its exterior terraces or patios became another, often accommodating chang- low, horizontal silhouette and rambling distinguishing features of the forward- ing tastes, economics, and consumer floor plan, the house type reflected the looking yet lower-cost suburban demand in new and improved house nation's growing fascination with the designs. H1 informal lifestyle of the West Coast In the 1950s, as families grew larger and the changing functional needs of and children became teenagers, house- families. X44 From the FHA Minimum House holds moved up to larger Ranch hous- to the Cape Cod In the 1930s California architects es, offering more space and privacy. Cliff May, H. Roy Kelley, William W. With the introduction of television and The Cape Cod provided most of the Wurster, and others adapted the tradi- inexpensive, high-fidelity phono- low-cost suburban housing immediate- tional housing of Southwest ranches graphs, increasing noise levels created a ly following the war and was built in and haciendas and Spanish Colonial demand for greater separation of activ-

66 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN ities and soundproof zones. The split- hallmarks of the contemporary resi- planning, and new materials. The series level house provided increased privacy dential design.:48 not only featured outstanding examples through the location of bedrooms on The principles of European mod- of upper-income homes in California an upper level a half-story above the ernism expressed in the International by noted designers such as Charles and main living area and an all-purpose, Style had been introduced to the Ray Eames, Raphael Soriano, and recreation room on a lower level. The American public in the 1932 Museum of Ralph Rapson, but also a proposed but Ranch house in various configurations, Modern Art exhibition. The Century of never-executed 260-home subdivision including the split level, continued as Progress World's Fair at Chicago in 1933 in San Fernando Valley, designed by A. the dominant suburban house well into introduced Americans to a number of Quincy Jones, Jr., and Frederick E. the 1960s. modern houses, including the House of Emmons and co-sponsored by mer- Tomorrow by George Fred Keck, noted chant builder Joseph Eichler and the The Contemporary House for its polygonal form, innovative use of Producers' Council.^0 glass, and showcase of modern building Architects and others promoted the The influence of Frank Lloyd Wright, : materials. 49 development of small houses reflecting Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, James and Katherine Ford's Modern modernistic design principles to meet Richard J. Neutra, Mies van der Rohe, House in America (1940) and profes- the postwar housing shortage through and other modernists inspired many sional magazines, such as the Architect- plan books and detailed instructions architects to look to new solutions for ural Record, Progressive Architecture, that pointed out the construction and liveable homes using modern materials and Architectural Forum, promoted space efficiencies offered by modern of glass, steel, and concrete, and princi- modernistic architect-built homes and design. Such books included The Small ples of organic design that utilized can- featured the work of a rising generation tilevered forms, glass curtain walls, and of modernists including Edward D. post-and-beam construction. The con- Stone, Paul Thiry, William Lescaze, temporary home featured the integra- Ranch house (1952) in the Denver Court George Howe, Alden B. Dow, Pietro Historic District, Galveston, Texas. tion of indoor and outdoor living area Belluschi, and Gregory Ain. Under the Developed by West Coast architects in the and open floor plans, which allowed a editorship of John Entenza, the "case 1930s and promoted by Sunset Magazine in sense of flowing space. Characteristics study series" in Arts and Architecture books such as architect Cliff May's Western such as masonry hearth walls, patios Ranch Houses (1946), the sprawling Ranch from 1945 and 1966 included designs for and terraces, carports, and transparent house attained great popularity and appeared 36 houses that reflected new approach- walls in the form of sliding glass doors nationwide in the 1950s, often on the unbuilt es to domestic design and featured and floor-to-ceiling windows became lots of early subdivisions. (Photo by Lesley mass production techniques, innovative Sommer, courtesy Texas Historical Commission)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 67 Contemporary house (1951) with innova- continued to explore the problem of ciency, livability, and low-cost afforded tive "butterfly" roof and carport by archi- the small home, designing in 1938 an by the "contemporary residential style." tect-planner Eugene Sternberg for Arapahoe interesting group of quadraplexes, the The book showcased dozens of com- Acres, a postwar suburb in Englewood, Col- Suntop Houses, at Ardmore, Pennsyl- munities of small homes from all parts orado. The contemporary house of the 1950s vania. He gave new form to the Usonian of the country, including Arapahoe offered families informal floor plans, window house in the 1950s, and published The Acres in Englewood, Colorado; and walls that merged interior and exterior spaces, Natural House (1954), where he elabo- many of merchant builder Joseph and patios and terraces that provided outdoor rooms. Private organizations, including the rated on his principles of organic Eichler's subdivisions in California.^ Revere Quality House Institute and the design to create livable dwellings that In the 1950s AIA sponsored a Homes Southwest Research Institute, recognized the integrated home and site. for Better Living award program in con- value of such homes for their efficient Private organizations, such as the junction with House and Home, Better arrangement of space, the low cost of con- Revere Quality House Institute, Homes and Gardens, and the National struction, and pleasing modernistic design. Southwest Research Institute, and John Broadcasting Corporation. This pro- (Photo by Diane Wray, courtesy of Colorado Historical Society) D. Pierce Foundation, promoted the gram recognized successful merchant- use of modern principles of design by built communities such as Hollin Hills in sponsoring award programs and offer- Alexandria, Virginia, which featured the House of Tomorrow (1945) by Los ing seals of approval for successful innovative domestic architecture of I Angeles architect Paul R. Williams; innovative designs. These programs Charles M. Goodman. 54 Tomorrow's House: How to Plan Your encouraged the collaboration of devel- Appealing to an increasingly well- Post-War Home Now (1945) by design- opers and modernist architects and educated and prosperous audience, ers George Nelson and Henry N. recognized the broadening array of popular magazines heralded innova- Wright; and the Museum of Modern new and innovative home building tions in contemporary house design. materials and prefabricated methods of The distinction between the Ranch and Art's If You Want to Build a House : 2 (1946) by Elizabeth B. Mock.^i construction. 5 contemporary house became blurred as Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian hous- John Hancock Callender's Before each type made use of transparent es of the 1930s were forward looking You Buy a House (1953), a joint publica- walls, privacy screens of design con- with their horizontal emphasis, flat and tion of the Southwest Research crete blocks, innovations in open space sloping roofs, large windows, corner Institute and the Architectural League planning, and the interplay of interior windows, and combination of natural of New York, was designed to educate and exterior space. House Beautiful wood and masonry materials. Wright prospective home buyers about the effi- promoted Wright's designs as well as

68 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN other upper-income homes in the mod- elevators in the late 1940s. By the 1950s national audience simple principles for ernistic styles. Better Homes promoted apartment buildings were equipped organizing the domestic yard into dig- designs to meet the incomes of a wider with improved mechanical systems, ele- nified lawns, private patios, informal range of families and showcased suc- vators, up-to-date appliances, central garden rooms, and activity areas with cessful owner-built designs alongside air conditioning, outdoor balconies, simple, easy-to-maintain plants and those of established architects, such as and newly available prefabricated com- shrubbery. l58 architect Chester Nagel's home in ponents such as steelframed windows The modern style sought to achieve Lexington, Massachusetts. In the late and sliding glass doors.*56 an integration of interior and exterior 1940s Better Homes began to recognize Unlike their urban counterparts space by creating lines of vision outstanding examples, which were built on the site of cleared slums, high- through transparent windows and showcased as "Five Star Homes." Other rise suburban developments, which doors to patios, intimate garden spaces, magazines offered similar awards, became increasingly popular in the late zones designed for special uses, and including Parents3 Magazine, which 1950s, were modeled after Le Cor- distant vistas. Hedges, freestanding sponsored the "Best Home for Family busier's vision for the "radiant city" shrubbery, and beds of low growing Living" competition.^ and luxury high-rise apartment houses plants, arranged to form abstract geo- Exploring the possibilities inherent in American cities, including Mies van metrical patterns, reinforced the hori- in combining modern design and pre- der Rohe's Promontory Apartments zontal and vertical planes of the mod- fabrication methods, architect Carl (1949) and Lake Shore Drive Apart- ern suburban house.J59 Koch and John Bemis introduced the ments (1951) in Chicago; Frank Lloyd Developers of contemporary subdi- popular, mass-produced Tech-built Wright's Price Company Tower (1952) visions often secured the services of house in the early 1950s. From 1952 to in Bartlesville, Oklahoma; and 100 landscape architects as site planners to 1956, the U.S. Gypsum Corporation Memorial Drive (1950) in Cambridge, lay out their subdivisions and advise on sponsored a well-publicized demon- Massachusetts, by the firm of Kennedy, the layout and planting of common stration project at Barrington Woods, Koch, DeMars, Rapson, and Brown. areas, street corners, streets, and side- Illinois, which featured model homes Their location along major expressways walks. Others urged home owners to by a number of leading designers. In leading from the center city was moti- consult with landscape architects on addition, sources such as Koch's At vated by convenience of location as the design of their suburban yards. The Home with Tomorrow (1958) and Jones well as advances in air conditioning, Southwest Research Institute encour- and Emmons's Builder's Homes for elevator design, mechanical systems, aged such collaboration and recognized Better Living (1957) spurred a whole and structural design.r57 its achievement in suburban neighbor- series of contemporary homes, whose hoods of contemporary homes, such as facades by the end of the 1950s were Contemporary Landscape Design Hollin Hills in Alexandria, Virginia, dominated by overhanging eaves, broad where several landscape architects, gables, transparent walls, and above- New directions in landscape design including Dan Kiley, drew up planting ground balconies. accompanied the development of the plans for home owners and advised the Ranch house and contemporary resi- developer on the planting of common Postwar Suburban Apartment Houses dence in California. Emphasis on the areas. l6° integration of indoor and outdoor liv- Modernism was embraced as the rental ing encouraged the arrangement of fea- housing market expanded in the sub- tures such as the patios and terraces, urbs of large cities. Title 608 of the sunshades and trellises, swimming National Housing Act, which guaran- pools, and privacy screens. Several of teed builders 90 percent-mortgages on the Case Study houses in Arts and multiple family projects conforming to Architecture featured the landscape FHA standards, continued until the work of Garrett Eckbo. Architects such mid-1950s. Publication of Clarence as Paul Williams designed houses "with Stein's Toward New Towns (1951) the living side facing a private garden." revived models for low- and mid-rise Sunset magazine publicized western apartment villages, such as the Phipps gardens by Doug Baylis, Thomas Apartments at Sunnyside Gardens and Church, and Eckbo, a number of which the modernistic Baldwin Hills in Los formed the grounds of Ranch houses Angeles. Housing Design (1954) by designed by Cliff May, and published Columbia University professor Eugene Landscape for Western Living (1956). In Klaber set forth principles of unit-plan- addition, Thomas Church's Gardens ning similar to those Klaber had devel- Are for People: How to Plan for Outdoor oped for the FHA two decades earlier. Living (1955), and Garrett Eckbo's FHA began to provide mortgage insur- Landscape for Living (1950) and Art of ance for apartment buildings having Home Landscaping (1956) brought to a

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 69 Figure 4. Suburban Architecture and Landscape Gardening, 1832 to 1960

1832 Balloon frame construction invented in 1922-23 Country Club Plaza, Kansas City, Missouri, Chicago. first automobile-oriented regional shopping center, developed by J. C. Nichols. 1838 Rural Residences by Alexander Jackson Davis published. 1923 Home Owners Service Institute sponsors "Home Sweet Home," the official demon- 1841 Publication of Treatise on Domestic stration house for the Better Homes in Economy, by Catharine E. Beecher and America movement and publishes Books of Treatise on the Theory and Practice of A Thousand Homes, edited by Henry Landscape Gardening by Andrew Jackson Atterbury Smith. Downing. 1926 Publication of Myrl E. Bottomley's The 1842-1850 Cottage Residences and Architecture of Design of Small Properties. Country Houses by Downing published. 1928-1932 Variety of moderately priced small houses 1869 The American Woman's Home by Catharine built at Radburn; grounds and plantings by E. Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe pub- Marjorie Sewell Cautley lished. 1929 Architects' Small House Service Bureau, Inc., 1870 Art of Beautifying Suburban Home publishes Small Homes of Architectural Grounds by Frank J. Scott published. Distinction, edited by Robert T. Jones. 1876 Model Homes for the People: A Complete 1930 Park-and-Shop, Cleveland Park, Guide to the Proper and Economical Washington, D.C., designed by Arthur Erection of Buildings, the first of a series of Heaton for Shannon and Luchs Real Estate. mail order plan catalogs by George and Charles Palliser, published. 1931 President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership. 1878 Modern Dwellings in Town and Country Adapted to American Wants and Climate 1932 Museum of Modern Art, New York, mounts by Henry Hudson Holly published. exhibition entitled, "The International Style: Architecture Since 1922." 1907-1908 How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds by Herbert J. Kellaway and Artistic 1932-36 Chatham Village, at Pittsburgh, developed Bungalows by William Radford published. by the Buhl Foundation and designed by architects Ingham and Boyd and landscape Sears and Roebuck begins pre-cut, mail architect Ralph E. Griswold. order house catalog sales. 1933-34 Century of Progress International 1913-14 Suburban Gardens and Planting Around Exhibition, Chicago, features "House of the Bungalow by Grace Tabor published. Tomorrow." 1916 Frank Lloyd Wright's American System 1934 Federal Housing Administration establishes Ready-Cut method of prefabrication used programs for insuring mortgages on small in the Richard's Small House and Duplexes, homes and large-scale rental housing. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 1935 Rehousing Urban America by Henry Wright 1918 The Small Place: Its Landscape Architecture and Garden Design by Marjorie Sewell by Elsa Rehmann published. Cautley published. 1919 Architects' Small House Service Bureau Demonstration of prefabrication at Purdue founded in Minneapolis. Research Village, Lafayette, Indiana. 1921 The Little Garden published, introducing Forest Products Laboratory of the U.S. "The Little Garden Series," edited by Mrs. Department of Agriculture introduces house Francis King (Louise Yeomans King). made of "stress-skin" plywood panels. 1922 Better Homes movement founded by the 1936 Bemis Industries publishes three-volume Butterick Company and endorsed by The Evolving House, which outlines princi- Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. ples of prefabrication.

70 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Federal Housing Administration publishes 1946 (60 Stat. 215) extends FHA authority first standards for insurable neighborhoods to insure mortgages under Title VI. and introduces the FHA minimum house. Elevator structures determined acceptable for FHA rental housing. 1936-39 Buckingham Community, Arlington, Virginia, developed by Paramount Motors 1947 Legislation to encourage private develop- Company using the principles of economies ment of housing for veterans based on pre- of large-scale construction and standardiza- fabrication methods in the form of short- tion of building components. term loans to housing manufacturers. 1938 Federal Home Loan Bank Board, Producers Levitt and Sons builds first houses at Council, and AIA jointly introduce Federal Hempstead on Long Island, New York; Home Building Service Plan, encouraging Philip Klutznick forms American Commun- home builders to use the services of regis- ity Builders to develop Park Forest, Illinois tered architects to carry out construction (planner Elbert Peets). according to architect-designed small house 1947-50 Prefabricated homes made of porcelain- plans. enameled steel panels manufactured by 1940 Construction of Crow Island School, the Lustron Corporation (Carl Strandlund, Winnetka, Illinois, by architects Eliel and manufacturer). Eero Saarinen and Perkins, Wheeler, and 1948 Cameron Village Shopping Center, Raleigh, Will. North Carolina, first large retail shopping Publication of Modern House in America by center, planned by developer Wilke York, James Ford and Katherine Morrow Ford. and site planner, Seward H. Mott. FHA introduces new standards and an effi- 1950 Landscape for Living by landscape architect cient, flexible system of house design and Garrett Eckbo, published by Architectural construction; issues "Architectural Record. Bulletins" with unit plans for large-scale 1952-54 Northland Shopping Center, Detroit, housing. Michigan, planned by Victor Gruen and John Pierce Foundation with the Celotex Associates. Company of Chicago, Illinois, introduces 1953 Southdale Shopping Center, Minneapolis, cemesto boards in the construction of pre- Minnesota, first enclosed, climate- fabricated houses for Glenn Martin Aircraft controlled mall designed by Victor Gruen. near Baltimore, Maryland. 1952-56 U.S. Gypsum Research Village in Barrington 1940-41 Royal Barry Wills publishes Houses for Woods, Illinois, showcases contemporary Good Living and Better Houses for house designs. Budgeteers. 1953 Before You Buy A House published by New 1942 Skidmore, Owings and Merrill plans York Architectural League and Southwest defense-worker community at Oak Ridge, Research Institute, promoting modern prin- Tennessee. ciples of house design and the collabora- 1945-46 Publication of Tomorrow's House: How to tion of architects and developers. Build Your Post-War Home Now, by George 1955-56 Publication of Thomas Church's Gardens Nelson and Henry Wright; The Small House Are for People: How to Plan for Outdoor of Tomorrow by Paul R. Williams; If You Living; Garrett Eckbo's Art of Home Want to Build a House by Elizabeth B. Landscaping; and Sunset Magazine's Mock. Landscape for Western Living. 1945-66 Arts & Architecture publishes Case Study 1957 Hollin Hills, Alexandria, Virginia, selected as House series. one of the "Ten Buildings in America's 1946 Sunset Magazine publishes Western Ranch Future" in AIA Centennial Exhibition. Houses featuring work of Cliff May, Doug 1957-58 Publication of A. Quincy Jones Jr., and Baylis and others. Frederick E. Emmons's Builders' Homes for Movement to provide veterans' housing Better Living and Carl Koch's At Home with gains momentum especially in rental hous- Tomorrow. ing; Veterans' Emergency Housing Act of

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 71

IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION, DOCUMENTATION, AND REGISTRATION

Historic View (c. 1910) of the Prospect Park Subdivision, Pasadena, California, shows how pioneers in California's Arts and Crafts movement transformed the dry and barren site along the Arroyo Seco into one of the region's earliest and most attractive planned suburbs. Historic photographs shape our understanding of past time and place. They enable surveyors to trace the evolution of a particular historic neighborhood, as well as visualize the ways that demographic trends, modes of transportation, and changing ideas about subdivision planning, house design, and gardening defined distinct stages of suburban growth and, in many places, have contributed to regional character. (Photo courtesy Pasadena Historical Society)

73 IDENTIFICATION

Sources for Researching Local Patterns dentification activities are designed DEVELOPING A LOCAL of Suburbanization on pages 79-81. Ito recognize properties associated with historic patterns of suburbaniza- HISTORIC CONTEXT tion and to gather information to deter- The nationwide context, "The Determining Geographical mine the National Register eligibility of Suburbanization of Metropolitan Areas historic subdivisions and neighbor- Scale and Chronological Periods of the United States, 1830 to i960," can hoods. The identification process calls be applied to the study of suburbaniza- Demographic trends can help docu- for the development of a historic con- tion on a local or metropolitan scale. In ment the approximate growth and text at the local or metropolitan level addition, a number of states have devel- extent of local suburbanization and and the documentation of associated oped historic contexts and multiple establish the periods of development properties using historical research property submissions that address vari- associated with particular methods of methods and field survey techniques. ous aspects of suburbanization (See transportation. From this data, predic- Contextual information on local Recommended Reading on pages tions can be made about the types of patterns of suburbanization can guide 133-134 for a list of associated multiple suburbs likely to exist. For example, survey work by providing a link property listings). Through historical metropolitan areas in the eastern between historic events and the physi- research and field surveys, documenta- United States, which experienced rapid cal evolution of communities. In turn, tion is gathered to form a written state- growth due to industrialization during survey information expands the under- ment of historic context, a master list of the nineteenth century, likely contain standing of local patterns, adding to residential subdivisions, and one or a the full spectrum of suburban proper- the local context information about series of maps charting suburban ties. Those in the Midwest, which the location, character, and condition growth of an entire metropolitan area began to experience significant growth in the 1880s, would probably include of representative subdivisions and or a single or small group of local com- streetcar, early automobile, and free- neighborhoods. munities within it. Information previously gathered way suburbs; and western cities, which through the statewide comprehensive didn't expand until the twentieth cen- survey and other historic contexts Conducting Historical Research tury, can be expected to contain early (local or state) should be supplemented automobile and postwar or freeway by new research and field surveys that Initially historical research is directed suburbs. extend not only the geographical area at gathering general information about Using the date of legal incorporation covered by earlier surveys but also the metropolitan or local patterns of devel- for the central city as a starting point, chronological period considered his- opment, most importantly 1) demo- researchers can make an initial estimate toric. Keep in mind that the findings graphic trends, 2) transportation sys- of the period of historic suburbaniza- of earlier surveys and context state- tems and routes, 3) patterns of land tion by plotting a graph that compares ments may need to be reevaluated and development and subdivision design, the population growth of the central updated according to new contextual and 4) trends in suburban housing and city to that of adjacent counties (or information about historic patterns of landscape design. Later, additional smaller jurisdictions if the data is avail- suburbanization. research in conjunction with field able for them) in ten-year intervals surveys may examine the history of through i960, using data from the U.S. specific neighborhoods. Census. Such a graph will indicate not Primary and secondary source only when and where suburbanization materials—often available in local likely occurred but also the extent to Publicly recorded plats provide an libraries, historical collections, and which local patterns correspond to the abundance of information about local patterns government offices—yield a wealth of of subdivision design and real estate practices. broad chronological periods identified Designed by William H. Schuchardt in 1922 as information about local patterns of in the national context. an experimental housing cooperative of suburbanization as well as the history The metropolitan area is the most detached and semi-detached homes to ease and development of local neighbor- appropriate scale for studying patterns Milwaukee's housing shortage, the Garden hoods. Historic maps and subdivision of suburbanization and establishing a Homes Subdivision was replatted with subdi- plats should be identified early in the local historic context. However, limita- vided lots in 1934 so that homes could be study. For a summary of source materi- sold to tenants and stockholders when the tions of time and funding, as well as the cooperative was dissolved. (Historic plat by als useful for developing contexts on difficulty of coordinating efforts among H. L. Lockhart, courtesy Wisconsin State suburbanization and documenting sub- multiple governing jurisdictions (some- Historical Society) urban neighborhoods, see Historical times located in several states), may

74 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN make this approach impractical and trends in transportation, subdivision Compiling Data from make it necessary to establish a context design, and housing design and con- for a single or small group of localities struction to general national trends, Historic Maps and Plats within the larger metropolitan area. In researchers can make predictions about Historic maps are particularly useful such cases, sufficient information the types of subdivisions and suburban for studying patterns of suburbaniza- should be gathered about metropolitan housing likely to be present in the local tion because they graphically depict trends to explain how the history and study area, as well as identify distinctive the relationship between transporta- development of the local community regional patterns. tion corridors and residential develop- reflected patterns of suburbanization Suburbanization has been an ment. Those from the mid-i88os are that shaped the metropolitan area as a ongoing and continuous process in particularly helpful in locating railroad whole. many communities. For this reason, it suburbs, whereas maps dating from For research and survey purposes, a is important to use specific events and 1900 to 1920 are good indicators of the set of historic chronological periods patterns in local history to define the expansion of streetcar suburbs. Maps should be defined that correspond to beginning and closing dates for the from the late 1930s to mid-i94os help local events and stages of suburbaniza- overall "historic" period, as well as trace the development associated with tion. This can be done by dividing the dates for chronologically-based prop- the early automobile period, and those history of local historic development erty types. Approximate dates set at the from the late 1950s will help trace the into chronological periods that general- beginning of the study can be revised massive suburbanization spurred by ly correspond to those outlined on later after research and field surveys the expansion of arterial roads and an pages 16-25, d assigning each period have been completed to ensure freeways in the postwar period. a set of dates based on local events, accuracy. Actual events rather than an Because transportation methods such as the introduction of the street- arbitrary 40- or 50-year cut-off should and routes have historically defined car or the subdivision of the first auto- be used when examining patterns of the limits of suburbanization, a mobile suburb. By comparing local suburbanization after World War II. sequence of historic maps indicating

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HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 75 transportation routes should be assem- and determine the dates when major Historic plats provide an abundance bled. The maps should represent dates episodes of suburbanization occurred of information about local real estate far enough apart that they capture sig- locally. Because little physical evidence practices and patterns of subdivision nificant changes in the overall land- of streetcar routes remains today, maps design. They are also an invaluable tool scape. These maps can be compared to showing these routes are a key resource in surveying historic neighborhoods trace the relationship between transfor identifying and verifying the pres- and in evaluating significance and portation and subdivision development ence of streetcar suburbs. integrity. Plats typically indicate:

Figure 5. Process for Identification, Evaluation, and Documentation

Identification Step Three: Select boundaries 1. Define the historic boundaries. Step One: Develop local or metropolitan context 2. Decide what to include. on suburbanization 3. Select appropriate edges. 1. Conduct historical research. 2. Determine geographical scale and chronological periods. Documentation 3. Compile data from historic maps, plats, and other sources. Steps for Completing the National Register Multiple Property Form (NPS-10-900b) 4. Prepare a written statement of context. 1. Provide a statement of context. 2. Provide an analysis of property types. Step Two: Conduct field surveys of historic residential suburbs 3. Define registration requirements. 1. Select appropriate survey forms. 4. Explain methodology. 2. Gather materials for field reference. 5. Provide bibliographical references. 3. Conduct a reconnaissance or preliminary survey. 6. Acquire official certification. 4. Analyze survey results and identify potentially eligible districts and properties. Steps for Completing the National Register Registration 5. Conduct an intensive-level survey of selected Form (N PS-10-900) properties. 1. Describe historic district. 2. Provide a list of contributing resources. Evaluation 3. Provide a statement explaining the local context. 4. Document the history of the district. Step One: Define significance 5. Explain how district meets National Register criteria and criteria considerations. 1. Apply the National Register criteria. 6. Provide bibliographical references. 2. Select areas of significance. 7. Define and justify district boundaries. 3. Define period of significance. 8. Provide photographs and maps. 9. Acquire official certification. Step Two: Assess historic integrity 1. Apply seven qualities of integrity. Step Three: Follow registration 2. Identify changes and threat to integrity. procedures 3. Classify contributing and noncontributing 1. Consult Federal regulations (36 CFR Part 60) for resources. nominations. 4. Weigh overall integrity. 2. Consult Federal regulations (36 CFR Part 63) for determinations of eligibility.

76 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN 1) the date when a subdivision was illustrate important aspects of the his- level surveys should be added at later platted; toric context, they also can be used to stages. The final statement of context document multiple property listings, can be used in National Register nomi- 2) original legal jurisdiction and survey findings, and the evolution of nations and multiple property listings, boundaries of the subdivision; large residential districts. Geographical as well as State or locally published 3) name of the land development com- Information Systems (GIS), Global contexts and survey documents. pany or real estate developer Positioning Systems (GPS), and a num- The statement should include a brief responsible for subdividing the land; ber of softwares for mapping now make summary of the history of the metro- it possible to efficiently organize digi- politan region and local community 4) original layout of the streets, utili- tized information about residential being studied and an explanation of the ties, and house lots; and development in the form of maps and factors—geographical, legislative, and 5) adjoining streets and arterials. comparative graphs. economic—that have influenced the growth and suburbanization of the Preparing a Master List of The requirements for recording plats region. In addition, the statement Residential Subdivisions: General vary from locality to locality. should explain the jurisdictional street maps, local plats and planning Researchers should make inquiries boundaries within the metropolitan documents, fire insurance maps, and about local practices for both recording region and identify the governing bod- transportation maps usually provide subdivision plats and for maintaining ies historically responsible for local sufficient information to compile a them as archival records. Plat books planning and development in the area master list of subdivisions for each may be on file at the local courthouse being studied. It should contain dates, chronological period. For survey or planning office. The search for his- the proper names of influential individ- purposes, the list should be cross- toric plats may also involve contacting uals and organizations, and references referenced to the field map and should distant repositories, such as State his- to representative historic subdivisions provide the historic name, current torical societies or specialized archives and neighborhoods associated with the name, dates of platting, as well as the housing the records of developers, site context. names of real estate developers and planners, or landscape architects. Local contexts on suburbanization designers, if known. Based on survey Research of fire insurance maps, typically include information about the findings and additional research, the recorded deeds, and written notices by following: land development companies may pro- list can be further annotated to vide similar and additional information describe key characteristics such as • Transportation trends, including the about community planning. size, street design, block size, number location of railroad stations, street- of lots, types of original improvements, car routes, major arterial streets, Mapping the Study Area: Information periods of construction, house types, parkways and boulevards, and from the historic maps, plats, and other and condition. Many communities are express highways (freeways). records can be used to prepare a map now making tax assessment and plan- • Local events that reflect national or series of maps charting the outward ning information available online or on trends in transportation, industry, expansion of suburban development. CD-ROM; such a readily available commerce, and government. Maps should indicate the name, date source of digitized data not only pro- and location of railroad stations, street- vides a wealth of information about • Local economic, demographic, and car routes, major arterial streets, park- residential subdivisions and local hous- other factors that historically influ- ways and boulevards, and highways, as ing types, but can be used in a variety enced the location and expansion of well as principal land subdivisions. of ways, including maps and compara- residential suburbs (e.g. rise of aero- Reference copies should be prepared tive graphs. space industry). for field surveys so that the presence of resources can be verified and observa- • Representative types of residential tions recorded about condition, Developing a Statement subdivisions and neighborhoods boundaries, and potential eligible believed or known to exist in the resources. of Context study area, including the name, The best approach for graphically The development of a local historic dates, and general characteristics of depicting the relationship between context requires information gathered important examples. transportation and suburbanization is through both historical research and • General types of single and multiple to begin with a current geographical field surveys. For this reason, the writ- family housing that characterize the map of the study area as a base map ten statement should be developed in area's residential development, and create a series of overlays or period several stages. An initial statement including their association with par- maps, each representing an important based on research findings and previ- ticular income levels, socioeconomic chronological period and showing the ous surveys should be prepared before groups, industries, or local events. relationship of transportation facilities the reconnaissance survey begins. The and subdivision development during findings of subsequent research and that period. Such maps not only both reconnaissance and intensive-

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 77 History of local or regional planning Local contexts typically identify the general types of single and multiple family housing efforts, including the introduction of associated with particular socioeconomic groups, local industries, and stages of suburbanization. zoning ordinances, comprehensive Three-deckers, also called triple-deckers, making up the Houghton Street Historic District (top) in Worcester, Massachusetts, represent a housing type common to the industrial cities of the planning, and subdivision regula- Northeast where immigrants and others viewed renting out "flats" as a means of affording a tions, which historically influenced home of their own. The Georgian Revival steel house (bottom) with garage located at 129 South patterns of suburbanization. Ridge is one of 22 homes constructed between 1932 and 1941 in Troy, Ohio, by the Troy-based Hobart Welded Steel House Company to demonstrate that arc-welding methods could be used to Local practices concerning mapping, produce high quality prefabricated housing at a low cost. (Photo by Michael Steinitz, courtesy recording of subdivision plats, aerial Massachusetts Historical Commission; photo by Diana Cornelisse, courtesy Ohio Historic surveys, and issuance of building Preservation Office) permits, noting any particular records that are strong indicators of suburban growth and development. The ways that local patterns of suburbanization reflected changing views and attitudes about family, home, and the social roles of men and women. The ways local patterns of housing and subdivision design reflected national trends in architecture, landscape architecture, and community planning. Establishment and activities of local chapters of the National Association of Real Estate Boards, National Association of Home Builders, American Institute of Architects, American Society of Landscape Architects, American Civic Association, American Institute of City Planners, Better Homes of America, Inc., and Small House Architect's Service Bureau, including the names of members who were influential in shaping local patterns of suburbanization. Principal subdividers, home builders, real estate developers, and lending institutions, including a description of the types of residential and other development with which they were associated, and any distinctive local practices, such as the use of deed restrictions or development of neighborhood shopping centers. Principal site planners, architects, and landscape architects known for residential design in the local community or metropolitan area, including examples of their work, the housing types or characteristics of design for which they were known, and the identity of subdividers and builders with whom they routinely worked.

78 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Figure 6. Historical Sources for Researching Local Patterns of Suburbanization

The following historical sources are especially valuable density of land use activities, including residential in researching local patterns of suburbanization and development. the history of residential subdivisions. While many can Subdivision Plats: Local land records for a county, city be found in the collections of local or regional libraries, or town, often organized chronologically in plat- archives, and historical societies, others may be found books. While some older records of this type may be among the public records of municipal and county gov- found in public libraries or historical collections, many ernments. Some source materials are available on remain among the public records of local courthouse microfilm or CD-ROM and may be found in many or local planning offices. Also, copies may be found research libraries. among the records of the architectural, planning, or • Historic Maps and Atlases: Historic maps indicating development firms responsible for the design. the growth and development of a metropolitan area Building Permits/Tax Records: These records fre- at various intervals of time are especially valuable to quently provide the names of site planners, archi- chart the outward migration of residential subdivi- tects, and developers and often indicate the dates sions in relationship to advances in transportation and cost of original construction and additions. In technology and expansion of transportation routes. many communities, tax assessment information is Maps were commonly published by streetcar and contained in a computerized database and is avail- transit companies, oil companies, local chambers of able on CD-ROM. commerce, highway departments, as well as local Deeds of Title, Mechanic Liens, and Real Estate governments for tax and planning purposes. Records: Public court records indicate a property's • Aerial Photographs: After World War II, many local chain of ownership and the terms of any deed governments began making aerial surveys of their restrictions. These are generally organized by date of rapidly changing landscape; many of these remain recording and indexed by the names of sellers and among local government records. Beginning in the purchasers. They may also indicate dates of construc- 1930s, the U.S. Department of Agriculture began tion and additions, original cost, source of mort- making aerial surveys of rural areas of the United gage, and identity of the subdivider or developer. States for soil conservation purposes; these provide Mechanics liens—temporary encumbrances on the good coverage of the outlying areas of metropolitan title of property to ensure payment to the building cities that were later subject to residential develop- contractor—may also identify the building contrac- ment and are available on microfilm from the tors and indicate the cost of construction. Cartographic Division of the National Archives. As Building Contracts: Found in private and public his- part of the Global Land Information System (G.L.I.S.), torical collections, the records of architectural firms, the U.S.G.S. now makes available electronically the and, when a legal dispute arises, in court records. In aerial photographs (called "digital orthophoto quad- States where the public recording of building con- rangles," or "DOQs") taken to update digital line tracts was required by statute, they may be found in graphs and topographic maps. courthouse records. In the form of a legal agree- • Fire Insurance Maps: Insurance maps, such as those ment between owner and contractor, they describe compiled by the Sanborn Fire Insurance Company, the property to be constructed, often specifying are available in many local libraries and at the materials, workmanship, design, and other specifica- Library of Congress. Due to a major recording effort tions. Purchase orders and bills of lading for building now underway, many Sanborn maps will soon be materials may also be found with these records. available on CD-ROM at major research libraries. Historic Photographs: Photographs documenting the • Local or County Ordinances: These indicate the dates design, construction and daily life of residential sub- and provisions for local planning controls, such as zon- urbs exist in many local historic collections. These ing, subdivision regulations, comprehensive planning include family or community records; promotional or processes, local design review, and citizens' associations. documentary materials used by realtors, developers • City, County and Regional Plans: On file with local and designers; and illustrations in historic newspapers, planning offices and available in local libraries and journals, magazines, and published portfolios. archives, these plans provide information about Although local historical collections may be the best transportation routes, publicly funded improvements place to locate historic photographs, specialized repos- (e.g. utilities, water, sewer, mass transit), and overall itories may contain the work of local or regional archi- plan of development that include distribution and tects, landscape architects, and photographic studios.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 79 Figure 6, continued ers, architects, landscape architects, planners, and • Site Plans, Architectural Drawings, Construction former public officials may provide interesting Plans, and Planting Plans: Available from the office insights into historic patterns of suburbanization. of developer or architect, the archival repository for Records of Neighborhood Associations: Community records of the architect, builder, or developer. newsletters, organizational minutes, correspon- Clearinghouse services, such as the Cooperative dence, promotional brochures, anniversary publica- Preservation of Architectural Records (COPAR) and tions, news clippings, early advertisements, neigh- the Catalog of Landscape Records in the United borhood directories, historic photographs, and other States, provide researchers assistance in identifying information related to the history of a neighbor- repositories for the records of architectural firms and hood. Records may be maintained by the organiza- landscape designers. In addition, home owners may tions or may be on file in local library or historical be in possession of promotional brochures, floor- collections. plans, and landscape plans for their yards. Promo- City, Neighborhood, and Telephone Directories: tional brochures and advertisements may also be Available in local or regional libraries, historical soci- found in community archives and local historical eties, and community collections, these directories societies. give the name and addresses of residents and their • Historic Newspapers: Advertisements in the real affiliated businesses as well as identify active mer- estate sections of local newspapers provide informa- chants, suppliers of construction materials, design- tion about housing design, subdivisions, housing ers, and contractors. Historic city directories for costs, prospective home owners, and availability of major cities are also available on microfilm in many house financing. They are also a source of informa- libraries. tion about local events affecting suburbanization, Records of Local Chapters: Local chapters of profes- such as industrial development, demographic trends, sional and trade organizations should be contacted and expansion of transportation routes. Advertise- for information about historic events and the role ments for merchants, suppliers, and contractors pro- of former members in the form of historic corre- vide information about building materials and prac- spondence, official minutes, and newsletters. These tices. Obituaries provide biographical information include chapters of the AIA, ASLA, NCCP, NAHB, about architects, landscape architects, and real NAREB, as well as regionally based associations. estate developers. Many local libraries maintain WPA Real Property Surveys. During the 1930s many copies of local newspapers on microfilm. Many news local governments, using Works Projects Administra- publishers now offer archival indexing and assis- tion (WPA) funds, compiled large-scale, city block tance through the Internet; while these services are maps that recorded information about real estate useful for locating recent obituaries or retrospective development and land use. The FHA used these articles, few extend back far enough to locate origi- maps to graphically illustrate statistical data on nal advertisements or features. housing in metropolitan areas. Many of these maps • U.S. Census Records: Census records provide demo- are among the Records of the FHA (Record Group graphic information about a subdivision or neighbor- 31) in the Cartographic Division of the National hood, including the size of families, whether they Archives. Others may be on file in local libraries or own or rent their house, and the country of origin, archives. education, occupation, and age of family members. Housing Market Analysis Maps: Compiled by the The Census Bureau also gathers statistics on econom- FHA beginning in 1937, these maps indicated areas ics, housing, and population growth. Many census surrounding selected cities where it was considered records are indexed and are available on microfilm safe to underwrite mortgages and were supple- from the National Archives (Record Group 29). mented by data concerning commuting times, the Enumerative maps used by census takers are among location and condition of main highways, and the the records of the Cartographic Division of the location of defense areas. These maps are among National Archives. the Records of the FHA (Record Group 31) in the • Oral History: Interviews with original and early Cartographic Division of the National Archives. homeowners are a valuable source of oral history Pattern Books, Mail Order Catalogs, and Landscape and may be recorded in audio-tape, videotape, or Guidebooks: Sources of popular house and yard written transcripts. Such individuals may also own designs by architects, landscape architects, and mail- historic materials, such as promotional brochures, order companies such as Sears, Roebuck, Aladdin, architectural drawings, landscape plans, nursery and Van Tine. Many are available in libraries in the receipts, photographs, diaries and personal mem- form of published reprints, microfilm, or CD-ROM, oirs. Interviews with builders, contractors, develop- such as the microfiche edition of the Architectural

8o NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Page from architect James H. McGill's Architectural Advertiser (1879) showing the Le Droit Park residence designed for Mr. Scott of Trade Catalogs from the Columbia's Avery Washington, D.C Promotional brochures and advertisements are Library or the microfilm collection of American good sources of historical information and may be found in the Architectural Books (New Haven: Research collections of local libraries, historical societies, and community organ- Publications). izations. (Illustration courtesy District of Columbia State Historic Preservation Office) • Home and Garden Periodicals: Popular trends in the design of house and yard, including new Photograph (c. 1898) of Shaw Avenue Place, one of St. Louis's designs, alterations and additions, housing mate- "private places." Historic photographs documenting the design, rials, gardening hints, and interior furnishings. construction and daily life of residential suburbs exist in many local Also a source for model house plans and garden historical collections. (Photo courtesy Missouri Botanical Garden layouts, as well as information about design Archives) awards and their recipients. Advertisements pro- JAMKS II. Mifiii.i.'a AlienITKITI'IU;. AivmtTisim. vide an excellent source of information on materials for remodelling and new construction. Many historic periodicals are available in libraries on microfilm or CD-ROM. Garden and Forest is now available on the website of the • Library of Congress. • Trade Directories, Catalogs and Periodicals. Source of advertising for building materials, plans, illustrations, and information about innovative techniques, new materials, and award- winning designs. Specialized libraries or archival collections may be the best source for these materials. A number of these, including Sweets RESIDENCE OF MR. W. SCOTT SMITH, LE DROIT PARK. Architectural Trade Catalogs, are available in libraries on microfilm or microfiche. Advertising circulars, such as Philadelphia's Real Estate Reports and Building News, contain references to local builders and architects and their ongoing projects. National directories include the Blue Book of Major Home Builders, which began publication in the mid-twentieth century. For additional information about archival sources, readers should also refer to the National Register bulletins. Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for Preservation Planning (rev. 1985) and Researching a Historic Property (rev. 1998).

FIRST FLOOR. SECOND FLOOR.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 8I Biographical sketches of i) real estate developers known to have had sub- EL ENCANTO ESTATES stantial impact on local patterns of 5ALt5 LI5T NO. 124- -J A N - 1, 1951 suburbanization, and 2) architects, J landscape architects, and engineers who influenced the design and character of residential suburbs in the metropolitan area or local community, by introducing innovations in design, achieving work of high artistic quality, or establishing local traditions of design and construction.

SURVEYING HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS Most historic resource surveys are conducted in two phases once background research has been completed. During the first, called the reconnaissance survey, the study area is surveyed to (PARK) J. N C: identify subdivisions and other property types illustrating local patterns of CAW suburbanization. Observations are systematically recorded about the general character and condition of numerous subdivisions and neighborhoods. During the second phase, called the intensive-level survey, more detailed information is gathered on one or more neighborhoods and other resources believed to meet the National Register criteria. Survey at this level proceeds with the purpose of verifying significance and integrity, establishing appropriate boundaries, and gathering sufficient documentation to complete a National Register nomination. Because of their large size and great number, residential suburbs present a B 0 challenge to preservationists and decision makers. Field survey, data analysis, and reporting methods can be greatly facilitated through the use of an elec- Survey Forms During a reconnaissance survey, the tronic database that can store, sort, and use of a multi-structure or historic dis- report data in a number of ways. The Field observations, as well as facts gath- trict form may be most useful for State historic preservation office or ered from historical research, should recording preliminary information Certified Local Government should be be recorded in a systematic and uni- about a subdivision, neighborhood, or contacted for guidelines about data form way. Generally this is done on streetscape cluster. For intensive survey, entry and retrieval systems currently inventory forms provided by the State a more detailed district form may be being used for the statewide compre- historic preservation office. The forms needed, as well as individual structure hensive survey and acceptable formats selected for use should be appropriate forms to document the character and for National Register nominations. for the level of the survey and the types condition of individual buildings or of historic properties likely to be found groups of buildings having common in the survey area. characteristics. Since survey requirements vary from State to State,

82 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN An oasis in the desert, Tucson's El Encanto Estates evolved from a geometrically perfect radial plan (1929) designed in the office of a California engineering firm and later laid out by field engineers on the floor of the Sonoran desert. A c. 1934 aerial photograph (above) depicts early improvements, including the layout of streets and spacious lots, rows of evenly-spaced street trees, and a central, circular park. A sales map (left) prepared in 1951 indicates the extent to which streets had been extended and lots further subdivided following World War II. Supplementing State survey forms, a horticultural inventory form was used to record information about the Mexican fan palms (Washingtonia robusta) and date palms (Phoenix dactylif- era) lining the streets and the stately collection of giant saquaro (Carnegiea gigantea) gracing the central park. (Photo and sales map courtesy Arizona Historical Society Library/Tucson) surveyors should work out a plan with historical factors that shaped it. made before the survey begins on how the State or local preservation office for Factors, such as the income level of information about spatial organization, making the best use of existing survey prospective home owners, the relation- circulation network, street plantings, forms and deciding how additional ship of subdivider and home builder, and other landscape characteristics is information, such as street patterns or and methods of house construction, to be recorded. spatial organization, is to be collected. Varied from period to period and fre- Some State programs use the National quently defined a neighborhood's phys- Register of Historic Places Registration ical character, as well as social history. Field Reference Materials Form (NPS10-900) or a similar form Survey techniques should be appro- The master list of residential subdivi- for recording intensive-level survey priate to the type of properties one sions and the composite or overlay data, including an inventory of con- expects to find. The forms used should maps prepared for the local historic tributing and noncontributing enable surveyors to cross-reference context (see page 77) serve as valuable 161 property files and add fields or textual resources. reference materials during field survey. explanations to supplement the basic Information needed to evaluate the In addition, copies of the following survey data. Since many survey forms significance of a particular residential documents will be useful: subdivision or neighborhood depends currently in use do not record to a large degree on the chronological information about site planning or period in which it developed and the landscape design, decisions should be

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 83 current street maps, planning maps, Field reference materials should pro- The Reconnaissance Survey and U.S.G.S. quadrants; vide a level of detail appropriate for the type of survey being conducted. For Information gathered during the recon- early transportation maps, indicating example, historic plats and current naissance survey strengthens the local streetcar routes, parkways and planning maps showing principal historic context, making it possible to boulevards, and highways; streets, location and boundaries of identify locally significant property aerial photographs (dating back residential land use, and principal types and set registration requirements as early as the 1930s in some topographic features, are useful for for National Register eligibility. The communities); reconnaissance surveys, while tax par- survey should result in an inventory of cel maps and Sanborn maps showing historic neighborhoods, subdivisions, historic subdivision plats; the size, shape, and location of individ- and other resources that are potentially historic photographs and illustra- ual house lots provide detailed infor- eligible for National Register listing. tions; and mation useful in intensive-level surveys. Survey results can be used to select the best approach for nominating eligible fire insurance maps, such as those properties to the National Register and produced by the Sanborn Fire set priorities for local preservation Insurance Company. planning.

84 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Information collected should: establish a threshold for evaluating historic integrity of individual neigh- Provide a general picture of the dis- borhoods and determining general tribution of different kinds of subdi- registration requirements. visions and house types in relationship to historic transportation During field work, surveyors should Information about city planning, including routes. take special note of and record infor- the development of transportation routes, mation about neighborhoods, as well helps surveyors trace the evolution of historic Verify, refine, and expand informa- as individual resources, which are like- suburbs and determine appropriate bound- tion gathered through literature and ly to represent important property aries for historic districts. A c. 1923 aerial view archival sources about patterns of types and illustrate important aspects (left) depicts the infrastructure of electric suburbanization and the characteris- streetcar lines and wide boulevards that, of the region's suburbanization. Such extending from downtown Cleveland, would tics of historic suburbs in the local properties may include: or metropolitan area. spur the suburbanization of Shaker Village in coming decades. By the end of the 1920s, • residential subdivisions, or groups Provide enough information on the Moreland Circle (lower right of photo) would of contiguous subdivisions, that be transformed into Shaker Square, a com- character and condition of specific represent broad national trends in neighborhoods to identify locally mercial center and transportation hub for the transportation, subdivision design, rapidly growing suburb. By 1950, Shaker important property types, such as community planning, architecture, Village contained more than 4500 dwellings planned communities or apartment or landscape architecture; and apartment buildings in numerous villages, and make recommendations subdivisions. on neighborhoods and other related • neighborhoods that possess historic A map of the Shaker Village Historic resources that merit intensive-level associations with events or activi- District (below) indicates historic district survey and may be eligible for ties in the history of a local boundaries, a complex pattern of neighbor- National Register listing. community or metropolitan area, hood streets, and the rapid transit routes and or represent locally distinctive major thoroughfares that continue to serve Provide an understanding of the fac- methods of construction or design the historic district today. (Photo courtesy Western Reserve Historical Society; map cour- tors that threaten the integrity of characteristics; historic neighborhoods, and help tesy Ohio Historic Preservation Office)

SHAKER VILLAGE HISTORIC DISTRICT

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HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 85 Figure 7. Guidelines for Surveying Historic Residential Suburbs

The following list should be used as a guide for gather- evidence of the use of deed restrictions (e.g., manda- ing historical facts and recording field observations that tory setbacks, uniformity of housing type). can be used to expand the historic context and to iden- • Note variations between the subdivision plan as tify National Register eligible properties. Characteristics drawn on the plat and as carried out. Note any evi- or evidence noted during the reconnaissance survey dence indicating that subdivision was developed in should be documented during the intensive-level survey. distinct stages (e.g. noticeable changes in street 1. Relationship to transportation routes and other design or house types). factors influencing location of subdivision • Describe major alterations since the historic period, • Identify the modes of transportation that residents including street closures or widenings, consolidation of historically used to travel between home and work. lots, out-of-scale additions, further subdivision of lots • Note the proximity to former streetcar routes and (infill), and new land uses or incompatible activities. other transportation corridors, including ferry cross- 3. Character and condition of housing ings, boulevards, parkways, major arterials, highways, Because great variation exists in house types, surveyors railroad lines, bus routes, and subways. should make detailed observations and photographs • Mention common destinations for commuters other making sure that information is gathered on the types than the center city, for example, centers of defense of housing associated with all social groups and income industry. levels historically associated with local history and devel- • Mention other factors, including demographic opment. Although published style guides are useful for patterns, politics, economics, and natural topogra- describing general housing styles and types, surveyors phy, that influenced the subdivision's location and should look for local and regional variations and con- design. firm dates of construction using local records. Surveyors should also consider the influence of local firms of small 2. Site plan and subdivision design house architects, FHA standards, local home building • Date and describe the subdivision plan, including the practices, and availability of ready-cut houses in examin- date of plat, boundaries, location, approximate size ing house types. (acreage and/or number of blocks), the approximate • Describe the general pattern of housing (dwelling number and type of streets (curvilinear or rectilin- types, chronological distribution, sources of design ear), the provision for pedestrian walkways or side- and construction, building materials, and income walks, overall density, and general lot size. range). • Identify the developer, site planner, or engineer • Indicate the approximate number of dwellings, not- responsible for the subdivision design. Note any indi- ing whether they are single-family (detached) houses, cations that the plan resulted from the collaboration multiple family (attached and semi-detached) units, of designers from different fields. or a combination of the two. • Describe the circulation network, indicating whether • Describe the architectural styles and types represent- the street pattern is rectilinear or curvilinear and ed by the dwellings and garages, noting similarities whether it follows the urban gridiron plan or natural and variations that reflect the relationship between a topography. Indicate whether a hierarchy of roads is developer and builder or exhibit characteristics of a evident (from wide collector streets to narrow cul-de- particular period or method of construction. sacs), noting the presence of entrances, wide collector streets, side streets, courts and cul-de-sacs, circles, • Identify architects and home builders responsible for and peripheral arterial streets. the design of houses. • Note evidence of established principles of landscape • Estimate the approximate span of years represented design or important trends in community planning by housing types, noting the character of predomi- (e.g., radial plans with circles and circular drives indi- nant or distinctive house types and styles. Describe cating the influence of City Beautiful movement or the various periods of construction and provide a curvilinear streets and cul-de-sacs characteristic of general chronology of housing types from the earli- FHA standards). est to most recent types. (More accurate dates can be added during intensive-level survey). Note evidence • Describe the nature and location of improvements of gaps and changes in construction due to events made by the subdivider (e.g. utilities, paved roads, such as the Great Depression, World War II, bank- public parks, and reservoirs). Indicate physical ruptcies, or changing ownership.

86 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN • Note distinctive aspects of design and construction, • Note distinctive features associated with utilities and such as materials, size, elements of architectural style, street improvements, including lighting, absence or use of prefabricated components, provision for scenic presence of telephone poles and power lines, reservoirs views, and relationship between house and its setting. and water towers, sewer, curbs, sidewalks, gutters. • Indicate if housing collectively serves an important • Describe the general size of lots and the placement design element (e.g., through common set backs or of houses on each lot, including the arrangement of architectural materials, giving the neighborhood a corner lots. cohesive yet varied character). • Note whether streetscapes have uniform setbacks, • Describe the general condition of housing, including form a regular or irregular pattern, or exhibit strik- the nature of alterations to individual homes (houses ing vistas. and lots)—e.g., siding, raised roofs, enclosure of car- • Describe distinctive patterns of yard design: open ports, construction of garages and additions, changes lawns, perimeter fences or hedges, stairways and to windows (materials and fenestration), porch enclo- walls, patios and outdoor terraces, gardens, specimen sures, and addition of porches, dormers, and nonhis- plants, and foundation plantings. toric garages. 5. Presence of community facilities, such as schools and 4. Distinctive aspects of landscape design stores. Field observations are often the best source of informa- • Describe and date community buildings, shopping tion about street plantings, yard design, and the rela- areas, parks, civic centers, club houses, country clubs, tionship between a subdivision plat and natural topog- schools, and other facilities that were built within or raphy. Adherence to principles of landscape design may adjoining the neighborhood. be evident through the careful arrangement of streets to follow the natural topography, an irregular artistic • Explain whether these facilities were part of the division of land into house lots, the provision of parks neighborhood's original design, and describe how and parkways to accommodate water drainage as well they served and supported suburban life. as enhance the neighborhood's beauty, and the pres- • Note any distinctive elements of design present in ence of a unifying program of landscape plantings. the architectural styles, landscape design, or methods These characteristics help identify subdivisions that may of construction, and identify architects or landscape be the work of established masters of design or have designers responsible for their design. high artistic values and, therefore, merit further study 6. Patterns of social history and contextual development. • Provide a general profile of original or early home • Describe the relationship of street design and overall owners, noting typical occupations, income group, site plan to the natural topography, noting distinc- and ethnic or racial associations. (Keeping in mind tive street patterns, the way site is divided into house that prior to the end of the 1940s, deed restrictions lots, and provisions for site drainage and parks. were often used to exclude residents on the basis of • Describe elements of landscape design seen in income, profession, race, and religion.) entrance ways, street plantings, boundary demarca- • Mention the presence of a citizens' association and tions, recessed roadways, treatment of corner lots, established community traditions. traffic circles, historic gardens, and the grading of • Note whether or not the subdivision is part of a larg- community facilities. er historic neighborhood, and define the characteris- • Identify principal types of vegetation, noting distinc- tics that link it to the larger area. tive patterns such as use of ornamental or shade • Name local industries or institutions (such as colleges trees, shrubbery, and specimen trees. Indicate princi- or defense plants) that created demand for housing. pal species using common, and, if known, Latin names. Although plants and trees are best identified • Note changing patterns of ownership, indicating during seasonal displays of flowers or foliage, they approximate dates of general trends and describing can be recognized at other times of the year by their the effects of change on the physical character and bark and fruit. social history of the neighborhood. • Note evidence of deed restrictions seen in uniform • Note possible significance in social history and sug- setbacks, similarity of architectural style, and open, gest directions for further research, such as oral his- unfenced yards. tory and or the review of community held records. • Describe distinctive materials and evidence of workmanship in entrance signs or portals, ornamental plantings, curbs, bridges, gutters, walls, and walkways.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 87 • clusters or streetscapes having his- variety of builders, often following the Analyzing Survey Results toric values, associations, or design rectilinear urban grid, and where sub- characteristics that distinguish them division boundaries are not necessarily Survey data should be incorporated from the larger subdivision of which signaled by changes in architectural into the written statement of context, they were originally a part; style, housing type, or street design. and connections made between broad patterns of local suburbanization and • single homes associated with per- Recording Field Observations the development of specific suburbs sons important in our past or dis- and neighborhoods. At this point, the tinctive for their architectural design Following the itinerary and using cur- master list of subdivisions can be anno- or method of construction, or as the rent and historic street maps as a guide, tated to include information about work of a master; proceed in two stages. First, drive developers, builders, architects, site through as many subdivisions as possi- • and community centers, schools, planners, and other designers and to ble making general notes and taking and shopping centers within or adja- note important events in social history photographs. Second, for each major cent to a residential neighborhood that illustrate locally important themes subdivision, neighborhood, or distinc- which are associated with important or trends. Also, note the condition of tive cluster, record field observations historic events or possess architec- specific subdivisions and the general incorporating information gathered tural distinction. nature of changes that each area has from maps, plats, and other field refer- undergone since the end of the historic While the residential subdivision is the ence materials. period. focus of survey activities, historic Surveyors should be prepared to Information about distinctive char- neighborhoods may extend beyond the take photographs, annotate field maps, acteristics of site planning, housing, or boundaries of a single subdivision. and complete survey forms as they landscape design should be used to Historic associations or physical char- proceed through each subdivision. It is define significant local patterns, to doc- acteristics linking these areas should be important to note the presence of dis- ument the work of important design- documented and considered in making tinctive features of architecture, land- ers, and to identify properties that recommendations about their collective scape design, and community planning should be more closely examined for significance or National Register eligi- that might be attributes of historic sig- significance in architecture, landscape bility. Conversely, where a historically nificance and should receive further architecture, or community planning important neighborhood no longer documentation during an intensive during the intensive survey. Likewise, possesses historic integrity in its entire- survey. This includes unusual house information about events in the neigh- ty, a smaller area retaining significant types, distinctive architectural types, borhood's cultural or social history qualities and associations may be eligi- characteristic streetscapes, evidence of should be used to identify neighbor- ble. Individually eligible resources professional principles of landscape hoods associated with significant pat- associated with the suburbanization design, important vernacular trends in terns of community life and social context but located outside the bound- housing or yard design, or highly dis- change. Survey information about con- aries of a potentially eligible historic tinctive site plans. Similarly, note inter- dition of local residential suburbs and district should also be identified. esting historical associations or obser- housing types will help establish vations on community life, such as thresholds for evaluating historic Organizing an Itinerary annual traditions, the role of a citizens' integrity in the local area. association, or the presence of a com- Organize an automobile itinerary that From this synthesis, it is possible to munity center. i) define the set of locally important follows historic transportation routes One can expect to find a huge varia- as closely as possible, directing survey- property types, 2) formulate registration in the size and design of neighbor- tion requirements for National Register ors from the oldest to the newest subdi- hoods. Those subdivided before World visions so they can gain a sense of the listing, and 3) compile a list of subdivi- War II may be relatively small in size, sions, neighborhoods and other prop- range of variation that occurred in often consisting of little more than a housing types and subdivision design erties that appear eligible for the single, rectilinear street with a handful National Register and merit intensive- throughout the community's history. of rectangular lots to either side. In Because the boundaries of historic level survey. these cases it may be useful to develop a Analysis of survey data will also sug- subdivisions are often invisible in the system of classifying such subdivisions field and may not be evident on con- gest areas of further research, appro- by attributes—such as street pattern or priate research methods, and special temporary street maps, it is a good idea architectural variety—to define local to have copies of historic maps, plats, concerns for significance or integrity. patterns and establish a set of local For example, observations about the and aerial photographs, as well as the property types, or to look for common composite map or series of overlay range of housing types may suggest characteristics that link subdivisions clues about the relationship of subdi- maps prepared for the historic context. into larger historic neighborhoods. This is especially important when sur- viders and builders, the period of veying older suburbs where housing development, sources of design, and was built in small subdivisions by a use of restrictive deeds, which can be

NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN substantiated through further research (subdivider, home builder, commu- Conducting an Intensive-Level conducted during the intensive-level nity builder, operative builder, or Survey and Compiling National survey. The presence of original home merchant builder) played in the owners or an active neighborhood growth and development of the Register Documentation organization may indicate opportuni- locality or metropolitan region. Intensive-level survey provides a com- ties for conducting oral history or view- prehensive study of selected neighboring community records. The neighborhood was designed to conform to FHA-standards and rep- hoods and gathers the detailed infor- resents one of the "earliest," "most mation necessary to document proper- Identifying Significant Patterns of successful," "largest," "finest," or ties for National Register listing and Development "most influential" examples locally. make determinations of eligibility. While the significance of a residential Building upon the general observations Historic neighborhoods possessing a suburb depends to a large degree on the made during the reconnaissance sur- high degree of integrity and exhibiting local or regional context, the following vey, the intensive-level survey provides distinctive elements of design in the characteristics generally indicate aspects detailed, factual information about the subdivision plan, landscape architec- of a neighborhood's history that may history and physical evolution of one ture, or domestic architecture. reflect important local or metropolitan or more subdivisions or neighborhoods trends and should receive further study Historic neighborhoods reflecting believed to be eligible for National through an intensive-level survey to important advances, established Register listing. verify National Register eligibility. principles, or popular trends in The intensive survey closely exam- community planning or landscape ines the neighborhood's historic signifi- • The neighborhood's planning and architecture. cance, integrity, and boundaries, firmly construction related to the expan- establishing its place within the local sion of local industry, wartime Neighborhoods containing homes in historical context. Survey at this level industry, important stages in metro- a variety of period styles, or repre- gathers sufficient information to con- politan development, or broad senting the work of one or a number firm National Register eligibility and to national trends such as returning of noted architects. document the property according to GFs, the Better Homes movement, National Register standards. and the bungalow craze. Neighborhoods whose housing represents one or more locally impor- • The neighborhood—through its site tant housing types (e.g., bungalows Documenting the Physical Evolution plan, overall landscape design, and and foursquares). of a Historic Residential Suburb house design—reflects historic prin- Residential neighborhoods associat- During intensive-level survey, addition- ciples of design or achieved high al field observations and research pro- artistic quality in the areas of com- ed with important local industries or local events and activities that are vide an indepth record of the current munity planning, landscape architec- character and condition of a historic ture, or architecture. known to have stimulated suburban growth and development. neighborhood and document its physi- • The subdivider and site planners cal evolution and history. The guide- responsible for the platting and con- Neighborhoods historically associat- lines on pages 86-87 list the informa- struction of the subdivision figured ed with important events in the Civil tion that should be gathered during the prominently in the suburban devel- Rights movement to provide equal intensive-level survey and reported on opment of the locality or region and access to housing. the National Register registration form. made substantial contributions to its Neighborhoods associated with Several historical documents pro- character and the availability of important patterns of ethnic settle- vide valuable comparative data for trac- housing. ment that contributed to local ing the physical evolution of a historic growth and development. neighborhood. A comparison of the • The neighborhood's design repre- neighborhood as it exists today and the sents the work of one or more estab- Neighborhoods with homes that original plat helps determine the extent lished professional designers—site received recognition or awards from to which the plan was carried out and planners, landscape architects, professional organizations, trade the periods of time when housing was architects, or engineers. organizations, architectural jour- constructed. Such a comparison will nals, popular magazines, or housing • The subdivision design resulted from also help determine whether the neigh- research foundations. the collaboration of professionals borhood was developed by a subdi- representing several fields of design, Neighborhoods that introduced or vider, who consequently sold unbuilt such as landscape architecture and established patterns of subdivision lots to builders, or, by a community architecture. design, housing, financing, or build- builder, who not only sold lots but also supervised the construction of houses. • The neighborhood exemplifies the ing practices that became influential role that a certain type of developer in the local community, metropolitan area, or elsewhere.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 89 Streetscapes of the Cameron Park Historic ance maps, such as Sanborn Fire Explaining the relationship between District Raleigh, North Carolina, one of three Insurance Company maps, drawn soon the developer and any site planners, large subdivisions platted c. 7970 during an after the completion of the subdivision, architects, landscape architects, extensive period of urban growth. Neighbor- can be compared with more recent engineers, and home builders who hoods were nominated to the National Register through a survey of the city's historic residential maps to identify later construction. contributed to the design of the neighborhoods, which included the develop- Recorded deeds and sometimes tax neighborhood. ment of a historic context documenting local records provide reliable dates of con- patterns of suburbanization. These efforts struction, which can be used to create a Documenting the specific contribu- resulted in a multiple property submission enti- series of period maps showing the tions of each professional group and tled Early Twentieth Century Raleigh neighborhood's evolution. of individual designers collaborating Neighborhoods. Due to the extremely large on the neighborhood's design. study area and predominance of residential During the intensive-level survey, it resources, surveyors systematically proceeded is important to document the physical Providing documentary evidence from the city's oldest sections to newer ones evolution of the neighborhood, identi- that deed restrictions were used, recording block faces on multiple structures fying who was responsible for the sub- mentioning specific provisions of forms that were later grouped together by subdivision plan as well as the design of division and cross-referenced to files on select- such restrictions and explaining ed individual properties. (Photos by Diane houses and landscape features. This how they influenced the character of Filipowicz, courtesy North Carolina Department means: the subdivision. of Cultural Resources) • Determining which profile of devel- Indicating whether the original oper (e.g. subdivider, home builder, developer remained in charge of Historic photographs, illustrations, community builder, operative executing the plan and, if not, maps and aerial photographs also builder, or merchant builder) the describing any major changes made reveal changes. In addition, fire insur- developer most closely fits. by subsequent developers.

90 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Classifying House Types for Inventory Many subdivisions, especially dur- home whose lower-story is clad Purposes ing and after World War II, offered with painted brick and upper prospective owners a limited number story wooden clapboard. The An intensive survey of one or more res- of house types, sometimes being distin- house originally featured metal idential suburbs often covers an area of guished only by the number of rooms, casement windows, a side porch, considerable extent and literally hun- roof design, or exterior wall materials. and a side chimney. A pediment- dreds of houses and other resources. For this reason, when conducting an ed doorway, paneled door, and a Decisions need to be made about how intensive survey in a neighborhood of moulded entablature reflect mini- houses and streetscapes can be sur- similarly-designed houses, perhaps mal Colonial Revival styling. veyed most efficiently so that determi- designed by a single architect and con- nations can be made about district structed by a single builder, it makes An inventory entry for one such house boundaries and the classification of sense to classify houses or housing could then read: contributing and noncontributing units by type and provide a general resources. Sufficient information 1212 Columbus Street, an example description of each type. An inventory should be drawn from the reconnais- of Type 2-B, having an enclosed can be compiled by listing each house sance survey to determine whether a porch, matching aluminum siding by street address or building number building-by-building survey is needed over wooden clapboards on and indicating its type according to the or whether there are sufficient similari- upper story, and replacement general classification scheme and not- ties of construction and design so that double-hung, vinyl windows on ing its condition, any major alterations resources can be grouped in categories principal facades. Otherwise or additions, and status as contributing based on common housing types. Such house is in good condition. or noncontributing. a typology can then be used to define Contributing. For example, in an FHA-approved significant patterns as well as facilitate neighborhood having a dozen house For more information on documenting the collection of information about types, the description of House historic suburbs, refer to the condition and integrity which is needed Type 2-B might read: Documentation and Registration sec- to complete the building-by-building tion on pages 108-111 and the National inventory of contributing and noncon- House Type 2-B is a six-room, Register bulletin, How to Complete the tributing resources. two-story hipped roof variation National Register Registration Form. of the standard 1144 square foot

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 91 EVALUATION

not a property meets the National events, activities, or persons that he evaluation process entails Register criteria for evaluation and is contributed in important ways to the Tthree major activities: defining eligible for National Register listing. growth and development of the com- significance, assessing historic integrity, The written statement of historic munity. The reconnaissance survey, fur- and selecting boundaries. Information context—containing information about thermore, provides comparative infor- gathered during the intensive survey the local or metropolitan patterns of mation about the condition of historic about the history and condition of a transportation, subdivision design, and neighborhoods and subdivisions, neighborhood is related to the historic housing—makes it possible to deter- enabling researchers to eliminate from patterns of suburbanization that mine the extent to which a neighbor- further consideration those that have shaped the locality or metropolitan hood represents local or regional pat- lost their historic integrity. area where it is located. Ultimately the terns and is associated with important evaluation process verifies whether or m

92 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Figure 8. How Residential Suburbs Meet the National Register Criteria for Evaluation

Criterion A Criterion C

• Neighborhood reflects an important historic trend in • Collection of residential architecture is an important the development and growth of a locality or metro- example of distinctive period of construction, politan area. method of construction, or the work of one or more • Suburb represents an important event or association, notable architects. such as the expansion of housing associated with • Suburb reflects principles of design important in the wartime industries during World War II, or the racial history of community planning and landscape archi- integration of suburban neighborhoods in the 1950s. tecture, or is the work of a master landscape archi- • Suburb introduced conventions of community plan- tect, site planner, or design firm. ning important in the history of suburbanization, • Subdivision embodies high artistic values through its such as zoning, deed restrictions, or subdivision overall plan or the design of entrance ways, streets, regulations. homes, and community spaces. • Neighborhood is associated with the heritage of social, economic, racial, or ethnic groups important in the history of a locality or metropolitan area. Criterion D • Suburb is associated with a group of individuals, • Neighborhoods likely to yield important information including merchants, industrialists, educators, and about vernacular house types, yard design, garden- community leaders, important in the history and ing practices, and patterns of domestic life. development of a locality or metropolitan area. In certain cases, a single home or a small group of houses in a residential subdivision may be eligible for Criterion B National Register listing because of outstanding design • Neighborhood is directly associated with the life and characteristics (Criterion C) or association with a highly career of an individual who made important contribu- important individual or event (Criterion A or B). tions to the history of a locality or metropolitan area.

Decisions about significance, Historic period, relationship to streetcar suburb) will help the integrity, and boundaries depend on transportation corridors, cohesive researcher identify areas of significance the historical record as well as the pres- planning principles, socioeconomic as well as characteristic features that ence of physical features of subdivision conditions, real estate trends, and may be present. Knowledge of the dates design and housing. Aspects of design architectural character usually impart when a neighborhood was subdivided such as spatial organization present in distinctive characteristics that distin- and its dwellings constructed will pro- the general plan of development, the guish the historic neighborhood from vide a foundation for understanding its layout of streets and pedestrian paths, the development that surrounds it. physical layout, the design of its hous- and the arrangement of house lots, may Recognition of these factors early in the ing, its relationship to important stages be important as indicators of historic process makes it possible to place a of local history and development, and patterns of development as the styles or particular suburb in the national con- its association with important local design of housing. text for suburbanization as well as local events. or metropolitan contexts. Knowledge Although the residential subdivision of these factors can be used in making is a logical unit for study, historic Platted in six sections over a seven-year comparisons among neighborhoods of neighborhoods are not necessarily period beginning in 1920, the F. Q. Story similar age, understanding local pat- defined by lines drawn on a historic Neighborhood Historic District provides an terns of history and development, and subdivision plat. Historic districts index of southwestern small house design in defining historic districts that meet meeting the definition of a historic spanning three decades and vernacular landscape conventions such as the use of paired the National Register criteria. residential suburb may consist of one or palms. (Photo by Don W. Ryden, courtesy Early identification of the type of a group of subdivisions, or they may Arizona Office of Historic Preservation) residential suburb (e.g. railroad suburb, occupy a small portion of a large

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 93 Criterion B can apply to neighborhoods that subdivision. Decisions about signifi- are associated with important developers and the Nation, and to determine whether best represent their contributions to significant cance, integrity, and boundaries, there- the area under study meets one or local or metropolitan patterns of suburbaniza- fore, should take into consideration more of the National Register Criteria tion. The Park Hill Historic District (1921-1950) factors concerning social history and for Evaluation. North Little Rock, Arkansas (top left), is associ- community development of large areas ated with local developer Justin Matthews of of residential development that broadly the Park Hill Land Company, whose successful meet the definition of "historic residen- entrepreneurial efforts over many years shaped Applying the National Register the historic identity of North Little Rock as a tial suburb," as well as the architecture Criteria and Criteria suburban community. (Photo by Sandra Taylor and site planning of individual subdivi- Smith, courtesy Arkansas Historic Preservation sions. Considerations Program) To be eligible for National Register list- A case for exceptional significance under ing, a residential suburb must possess Criterion Consideration G must be made when HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE significance in at least one of the four documenting neighborhoods importantly asso- aspects of cultural heritage specified by ciated with events that occurred within the past 50 years, even when the homes date to an Defining historic significance requires the National Register Criteria for earlier period. The Glenview Historic District a close analysis of information about Evaluation. In addition, neighborhoods (1920s-1965) in Memphis (top right) possesses the development and design of a partic- less than 50 years of age must meet exceptional importance as the center of local ular historic neighborhood and an Criteria Consideration G by possessing controversy as African American families exer- understanding of local, metropolitan, exceptional importance. cised their right to purchase homes in existing and national trends of suburbanization. middle-class neighborhoods during the Civil Rights movement. (Photo by Carroll Van West, The property is viewed in relationship courtesy Tennessee Historical Commission) to the broad patterns of suburbanization that shaped a community, State or

94 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Association with Important Events they must have gained considerable Distinctive Characteristics of Design and Persons recognition beyond the neighborhood. Historic residential suburbs often This includes prominent residents, Historic residential suburbs typically reflect popular national trends in sub- such as a leading political figure or reflect the outward spread of metropol- division design, such as the Picturesque social reformer. Criterion B also applies itan areas and the growth and develop- style of the nineteenth century or FHA- to neighborhoods that are associated ment of communities. For this reason, recommended curvilinear plans. They with important developers and best residential districts are commonly may also reflect popular architectural represent their contributions to signifi- evaluated under Criterion A for their styles, housing types, and principles of cant local or metropolitan patterns of association with important events or landscape architecture. Such districts suburbanization. Subdivisions repre- patterns in community history or with are evaluated under Criterion C to senting the work of prominent site groups of residents (not specific indi- determine if they embody the distinc- planners, architects, or landscape viduals) who collectively made impor- tive characteristics of a type, period, architects should be evaluated under tant contributions to the area's style, or method of construction; or Criterion C, unless they also served as prosperity or identity as a place of represent the work of a master archi- their residence during an important industry, government, education, or tect, landscape architect, or community period of their career. For more infor- social reform. planner. Historic neighborhoods that mation about applying Criterion B, form "a significant and distinguishable Criterion B applies to neighbor- refer to the National Register bulletin, entity whose components," including hoods directly associated with one or Guidelines for Evaluating and Doc- streets and homes, "lack individual dis- more individuals who made important umenting Properties Associated with tinction" are also evaluated under contributions to history. Such individu- Significant Persons. als must have exerted important influ- Criterion C. ence on the neighborhood's sense of Qualifying physical characteristics, community or historic identity and under Criterion C, may be present in

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 95 the overall plan, the architectural cance, and placing a suburb in a local, National Register listing? Specific design of dwellings and other build- metropolitan, State, or national con- dates for the overall site design and the ings, and the landscape design of the text. construction of component resources overall subdivision or of individual are needed to determine when a case homes, parks, or parkways. Signif- Ability to Yield Important Information for exceptional importance is necessary icance under Criterion C requires that to support eligibility or listing. Such a the features that mark distinction in Criterion D is applied to the evaluation case must be made for subdivisions planning, architecture, and landscape of pre- or post-contact sites, such as which were platted and laid out and design remain intact and recognizable. remnant mills and farmsteads that pre- where the majority of homes were con- Organization of space is a key factor date land subdivision and remain intact structed within the last 50 years. It is in ascribing significance in community in parks, stream valleys, floodplain, or also required for neighborhoods planning and landscape architecture. steep hillsides. Such sites may provide importantly associated with events that Visible in the general or master plan information important to historic con- occurred within the past 50 years even and aerial photographs, spatial organi- texts other than suburbanization. In though the homes were built during an zation is defined by the relationship addition, historical archeology of home earlier period, for example an older between design and natural topogra- grounds may provide important infor- neighborhood importantly associated phy, the arrangement of streets and mation about the organization of with the Civil Rights movement. house lots, the arrangement of build- domestic grounds, vernacular house ings and landscape features on each lot, types, gardening practices, or patterns Is "exceptional importance" a and the provision of common spaces, of domestic life. When used in tandem requirement for a neighborhood such as walkways, playgrounds, and with documentary sources, historical whose construction began more than parks. The recognition of important archeology helps define data sets and 50 years ago but was completed local patterns may require examining research questions important in under- within the past 50 years? Because sub- records held by the local planning or standing patterns of suburbanization divisions were typically constructed zoning office, the development compa- and domestic life. For additional guid- over a period of many years, it is not ny, or architectural firms involved with ance, consult the National Register bul- uncommon to encounter a subdivision construction, as well as making com- letin, Guidelines for Evaluating and where streets and utilities were laid out parisons with other suburbs in the local Registering Archeological Sites and and home construction begun more area from the same period of time. Districts. than 50 years ago, but where construc- Significance in landscape architecture tion continued into the recent past. As may also derive from special features Evaluation under Criterion a general rule, when a neighborhood as such as a unified program of street Consideration 6 a whole was laid out more than 50 years lighting or tree plantings; the landscape ago and the majority of homes and Criterion Consideration G states that design of yards, entrance ways, or road- other resources are greater than 50 properties that have achieved signifi- ways; the presence of scenic vistas; or years of age, a case for exceptional cance within the past 50 years may conservation of natural features. importance is not needed. In such qualify for National Register listing if cases, the period of significance may be Distinctive architectural design may they are an integral part of a historic extended a reasonable length of time be present in a variety of building district that meets the criteria or if they (e.g., five or six years) within the less- types—dwellings, garages, carriage have exceptional importance. than-50-year period to recognize the houses, community buildings, gate The post-World War II building contribution of resources that, houses, and sheds. Buildings may boom, spurred by the availability of although less-than-50-years of age, are reflect a cohesive architectural type and low-cost, long-term mortgages for consistent with the neighborhood's his- style with some variation (e.g. Cape home owners and financial credits for toric plan and character. Cod or Ranch) or they may reflect a builders, resulted in the widespread variety of period or regional styles such When the majority of homes and development of suburban subdivisions other resources, however, are less than as Tudor Revival, Colonial Revival, or that were not only large in size but vast Mediterranean. Homogeneity or diver- 50 years of age, a case for exceptional in number. In coming years as many of importance is required. Subdivisions sity of housing types and style may be these approach 50 years of age, there an important architectural characteris- of this type found not to possess excep- will be increasing pressure to evaluate tional importance should be reevaluat- tic and be an important indicator of the their eligibility for listing in the overall design intent of the suburb as ed when the majority of resources National Register. Their evaluation achieve 50 years of age. well as its period of development. raises several questions concerning Information about the developer and Regional contexts should be devel- Criterion Consideration G and the oped in areas where suburbanization the various architects and landscape National Register's 50-year guideline. architects involved in the design of a was widespread and numerous planned subdivision is important to under- When must a historic subdivision or subdivisions took form during the post- standing the character of a residential neighborhood possess "exceptional war era. Such a context can help 1) subdivision, ascribing design signifi- importance" as a requirement for establish a chronology of the region's

96 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN This 1957 contemporary house represents the final phase of home-building in the Monte Vista and College View Historic District, which is listed under the Twentieth Century Suburban Growth in Albuquerque MPS. The district's period of significance was extended to the late 1950s (six years beyond the 50-year cut-off date at the time of listing) to recognize the contribution of houses whose style, type, and quality of construction was consistent with the suburb's design and historic evolution. In such cases a justification of exceptional significance under Criteria consideration G is not necessary. (Photo by David Kammer, courtesy New Mexico Office of Cultural Affairs)

suburban development, 2) target neigh- Selecting Areas of Significance locally important center of govern- borhoods to be surveyed, and 3) identi- ment, hospital, or university. fy exceptional examples that may be Area of significance is that aspect of Industry applies when a suburb, by nominated before the majority of history in which a historic property design or circumstance, served the dwellings reach 50 years of age. To through design, use, physical character- need for housing for workers in a determine exceptional importance istics, or association influenced the his- particular industrial activity, such as within a local, metropolitan, or region- tory and identity of a local area, region, defense production during World al context, it is necessary to State, or the Nation. The following War II. consider a neighborhood's history in areas of significance are commonly relationship to the overall local trends applied to historic neighborhoods Transportation recognizes the of post-World War II suburbanization important under Criterion A or B for direct association of a neighborhood as well as national patterns. Compar- their association with important events or community with important isons with other neighborhoods of the and persons. advances in transportation and same period make it possible to identify • Government applies to those that incorporation of innovative trans- distinctive or representative examples reflect early or particularly impor- portation facilities, such as a rail- and to determine the extent to which tant responses to government road station or circulation system they possess historic integrity. financing, adherence to government that separates pedestrian and motor For further guidance, you may wish standards, or the institution of zon- traffic. to refer to the National Register bul- ing by local governments. letin, Guidelines for Evaluating and Social history recognizes the contri- Nominating Properties That Have • Education, medicine, or govern- butions of a historic neighborhood Achieved Significance Within the Last ment may be areas of significance to the improvement of living condi- Fifty Years. when a significant concentration of tions through the introduction of an residents was associated with a innovative type of housing or neighborhood planning principles, or the

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 97 Ringland Road

9lh Street "1 Legend: • Hisioric District Boundary Heartwell Paric Historic District

Contributing Resource Hastings, Adams County, Nebraska

' Noocomrihuiiiig Resource

98 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN extension of the American dream of landscape architecture—should be fully realized or the construction of suburban life or home ownership to recognized and the contributions of homes substantially completed. The an increasing broad spectrum of designers representing each profession date of the historic plat may be used as Americans. documented. Historic suburbs may be the beginning date only when site eligible under Criterion C for their improvements were begun shortly • Ethnic Heritage recognizes the sig- reflection of important design charac- afterwards. nificant association of a historic teristics or as the work of a master; National trends of suburbanization neighborhood with a particular those that made important contribu- as well as local economic factors, ethnic or racial group. tions to the theory of landscape design including the impact of major world- The following areas are commonly or community planning may also be wide events such as the Great applied to historic suburbs important significant under Criterion A. Depression and World War II, influ- for their design under Criterion C: enced the length of time in which historic suburbs formed and the extent to • Community planning and develop- Defining Period of Significance which earlier plans were carried out or ment applies to areas reflecting modified. Such factors should be con- important patterns of physical Period of significance is the span of sidered in defining an appropriate peri- development, land division, or time when a historic property was asso- od of significance. Where development land use. ciated with important events, activities, was interrupted resulting in lengthy persons, cultural groups, and land uses, • Landscape architecture applies periods when no construction or attained important physical qualities occurred (e.g., a decade or more), it when significant qualities are or characteristics. The period of signifi- embodied in the overall design or may be appropriate to define several cance defined for a historic district is periods of significance. plan of the suburb and the artistic used to classify contributing and non- design of landscape features such contributing resources. Where construction occurred over the course of many years, the period of as paths, roadways, parks, and Neighborhoods significant under significance may be extended to vegetation. Criterion A often have historic periods include more recent construction than spanning many years to correspond • Architecture is used when signifi- 50 years provided it is in keeping with with important historic associations cant qualities are embodied in the the suburb's historic design and evolu- and events in community life. The his- design, style, or method of construction and satisfies the National toric period for neighborhoods associ- tion of buildings and structures, Register's 50-year guideline (see discus- ated with an important person under such as houses, garages, carriage sion on page 96). To determine an Criterion B should be based on the houses, sheds, bridges, gate houses, appropriate closing date for the period years when the person resided in the and community facilities. of significance, several questions community or was actively involved in should be answered: What factors (e.g. Where subdivision design resulted community affairs. The period of sig- early plat, deed restrictions, availability from the collaboration of real estate nificance for neighborhoods qualifying of financing) defined the neighbor- developers, architects, and landscape under Criterion C generally corre- hood's social history and physical char- architects, significance in all three sponds to the actual years when the acter during its early development? areas—community planning and design was executed and construction How long did these factors continue to development, architecture, and took place; this will vary depending on influence the character or social history the type of suburb and the circum- of the district? Are the more recently stances under which it took form. For constructed dwellings of the district, by Period of Significance for the Heartwell example, suburbs built by merchant their location, size, scale, and style, Park Historic District in Hastings, Nebraska, builders after World War II are likely to begins in 1886, when the Heartweil Park consistent with the suburb's overall his- have shorter periods of significance Addition was platted by developer James B. toric plan and earlier housing? To what than those laid out earlier in the centu- Heartwell and the park laid out by landscape extent do the dwellings, by their archi- architect A. N. Carpenter. It extends to 1950 ry by subdividers who were in the busi- tectural style or landscape design, con- to encompass the final and largest phase of ness of selling empty lots in improved tribute to the historic character of the house construction facing the park in the subdivisions. 1940s, when due to local defense industries, district? To what extent do they reflect the local population increased from 15,145 in Period plans and maps are useful for later patterns of suburban development 1940 to 20,211 by 1950 and FHA-insured gaining an understanding of how a or community history and to what loans provided incentives for home building. neighborhood evolved and for deter- extent are these patterns important? If Due to the long period of development the mining the corresponding period of they occurred within the last 50 years, district includes 47 contributing houses in a significance. Generally the period of wide range of styles and a number of land- do they reflect trends or events of scape features, including the lake and island, significance for a historic suburb exceptional importance? curvilinear drives, and several noncontributing important under Criterion C begins bridges. (Photo and map by Mead & Hunt, with the date when the streets, house Inc., courtesy Nebraska State Historical lots, and utilities were laid out and Society) extends to the date when the plan was

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 99 Historic (c. 1908) and present day views of Determining Level of characteristics of community design, the Putnam House in University Heights landscape architecture, or architecture Subdivision Number One, University City, Significance within the context of design statewide; or Missouri. A comparison of the two photographs points out many small-scale alterations Properties related to the same historic 3) represent the work of one or more to the house and a dramatic change in the context are compared to identify those master planners, landscape architects, or home's hillside setting due to the growth of eligible for listing in the National Register architects, whose work in subdivision trees and shrubs since construction. Because and to determine the level—local, State, design or suburban housing gained pro- the cumulative effect of the changes is minor, or national—at which the property is sig- fessional recognition in that particular the Putnam House retains its early twentieth- nificant. Many residential districts will be State. century origins and overall exhibits a high level National level of importance is attrib- of historic integrity. (Historic photo courtesy eligible at the local level for their illustra- University City Library Archives; present day tion of important aspects of community uted to suburbs whose plan, landscape photo by Charles Scott Payne, courtesy growth and development and their reflec- design, or architectural character intro- Missouri Department of Natural Resources). tion of the broad trends that shaped sub- duced important innovations that strong- urbanization in the United States. ly influenced the design of residential State level of importance is generally suburbs nationwide; it also applies to attributed to those that i) established a examples possessing outstanding artistic precedent or influenced subsequent distinction or representing pivotal exam- development within a metropolitan area ples of the work of master designers who or larger region within one or several received national or international acclaim adjoining states; 2) possess outstanding for their contributions to the design of residential suburbs.

100 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN integrity should be based on i) a knowl- district and its ability to convey the HISTORIC INTEGRITY edge of changes that occurred during significance for which it meets the Assessing historic integrity requires the period of significance, and 2) a National Register criteria. Weighing professional judgement about whether comparison of the neighborhood's cur- overall integrity requires a knowledge a historic subdivision or neighborhood rent condition with its condition at the of both the physical evolution of the retains the spatial organization, physi- end of the significant period. overall district and the condition of its cal components, aspects of design, and The period of significance becomes component elements, including the historic associations that it acquired the benchmark for identifying which design and materials of houses, the during its period of significance. resources contribute to significant character of streets, and spatial quali- When assessing integrity, consider both aspects of the neighborhood's history ties of community parks and facilities. the original design laid out in the gen- and determining whether subsequent Those making evaluations should take eral plan and the evolution of the plan changes contribute to or detract from into consideration the extent to which throughout its history. Keep in mind its historic integrity. Alterations intro- landscape characteristics remain intact that changes may have occurred as the duced after the period of significance or have been altered. They should also plan was implemented and that these generally detract from integrity. Their be prepared to assess the cumulative changes may also be significant. In impact on the district's overall integrity, effect that multiple changes and alter- instances where the period determined however, depends on their scale, num- ations may have on a neighborhood's to be "historic" bears little or no rela- ber, and conformity with the historic historic integrity. tionship to the original design or con- design. struction, assessments of historic The final decision about integrity is based on the condition of the overall

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS IOI Developed by African American developers and philanthropists, Walter and Frances Applying Qualities of Integrity enhance historic integrity, it is important Edwards, and approved for FHA-backed loans, to recognize that as trees, shrubs, and the Edwards Historic District (1937-1946), Historic integrity is the composite of other vegetation mature, they may Oklahoma City, illustrates the use of FHA-rec- seven qualities: location, design, set- sometimes erase intended vistas. ommended house designs to create a unified ting, materials, workmanship, feeling, The amount of infill and other village setting in a neighborhood of small and association. Historic integrity houses. Today most houses reflect several changes that a historic neighborhood decades of alterations, the most common requires that the various features that can withstand before losing integrity being the application of nonhistoric siding. made up the neighborhood in the his- will depend on its size and scale, the Houses having metal, vinyl, or asbestos siding toric period be present today in the presence of significant features, and the (right) that mimics the original clapboard sid- same configuration and similar suburban context in which it devel- ing are considered contributing as long as condition. These qualities are applied oped. The division of suburban lots other alterations are minor and the house's to dwellings, as well as roadways, open defining historic features are present. Those beyond that specified in historic plans sheathed with thin brick or sheets of concrete- spaces, garages, and other aspects of and deed restrictions threatens a his- based "stone" veneer (left), however, are con- the historic design. toric neighborhood's integrity of design sidered noncontributing because they have The presence of certain characteris- and should be viewed as a compatible lost their historic character and substantially tics may be more important than others. pattern of development only if the sub- detract from the overall character of the Where the general plan of development division occurred as a result of histori- neighborhood. (Photo by John R. Calhoun, courtesy Oklahoma Historical Society) has importance, integrity should be cally important events during the present in the original boundaries, cir- period of significance. culation pattern of streets and walkways, and the division of housing lots. Where Seven Qualities of Integrity architectural design is of greatest significance, integrity will depend heavily on The seven qualities of integrity called the design, materials, and workmanship for in the National Register criteria can of individual houses. Elements such as be applied to historic neighborhoods in roadways, the arrangement of house special ways. lots, walls, plantings, walkways, park Location is the place where signifi- land, ponds, statuary, and fountains may cant activities that shaped the neigh- likewise contribute strongly to impor- borhood took place. This quality tance in landscape architecture. requires that to a large extent the Although historic plantings generally boundaries that historically defined the

102 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN suburb remain intact and correspond forth in the historic plat, project speci- designed to provide a semi-rural envi- to those of the historic district being fications, building contracts or deed ronment within commuting distance of nominated. It also requires that the restrictions, or it may be the result of the city, joining nature and urban location of streets and the size and the personal tastes and individual amenities. A semi-rural character was shape of the house lots have remained efforts of homeowners to shape their often created through the design of an constant. domestic environment. open, parklike setting of landscaped The location of historic suburbs was Integrity of design can be affected by streets, private yards, and sometimes often determined by proximity to changes to the size of housing lots by public parks. Subdivisions were often transportation corridors (streetcar recent subdivision or consolidation and lines, commuter railroads, parkways, or alterations to individual dwellings in highways) and accessibility to places of the form of additions, siding, window American foursquare homes built in 1910 employment. While the presence of replacements, and other changes. by a subdivider hoping to stimulate sales on historic transportation systems may add Small-scale additions, such as the the Woodland Place Plat in Des Moines. When to a district's historic significance their construction of modest porches or evaluating the extent to which alterations affect the historic integrity of an individual loss or relocation does not detract in a garages, may not detract in a major way house within a district, it is important to con- major way from the integrity of the from the historic character of individ- sider the nature of the change, its size and district. ual homes and the neighborhood. scale, and its impact on the character and Design is the composition of ele- Large-scale additions, however, that continuity of the streetscape of which it is a ments comprising the form, plan, and double the elevation, add substantially part. Although the porch on the house at the spatial organization of a historic neigh- to the mass of a historic house, or alter right has been enclosed, the house retains the distinguishing characteristics of its type, style, borhood. This includes the arrange- the spatial relationship between house and method of construction; its distinctive ment of streets, division of blocks into and street generally threaten integrity gables, massing, and upper-story fenestration house lots, arrangement of yards, and of design. continue to echo the overall form, materials, construction of houses and other Setting is the physical environment and setback of neighboring homes. (Photo by buildings. Design may have resulted within and surrounding a historic sub- James E. Jacobsen, courtesy State Historical Society of Iowa) from conscious planning decisions set urb. Many historic neighborhoods were

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 103 surrounded by buffers of trees or plantings, gateposts, fences, swimming nominated separately, or, if located bordered by undeveloped stream pools, playground equipment, and within or on adjoining parcels, may be valleys to reinforce the separation of parking lots detract from the integrity included within the boundaries of a city and suburb. of setting unless they date to the period historic residential suburb. Integrity of setting requires that a of significance. Materials include the construction strong sense of historical setting be The setting outside many historic materials of dwellings, garages, road- maintained within the boundaries of neighborhoods will have changed subways, walkways, fences, curbing, and the nominated property. This relies to a stantially since the period of signifi- other structures, as well as vegetation large extent on the retention of built cance. Evidence of early streetcar or planted as lawns, shrubs, trees, and resources, street plantings, parks and railroad systems in large part has disap- gardens. The presence of particular open space. Elements of design greatly peared, and arterial corridors have building materials (e.g., stone, stucco, affect integrity of setting, and those been widened and adapted to serve brick, or horizontal siding) may be consistent with the neighborhood's modern automobile traffic. Historic important indicators of architectural historic character or dating from the train stations, stores, churches, schools style and methods of construction that period of significance add to integrity. and community buildings, however, give some neighborhoods a cohesive Small-scale elements such as individual may still be present, and may be historic character.

104 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Four-unit block of row houses (far left) and a double house built in the 1880s in the Barnum-Palliser District, Bridgeport, Connect- icut, an important collection of mid-to-late nineteenth-century homes, many attributed to architects George and Charles Palliser. The houses depicted contribute to the district's significance because, despite asbestos siding placed on the houses during the mid-twentieth-century period, they still exhibit the distinctive architectural features—including bays, vergeboards, porches, dormers, capped chimneys, and gables—that characterized their original designs in the Eastlake and Stick styles. In fact, some of the siding is actually in keeping with the variety and fanciful treatment of the original siding. (Photos by Charles Brilvitch, courtesy Connecticut Historical Commission)

craftsmanship of their builders and that the vegetation historically planted for decorative and aesthetic purposes be maintained in an appropriate fashion and replaced in kind when dam- aged or destroyed. Feeling, although intangible, is evoked by the presence of physical characteristics that convey the sense of past time and place. Integrity of feeling results from the cumulative effect of setting, design, materials, and workmanship. A streetcar suburb retaining its original street pattern, lot sizes, and variety of housing types and materials will reflect patterns of suburban life reminiscent of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Association is the direct link between a historic suburb and the important events that shaped it. Continued residential use and community traditions, as well as the renewal of Integrity of materials in an architec- integrity of setting although integrity of design covenants and deed restrictions, turally significant neighborhood materials may be lost. help maintain a neighborhood's requires that the majority of dwellings Workmanship is evident in the ways integrity of association. Additions and retains the key exterior materials that materials have been fashioned for func- alterations that introduce new land marked their identity during the his- tional and decorative purposes to create uses and erase the historic principles of toric period. The retention of original houses, other buildings and structures, design threaten integrity. materials in individual dwellings may and a landscaped setting. This includes Integrity of association requires that be less important in assessing the the treatment of materials in house a historic neighborhood convey the integrity of a neighborhood significant design, the planting and maintenance of period when it achieved importance for its plan or landscape design. vegetation, as well as the construction and that, despite changing patterns of Original plant materials may enhance methods of small-scale features such as ownership, it continues to reflect the the integrity, but their loss does not curbs and walls. design principles and historic associa- necessarily destroy it. Vegetation simi- Integrity of workmanship requires tions that shaped it during the historic lar in historic species, scale, type and that architectural features in the land- period. visual effect will generally convey scape, such as portals, pavement, curbs, and walls, exhibit the artistry or

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 105 Classifying Contributing and modest additions that have little effect • The extent to which the new material Noncontributing Resources on the historic design of the original visually approximates the house's dwelling are classified as contributing. original material, design, and work- Buildings, structures, objects, and sites Those with additions that alter the origi- manship. Siding made of horizontal within a historic residential suburb are nal building's massing and scale, intro- aluminum or vinyl boards would classified as "contributing" if they were duce major noncompatible design ele- have less effect on the visual integri- present during the period of signifi- ments, and interrupt the spatial organi- ty of a house originally sheathed in cance and possess historic integrity for zation of the streetscape and neighbor- clapboards or novelty siding than that period. Those resources built or hood, however, are classified as one built of brick or stone. noncontributing. substantially altered after the period of • The degree to which other distinc- When evaluating the extent to which significance are classified as tive features or architectural styling the addition changes the dwelling's "noncontributing" unless they have are obscured or lost by the applica- individual character and the character individual significance that qualifies tion of the siding. The negative effect of the streetscape of which it is a part, it them for National Register listing. of siding is minimized if features such is important to consider the size, scale, When a district's period of signifi- as window surrounds, purlins, wood and design of the addition as well as its cance extends to a date within the past detailing, barge boards, and brackets placement on the house lot. Informa- 50 years (see discussion of Criterion remain undamaged and visible. Consideration G on page 96), resources tion such as original setback require- less-than-50-years of age are classified ments, historic design guidelines, and • The extent to which new siding is as contributing if they were construct- deed restrictions may also be useful in accompanied by other alterations or ed or achieved significance within the assessing the effect of additions on his- additions that substantially or defined period of significance, and by toric integrity. Whereas the construc- cumulatively affect the building's function, historic associations, and tion of dormers on a Cape Cod house historic character. design, reflect important aspects of the is unlikely to affect the dwelling's In general, houses may be classified as neighborhood's history and physical integrity in a serious way, the addition contributing resources where new sid- evolution. For example, a Colonial of a full, second story by "popping up" ing: 1) visually imitates the historic Revival home built in 1954 w°uld con- the roof substantially alters the character of both house and streetscape. material; 2) has been thoughtfully tribute to a historic residential suburb applied without destroying and obscur- whose period of significance extends Replacement siding poses a serious threat to the historic character of resi- ing significant details; and 3) is not from 1926, the date of platting, to 1958 accompanied by other alterations that when the last house following the origi- dential neighborhoods. Not only have wooden clapboards and shingled sur- substantially or cumulatively affect the nal plan was constructed, providing the building's historic character. house was built on one of the original faces given way to a wide array of com- Replacement siding is not a new lots and was in keeping with the his- mercially available siding in aluminum phenomenon, and when evaluating the toric design character set by early deed and vinyl, but the asbestos-based materials of many World War II era and integrity of a historic neighborhood, restrictions. Conversely in the same one must consider the date when mate- neighborhood, a 1960s Ranch house on postwar subdivisions, now considered unsightly and unhealthy, are being cov- rials such as form stone, imitative brick an original lot and a 1990s house imitat- sheathing, asbestos shingles, and other ing the Colonial Revival style on a ered. Whether new siding is the result of maintenance, health, aesthetic or materials were added. Where these newly subdivided lot would both be materials were installed during the classified as noncontributing because energy saving concerns, it can have a substantial, cumulative impact on the period of significance, either by origi- their location and design departed nal home owners or later ones, they from the neighborhood's historic plan character of historic neighborhoods, especially those with architectural may reflect important aspects of the and their construction occurred out- neighborhood's evolution. side the period of historic significance. distinction. However, classifying all homes with In sum, determining a reasonable threshold for evaluating the integrity of Nonhistoric Alterations and Additions nonhistoric siding as noncontributing is often too strict a measure. A wise component resources begins with con- Alterations and additions since the approach is to consider the effect siding sidering the reasons why the district period of significance affect whether an has on the character of the individual meets the National Register criteria, individual dwelling contributes to a dwelling, and the character of the and extends to examining the resource district's significance. Designed to be neighborhood as a whole. When deter- not only for its individual characteris- small but expandable, the houses built mining whether a house with nonhis- tics, but also for its contribution to the from the early 1930s through the 1950s toric siding contributes, consider the historic character of the overall have typically been enlarged as home following: neighborhood. owners have added garages, porches, sun rooms, family rooms, and additional bedrooms. Houses with relatively

106 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Weighing Overall Integrity Historic Places Forms and Defining document the sequential stages of Boundaries for National Register development, indicating the bound- The final decision about integrity is Properties. Dwellings by noted archi- aries of each stage on a sketch map or based on the condition of the overall tects, distinctive examples of a type or period plan. Areas added within the district and its ability to convey signifi- method of house construction, or past 50 years should be excluded from cance. The integrity of historic charac- designed landscapes, such as a park or the district's boundaries unless they are teristics such as the overall spatial parkway, may be nominated separately shown to have exceptional importance. design, circulation network, and vege- if they possess significance for which Peripheral areas lacking integrity tation as well as the integrity of individ- they individually meet the National should also be excluded from the ual homes should be considered. Register criteria. boundaries, for example, in the case of Integrity depends to a substantial a recently zoned commercial corridor degree on the context of a metropolitan on the edge of a historic subdivision area's pattern of suburbanization and Defining the Historic Property where the relationship of individual the condition of comparable neighbor- dwellings to the original plan and to the Boundaries are typically defined by the hoods in the area. The loss or reloca- historic neighborhood have been lost. extent of a historic subdivision or tion of a few features usually does not However, "donut holes" are not result in the loss of integrity of an group of contiguous subdivisions, particularly where significance is based on acceptable. entire historic neighborhood; however, Natural areas such as ponds or the loss of entire streets or sections of design. Factors such as identity as a neighborhood community based on woodlands may be included in the the plan, cumulative alterations and boundaries when they have recreation- additions to large numbers of dwellings, historic events, traditions, and other associations may be more relevant and al or conservation value and were the subdivision of lots, and infill con- included in the historic plan. struction all threaten the integrity of the should be considered when defining the boundaries of neighborhoods Preexisting resources such as farm- historic plan and the neighborhood's steads may be included in the bound- overall historic character. important in social history or ethnic heritage. aries when they are integral to the The integrity of a historic residential design of the subdivision, were clearly subdivision relies in part on the cohe- designated for preservation in the sub- sion of the historic plan and aspects of Deciding What To Include division plan, or have individual impor- spatial organization, including street tance that is documented in the nomi- design, setbacks, and density. For this Boundaries should be clearly drawn on nation. reason, integrity cannot be measured the basis of physical characteristics, simply by the number of contributing historic ownership, and community and noncontributing resources. The identity as a neighborhood. In cases Selecting Appropriate Edges retention of historic qualities of spatial where a plan was only partially com- organization, such as massing, scale, pleted, the district boundaries should Lines drawn on historic plats, legal and setbacks, and the presence of his- correspond to only the area where the boundaries, rights-of-way, and changes toric plantings, circulation patterns, plan was realized. Areas annexed or in the nature of development or spatial boundary demarcations, and other added to a historic plan may be includ- organization are generally used to landscape features, should also be con- ed in the boundaries if such additions define the edges of a historic neighbor- sidered in evaluating the overall integri- are shown to be historically important hood. In general, the boundaries ty of a historic neighborhood. Historic aspects of the overall suburb's evolu- should be drawn along historic lot lines and contemporary views may be com- tion and therefore possess historical or boundary streets. An explanation of pared through old photographs, corre- significance. If sections of a historic the relationship between the historic spondence, news clippings, and pro- neighborhood have lost historic plan or subdivision and the proposed motional brochures to determine the integrity, it is necessary to determine National Register boundaries should be extent to which the general design, whether the sections lacking historic given in the boundary justification. character, and feeling of the historic integrity can be excluded from the neighborhood are intact and to meas- boundaries and whether the remaining ure the impact of alterations. unaltered area is substantial enough to convey significance. For residential suburbs that developed in several stages, perhaps as a sin- BOUNDARIES gle farm was sold and subdivided in The selection of boundaries for historic segments, boundaries are generally residential suburbs generally follows drawn to encompass the largest area the guidelines for historic districts that took form during the historic peri- found in National Register bulletins, od and that possesses historic impor- How to Complete National Register of tance. The nomination should

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 107 DOCUMENTATION AND REGISTRATION

MULTIPLE PROPERTY Name including the location of major transportation corridors; the provi- SUBMISSIONS Historic residential suburbs are historic sion for public utilities, such as districts and may be named in various power and water mains; the location Where the history of suburbanization ways relating to their history and signif- of civic centers, business districts, for a metropolitan area is studied for icance: historic name given in the origi- schools, and parks and parkways; the purpose of identifying a number of nal plat or plan, name used by the com- and local planning measures, such as historic suburban neighborhoods, the munity during the period of signifi- subdivision regulations and zoning National Register Multiple Property cance, or name based on geographical ordinances. Documentation Form (NPS-io-cjoob) location such as a town, village, or 2) Neighborhood's relationship to the may be used to document the context, street. The name can include the term area's natural topography and phys- property types, registration require- "historic district" or "historic residen- iography, including natural features ments, and study methodology. tial suburb." comprising and surrounding the dis- Individual registration forms are then trict, such as streams, canyons, used to document each eligible neigh- rivers, escarpments, mountains, borhood. Instructions for completing Classification floodplain, and geological features. the form are found in the National A historic subdivision is generally clas- Register bulletin, How to Complete the sified as a historic district because it is a 3) The subdivision plan and its compo- National Register Multiple Property collection of buildings, structures, and nent features, including the circula- Documentation Form, and videotape, other features. The land covered by the tion system, entrance features, The Multiple Property Approach. overall plan is generally counted as a arrangement of blocks and house single site, and all buildings and struc- lots, provision of sidewalks and tures substantial in size or scale therein pedestrian paths, landscape plant- INDIVIDUAL NOMINATIONS are counted separately as contributing ings, and community facilities such or noncontributing resources. The as parks, playgrounds, and recre- AND DETERMINATIONS count should include bridges, free- ational centers. Developer's role and standing garages, and outbuildings of relationship to architects, landscape OF ELIGIBILITY sufficient size and scale to warrant architects, and home builders involved in the neighborhood's being counted separately. Landscape design and development. Principles Nominations are made on the National features such as curbing, roadways, of landscape design characterized by Register Registration Form (NPS-io- paths, tree plantings, ponds, and storm the overall plan or by specialized 900) and processed according to the drains are generally considered integral areas within the plan. Improvements regulations set forth in 36 CFR Part 60. features of the overall site and are not provided by the developer, including The form is intended as a summary of counted separately, unless they are sub- water and septic systems, roads, and the information gathered during identi- stantial in size and scale or have special parks. Terms of deed restrictions fication and a synthesis of findings con- importance such as a central land- that provided a form of "private cerning significance, integrity, and scaped avenue or a designed park. boundaries. General instructions for control" over aspects such as the completing the form are found in the cost of construction, required set- National Register bulletin, Guidelines Description backs, architectural style, and future for Completing the National Register of alterations. The presence of street Historic Places Registration Form. The narrative description documents plantings, lampposts, curbs and gut- Guidelines for documenting nationally the physical evolution and current con- ters, entrance portals or signs, significant properties for NHL designa- dition of the historic neighborhood memorials, sculpture, landscape ele- tion by the Secretary of the Interior are being registered. The chart on pages ments, principal vegetation, and found in the National Register bulletin, 86-87 can be used as a checklist for important natural features. How to Prepare National Historic describing residential districts. In sum- 4) Principal house types, architectural Landmark Nominations. The following mary, the description documents: styles, and methods of construction, section provides supplementary 1) The historical relationship of the including predominant characteris- instructions for each part of the form. suburb or neighborhood to the tics, such as scale, proportions, growth and development of the local materials, color, decoration, work- community or metropolitan area, manship, and quality of design.

108 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Significant groupings of dwellings, as 6) Principles of landscape design and individual resources. Identify threats well as distinctive individual exam- historic landscape features evident to the integrity of the overall plan, ples. Architectural types, styles, and in yard design, such as open lawns, such as infill, consolidation and methods of construction evident in border gardens, specimen trees, redevelopment of lots, the clearing houses, garages, sheds, and commu- fences and walls, hedges, shrubbery, of previously built-upon lots (com- nity buildings. Housing may be clas- and foundation plantings. Identity of monly called "scraping"), widening sified by type based on housing landscape architects involved in the of interior roads, widening of cir- models, architectural style or period, design and development of the cumferential roads, loss of street or other descriptive means. Principal neighborhood, noting any landscape trees, construction of fences, and architects and home builders, and features that represent their work. traffic calming measures (e.g. traffic representative examples of their circles). Patterns of alterations that work should be identified. 7) Appearance of the district during markedly alter the historic appear- the period when it achieved histori- ance of the housing (e.g. siding; win- 5) Design and function of schools, cal significance and any subsequent dow replacements; the raising of churches, commercial centers, changes or modifications. This roofs to add stories, commonly and transportation facilities within includes alterations and additions called "pop ups"; and porch enclo- the boundaries of the historic to the plan or to the dwellings and sures). Any restoration or rehabilita- neighborhood. other buildings, noting the types of tion activities. changes and the degree to which alterations affect the integrity of 8) Factors considered in classifying contributing and noncontributing resources. Because historic neighborhoods typically embody the tastes, economic conditions, and lifestyles of several generations of American home owners, preservationists need to carefully consider the nature of the alterations, the period in which they occurred, and the effect they have on the ability of the neighborhood to reflect important historic associations or aspects of design.

The photographic documentation for the Wolflin Historic District in Amarillo, Texas, depicted representative house types such as the Tudor Revival Johnson-Batten-Marsh House of 1927 and panoramic views of the Wolflin Estates subdivision taken in 1931 after the developer laid out the streets and planted regularly spaced rows of Siberian elms according to the 1927 plan by Hare & Hare. (House photo by Bridget Metzger, courtesy Texas Historical Commission; historic photo courtesy Preservation Amarillo)

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 109 WOLFLIN HISTORIC DISTRICT AMARILLO, TEXAS S HISTORIC BRICK STREETS

WOLFLIN HISTORIC DISTRICT AMARILLO, TEXAS

• CONTRIBUTING D NONCONTRIBUTING BOUNDARY

The Wolflin Historic District consists of Wolflin Place (to the west) platted in 1923 and expanded 9) A list of contributing and noncon- in 1926 to follow the city's gridiron plan, and Wolflin Estates (to the east), platted with a radial plan tributing resources keyed to a sketch by landscape architects Hare & Hare in 1927. Separate sketch maps were prepared to indicate the location of the community's distinctive brick streets and contributing and noncontributing buildings. map for the entire district. This list Because the landscape design of Wolflin Estates dates to the historic period and is significant as a should provide the address, date of local example of the work of a master designer, it is included within the district's boundaries even construction, and condition for all though many of its buildings were built outside the period of significance. (Maps by Hardy-Heck- principal buildings, as well as streets, Moore, courtesy Texas Historical Commission) no NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN avenues, parks, playgrounds, and and examples relate to the national needed. As a general rule, a majority of recreational areas that are part of the context for suburbanization. resources must be at least 50 years of historic neighborhood. Because age, before the district as a whole can 3) Explain or discuss the importance of many residential districts will have a be considered to meet the 50-year the suburban neighborhood in each large number of component guideline. The nomination of a subur- area of significance by showing that resources, which often share com- ban neighborhood whose design was it is a unique, important or out- mon aspects of size, plan, and style, it begun and substantially completed standing representative when com- may be useful to develop a typology more than 50 years ago, although some pared to other neighborhoods of the of housing types that can be used in resources within the district were built same period or type or with similar listing contributing and noncon- within the last 50 years, does not historical associations. tributing resources and locating require a justification of exceptional examples on sketch maps. Many 4) Explain how housing types, architec- importance. computer programs are particularly tural style, landscape design, materi- helpful in formulating such a list. als and methods of construction reflect important trends in the Maps and Photographs design and technology of the Statement of Significance The general requirements for maps and American house and yard. Note photographs are given in the National The statement of significance explains sources of plans (e.g., factory-made Register bulletin, How to Complete the the ways in which the historic district houses, pattern books, mail order National Register Registration Form. relates to the theme of suburbanization plans, Small House Architect's Maps include a U.S.G.S. quadrant map locally and reflects the national trends Bureau, FHA-recommended identifying the location and coordi- presented in this bulletin and sets forth designs, or professional firm). nates of the historic district and a the reasons the district is significant 5) Establish the importance of the detailed sketch map indicating bound- within this context. The statement developer, principal home builders, aries and labeling resources as con- addresses the National Register crite- architects, and landscape architects tributing or noncontributing. In addi- ria, and if applicable, criteria consider- in the history of the local community tion, the sketch map should identify the ations. The greater the importance of or metropolitan region. names of streets and community facili- certain features—such as the overall ties, such as schools, community build- plan and circulation network—the For districts significant under Criterion ings, shopping centers, parks, and play- more detailed the explanation of their A, provide an explanation of how the grounds. The map should include street role should be. The reasons for select- events, or pattern of events, represent- addresses or be cross-referenced by ing the period of significance and the ed by the district made an important resource number or name to the list of areas of significance in which the dis- contribution to the history of the com- contributing or noncontributing trict meets the National Register crite- munity, State, or Nation. For districts resources in the Description (Section ria must be justified. significant under Criterion B, explain 7). The number and vantage point of Unless provided on a related multi- how the person with whom the proper- each photographic view should be indi- ple property form, a statement of his- ty is associated is important in the his- cated as well as the relationship of the toric context should identify one or tory of the community, State, or district to surrounding streets or near- more themes to which the property Nation. For districts significant under by transportation facilities. Criterion C, the statement of context relates through its historic uses, activi- Photographs should illustrate the may be developed in one or more of ties, associations, and physical charac- character of principal streetscapes, rep- the following ways: 1) as a type, period, teristics. The discussion of historic resentative dwelling types, and signifi- style, or method of construction; 2) as context should: cant aspects of landscape design. the work of a master; 3) possessing high Community facilities, such as schools 1) Explain the role of the property in artistic values; and 4) representing a and parks, and representative examples relationship to broad historic significant and distinguishable entity of noncontributing resources should be trends, drawing on specific facts whose components may lack individual depicted. about the district and its community. distinction. If possible, supplement the required 2) Briefly describe the history of the The documentation of neighbor- documentation with copies of historic community where the neighborhood hoods that achieved significance within plats, plans, and photographs. Period is located and explain the various the past 50 years requires a justification plans that show the extent to which stages in the community's suburban- of exceptional importance. An explana- housing and landscape design were ization, the factors leading to the tion of the dates when the subdivision completed at various intervals of time development of suburban neighbor- was laid out and the housing construct- are also useful for graphically depicting hoods, and the characteristics of ed should be given in the nomination to the neighborhood's physical evolution historic subdivisions locally or support the period of significance and and can supplement the narratives in regionally. Explain how local trends to indicate whether or not a justifica- Sections 7 and 8. tion of exceptional significance is

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS HI ENDNOTES

Please note: Many of the following 11. Jackson, 118-120. See also Samuel Bass 30. Weiss, 41-42; Keating, 70. See also references include sources for further Warner Jr., Streetcar Suburbs (Cambridge: William C. Page, et.al., Towards a Greater Des Harvard University Press, 1962); Paul H. Moines: Development and Early Suburbanization, reading. Mattingly, Suburban Landscapes (Baltimore: ca 1880-ca 1920, NRHP MPS, Iowa SHPO, October Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). 25, 1996; James E. Jacobsen, The Bungalow and 12. Jackson, 119. Square House: Des Moines Residential Growth and Development NRHP MPS, Iowa SHPO, 1. David R. Goldfield and Blaine A. Brownell, 13. Foster, 16. Urban America: A History, 2d. ed.(Boston: November 21, 2000. Houghton Mifflin, 1990), 289; Leo F. Schnore, 14. See Stilgoe, 239-51; Eric Johannesen, et.al. 31. Greg Hise, Magnetic Los Angeles "Metropolitan Growth and Decentralization," in Shaker Square and Shaker Village H.D. NRHP (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), The Urban Scene: Human Ecology and Nominations, Ohio SHPO, July 1, 1976, and May 25; Weiss, 45. Demography Leo F. Schnore, ed., (New York, 31, 1984, and Boundary Increases, December 9, 1983, and January 5, 2001. 32. Jackson, 177-78; Stilgoe, 258-59; Weiss, 4, 1965), 80, cited in Marc S. Foster, From Streetcar 45-46, 50, 57. See also William S. Worley, J.C. to Superhighway (Philadelphia: Temple 15. Foster, 49, 52. Nichols and the Shaping of Kansas City University Press, 1981), 47; Dennis R. Judd and 16. Tarr and Konvitz, 210; Mel Scott, (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1990); Todd Swanstrom, City Politics (New York: Harper American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley: Catharine F. Black, Roland Park NRHP Collins, 1994), 187. University of California Press, 1971), 186; Federal Nomination, Maryland SHPO, December 23, 2. This bulletin provides an overview of a Highway Administration, Highway Statistics: 1974. national context for suburban development in Summary to 1985, as quoted in Knox, 107. 33. See Weiss, 53-60. the United States and a methodology for devel- 17. Peter G. Rowe, Making a Middle oping contexts at the local, metropolitan, or 34. Ibid., 3-4. Landscape (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991), 4; State level. The complete national context can be Jackson, 181. 35. Hise, 143. found in the "Historic Residential Suburbs in the 36. Hise, 201-02; Jackson, 231-45. See also United States, 1830 to 1960, Multiple Property 18. Tarr and Konvitz, 211. Barbara Kelly, Expanding the American Dream Documentation Form." It is available electroni- 19. Edward Relph, Modern Urban Landscape (Albany: State University of New York Press, cally on the National Register Web site at (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 1993); Gregory C. Randall, America's Original Gl . Printed copies may be 77; Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 186-91; Town (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, requested through e:mail ([email protected]) or Christopher Tunnard and Boris Pushkarev, Man- 2000; Jerry Ditto, Marvin Wax, and Lanning by writing to National Register of Historic Places, Made America (New Haven: Yale University Press, Stern, Design for Living (San Francisco: Chronicle National Park Service, 1849 C. Street, NW, 1966), 160-62. Books, 1995); Ned Eichler, The Merchant Builders Washington D.C. 20240. 20. Tarr and Konvitz, 210. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982). 3. See the Public Housing in the United 21. Larry R. Ford, Cities and Buildings 37. Jackson, 196; Keating, 70-71; Weiss, 32-33; States, 1933-1949, MPS (draft) available from the (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, Frank A. Chase, "Building and Loan Advantages: National Register program. 1994), 233. The Why and the Wherefore," New York 4. Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias (New Tribune, September 2, 1923. 22. Bruce E. Seely, Building the American York: Basic Books, 1987), 155. Highway System (Philadelphia: Temple University 38. Scott, 284. 5. John R. Stilgoe, Borderland (New Haven Press, 1987), 67; Tunnard and Pushkarev, 162-67. 39. Ibid.; FHA, The FHA Story in Summary, and London: Yale University Press, 1985); 23. Tunnard and Pushkarev, 162-65. 1934-1959 (Washington, D.C: Government Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias. Printing Office, 1959), 2. 24. Rowe, 193; Tom Lewis, Divided Highways 6. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier (New York: Viking Penguin, 1997; reprinted New 40. Jackson, 195-97. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985)35-37; York: Penguin Books, 1999), 41-44. 37; David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape 41. FHA, FHA Story, 5, 13-17; Jackson, 203-09. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), 152; 25. Lewis, 54-55. 42. "Defense Housing in Brief Retrospect: The James E. Vance, Geography and the Urban 26. Mark H. Rose, Interstate, rev. ed. Aims and Achievements of Certain Housing Evolution in the San Francisco Bay (Berkeley: (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990), Agencies—A Symposium," Landscape Architec- Institute of Governmental Studies, University of 19, 26. ture 33, no. 1 (October 1942): 14-19; FHA, FHA California, 1964), 43. Story, 14-15. This bulletin is primarily concerned 27. Rose, 26; Rowe, 194. 7. Anne D. Keating, Building Chicago with legislative incentives that stimulated and 28. Rose, 92; Rowe, 195. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1988), 14; influenced private investment in suburban real Jackson, 92-93; Stilgoe, 140; Goldfield and 29. Warner, 122; Chase, Susan Mulchahey, estate and home construction. The 1937 United Brownell, 259. David L. Ames, and Rebecca Siders, States Housing Act (50 Stat. 888) established a Suburbanization in the Vicinity of Wilmington, federal program of urban public housing and 8. Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, "The Delaware (Newark, Del.: Center for Historic slum clearance under the United States Public Centrality of the Horse in the Nineteenth Architecture and Engineering, 1993), 90; Susan Housing Authority, and the 1940 Lanham Act (54 Century City," in The Making of Urban America, Mulchahey Chase, "The Process of Suburbaniza- Stat. 1125) established the Federal Works Agency 2nd ed., ed. Raymond A. Mohl (Wilmington, Del.: tion and the Use of Restrictive Deed Covenants and expanded federal public housing programs SR Books, 1997), 111; Jackson, 39-42. as Private Zoning" (unpublished Ph.d disertation, to include housing for defense workers. In 1942, 9. McShane and Tarr, 111; Fishman, 138. University of Delaware, 1995), 119; Marc A. the FHA and the public housing programs were 10. Paul L. Knox, Urbanization (Englewood Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builder (New consolidated in one agency. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1994), 89; Joel A. Tarr York: Columbia University Press, 1987), 40-42. 43. See William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful and Josef W. Konvitz, "Patterns in the Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Development of Urban Infrastructure," in Press, 1994). American Urbanism, ed. Howard Gillette Jr. and 44. Quotation is from Weiss, 49. Zane L. Miller (Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1987), 204.

ii2 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN 45. Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land 61. Jackson, 81-86; Raymond W. Smith, A. T. 74. Wendy Laird, El Encanto Estates (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard Stewart Era Buildings NRHP MRA Nomination, Residential H.D. NRHP Nomination, Arizona University, 1971), 468-69; Weiss, 69-70; See also New York SHPO, November 14, 1978. SHPO, January 29, 1988; Daniel Hardy, et al., Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream (New 62. Richard Longstreth, "Maximilian G. Wolflin H.D. NRHP Nomination, Texas SHPO, May York: Pantheon, 1981), 200-03; Chase, "Process of Kern," in Pioneers of American Landscape 21, 1992. Suburbanization." Design, ed. Charles Birnbaum and Robin Karson, 75. Thomas W. Hanchett, Myers Park H.D. 46. Weiss, 70-72. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000), 209-12; Garvin, NRHP Nomination, North Carolina SHPO, August 47. Committee report can be found in John 256-58; Stephen J. Raiche, Portland and 10, 1987. M. Gries and James Ford, eds. Planning for Westmoreland Places (a.k.a. Forest Park 76. Handlin, 185; Newton, 471-74. See Sally Residential Districts, vol. 1, President's Addition) NRHP Nomination, Missouri SHPO, Schwenk, Crestwood NRHP Nomination, Missouri Conference on Home Building and Home February 12, 1974. SHPO, October 8, 1998; Lauren Bricker, et. al., Ownership (Washington, D.C.: National Capital 63. Newton, 471-72. See also Worley, Residential Architecture of Pasadena, California, Press, 1932), 47-124. J. C. Nichols. 1895-1918: The Influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement NRHP MPS, California SHPO, August 48. The FHA's appraisal system not only 64. Archer, 150; Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 6, 1998; John C.Terell, Prospect H.D. NRHP encouraged the expansion of residential devel- 206-08. Nomination, California SHPO, April 7, 1983; Esley opment on the periphery of many metropolitan 65. Archer, 154. Archer also discusses the Hamilton and James M. Denny, Brentmoor Park, areas, but also is said to have contributed to the early suburbs of New Brighton on Staten Island Brentmoor and Forest Ridge NRHP Nomination, "redlining" of many urban neighborhoods by and Evergreen Hamlet near Pittsburgh. Missouri SHPO, September 23, 1982. the banking industry. For a discussion of the politics and effects of racial restrictions, see Jackson, 66. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 208-09; Archer, 77. See Walter L. Creese, Search for 197-203, 208-15; G. Wright, Building the Dream, 154-55. See also Susan Henderson, "Llewellyn Environment—The Garden City Before and After, 247-48. Park, suburban idyll," Journal of Garden History rev. ed.(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University 7, no. 3 (1987): 221-43; Robert P. Guter, et.al., Press, 1992). 49. Weiss, 67, 72-78, 183-84; Jackson, 241-42. Llewellyn Park NRHP Nomination, New Jersey 50. G. Wright, Building the Dream, 213. SHPO, February 28,1986. 78. See Stilgoe, 225-38; Newton, 474-78; Susan L. Klaus, A Modern Arcadia (Amherst: 51. Committee recommendations can be 67. Newton, 468. See also Archer, 155-56; University of Massachusetts Press with the Library found in Gries and Ford, eds. Planning, 29-38. Schuyler, New Urban Landscape, 162-66. of American Landscape History, 2001). 52. Michael Southworth and Eran Ben- 68. Olmsted, Vaux and Company, Preliminary 79. Ken Hart, Dean Wagner, et al., Guilford Joseph, Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Report upon the Proposed Suburban Village at H.D. NRHP Nomination, Maryland SHPO, July 19, Cities (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), 88; Weiss Riverside (1868), reprinted, "Riverside, Illinois: A 2001. 67, 75, 183-84 fn. 29. Residential Neighborhood Designed Over Sixty 80. Bruce E. and Cynthia D. Lynch, 53. Scott, 208-10, 289-93. The first of its type, Years Ago," ed. Theodora Kimball Hubbard, Landscape Architecture 21, no. 4 (July 1931), 268- Washington Highlands H.D. NRHP Nomination, the Los Angeles Regional Planning Commission Wisconsin SHPO, December 18, 1989. was founded in 1922; it influenced zoning regu- 69, cited in Newton, 466-67. lations in local municipalities and in 1927 adopt- 69. Garvin, 263. Early Olmsted projects includ- 81. G. Wright, Building the Dream, 203; Fred ed a county zoning ordinance. The New York ed Tarrytown Heights (1870-1872), New York; Mitchell and Marina King, Mariemont H.D. NRHP regional plan was developed between 1922 and Parkside (1872-1886) in Buffalo; Fisher Hill (1884) Nomination , Ohio SHPO, July 24, 1979. 1931 under the direction of the Russell Sage in Brookline, Mass.; Druid Hills (1889), in Atlanta; 82. Lewis Mumford, "Introduction," in Foundation with the expertise of preeminent Sudbury Park (1876-1892) near Baltimore. Later Toward New Towns for America, by Clarence S. Garden City planners. suburbs by the Olmsted Brothers further perfect- Stein, rev.ed, 3d ed. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 54. See John Archer, "Country and City in the ed the curvilinear suburb combining its naturalis- 1966), 12. See also Kermit C. Parsons, American Romantic Suburb," Journal of Society tic principles with features inspired by the gar- "Collaborative Genius" Journal of American of Architectural Historians 42, no. 2 (May 1983): den city movement, such as planted medians and Planning Association 60, no. 4 (Autumn, 1994): 139-56; Schuyler, New Urban Landscape, 149-66; cul-de-sacs, and building a reputation on large 462-82; Stein, 21-35; Henry Wright, Rehousing Mary Corbin Sies, "The City Transformed," projects such as Roland Park (1901) and Guilford Urban America (New York: Columbia University, Journal of Urban History 14, no. 1 (November (1912) in Baltimore; Alta Vista (1900) in 1935), 36-41; Peter G. Rowe, Modernity and 1987): 81-111. Louisville; St. Francis Woods (1915) in San Housing (Cambridge: MIT Press), 1993), 114-127. Francisco, and Palos Verdes (1926) near Los 83. Stein, 36-73; H. Wright, 42. See also 55. Archer, 150. See also Ann Leighton, Angeles. See also Arleyn A. Levee, "The Olmsted Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 200-01; American Gardens of the Nineteenth Century Brothers' Residential Communities," The Cynthia L. Girling and Kenneth I. Helphand, (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, Landscape Universe (Wave Hill, N.Y.: Catalog of Yard—Street—Park (New York: John Wiley & 1987), 164-72; David Schuyler, Apostle of Taste Landscape Records in the United States and Sons, 1994), 59-64. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). National Park Service, 1993), 29-48. 84. Stein, 74-85; H. Wright, 46-50; David J. 56.Archer discusses other influential books, 70. See Karen Madsen, "Henry Vincent including William Ranlett, The Architect (1847); Vater, Chatham Village H.D. NRHP Nomination, Hubbard," and Charles A. Birnbaum, "Samuel Pennsylvania SHPO, November 25, 1998. Henry Cleaveland, William Backus, and Samiuel Parsons Jr.," in Pioneers, ed. Birnbaum and Backus, Village and Farm Cottages (1856); Karson, 177-180, 187-91. 85. Clarence Arthur Perry, "The Gervase Wheeler, Homes for the People (1855); Neighborhood Unit," Monograph One, Regional Calvert Vaux, Villas and Cottages (1857); John 71. Henry V. Hubbard and Theodora Kimball, Survey of New York and Its Environs, vol.7, Claudius Loudon, The Suburban Gardener and Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design Neighborhood and Community Planning (New Villa Companion (1838); George E. Woodward, (New York: Macmillan, 1917), 175-94, plate York: New York Regional Plan Association, 1929), Woodward's Country Homes (1865); articles in XXXIII, op. 280; H. V. Hubbard, "The Influence of 22-140; Gries and Ford, eds., Planning, 80-82, The Horticulturalist by Downing, Howard Daniels Topography on the Layout of Subdivisions," 122-24; C. A. Perry, Housing for the Machine Age and others. Landscape Architecture 18, no. 3 (April 1928): (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1939), 50- 188-99. 57. Alexander Garvin, The American City 82. See also Hise, 33-35. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 253. 72. T. K. Hubbard, ed., "Riverside," 259-77; 86. Gries and Ford, eds.. Planning, 6-7, 21, 66, Howard K. Menhinick, "Riverside Sixty Years quotation is from 76. 58. J.John Palen, The Suburbs (New York: Later," Landscape Architecture 22, no. 2 (1932): McGraw-Hill, 1995), 51-55. 109-17; Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 205. 87. Ibid., 59. 59. Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 198. 73. Patricia Erigero, et al., Ladd's Addition 88. Ibid., 54-55. 60. Garvin, 254; Jackson 25-30; Clay Lancaster, Historic District NRHP Nomination, Oregon SHPO, 89. Ibid., 52-54, 59, 76. Brooklyn Heights (New York: Dover Publications, August 31, 1988. 1980).

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 113 90. Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 204- 103. David Handlin, The American Home 118. Gowans, 65-67; G. Wright, Building the 05; Barry Cullingworth, Planning in the USA (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 171-83; David Dream, 199-202; Robert T. Jones, introduction, (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 77. Schuyler, "Introduction," in Victorian Gardens: Small Homes of Architecural Distinction (1929; See also Girling and Helphand, 85-89; Deborah E. Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds by reprinted as Authentic Small Houses of the Abele, et.al., Historic Residential Subdivisions and Frank J. Scott (1870, reprint, Watkins Glen, New Twenties, New York: Dover Publications, Architecture in Central Phoenix, 1912-1950, York: American Life Foundation, 1982), n.p.; Ann 1987), 22. NRHP, Arizona SHPO, December 21, 1994; David Leighton, American Gardens of the Nineteenth 119. Henry Atterbury Smith, Kammer, Twentieth Century Suburban Growth of Century (Amherst: University of Massachusetts "Acknowledgement," in The Books of A Albuquerque NRHP MPS, New Mexico SHPO, Press, 1987), 250-60. Thousand Homes, vol. 1 (1923; reprinted as 500 August 3, 2001. 104. Clark, 74-75; Gowans, 42. Small Houses of the Twenties, New York: Dover 91. Seward H. Mott, "The Federal Housing 105. Clark, 76-77; Gowans, 42-46; Robert Publications, 1990), 5. Administration and Subdivision Planning," Gutman, The Design of American Housing (New 120. "Community Development Advantages Architectural Record 19 (April 1936), 257-63. York: Publishing Center for Cultural Resources, Demonstrated by Tribune," and "Would 92. FHA, Planning Neighborhoods for Small 1985), 34-36. See also James L. Garvin, "Mail- Landscaping Help Your Grounds," New York Houses, technical bulletin 5 (Washington, D.C.: Order Home Plans and American Victorian Tribune, September 9, 1923; Marjorie Sewell GPO, 1936), 8-9. Architecture," Winterthur Portfolio 16, no. 4 Cautley, "Planting at Radburn," Landscape 93. Seward H. Mott, "The FHA Small House (winter 1981): 309-34; Leland M. Roth, "Getting Architecture 21, no. 1 (October 1930), 23-29; Program," Landscape Architecture 33, no. 1 the House to the People," in Perspectives in Girling and Helphand, 65-66; Stephen Child, (October 1942): 16; and "Land Planning in the Vernacular Architecture /\/(1991), 188, and "Colonia Solana; A Subdivision on the Arizona FHA" 1933-44," Insured Mortgage Portfolio 8, Michael A. "The Palliser Brothers and Their Desert," Landscape Architecture 19, no. 1 no. 4(1944): 12-14. Publications." in The Palliser Late Victorian (October 1928), 6-13. In Pioneers, ed. Birnbaum (Watkins Glen, N.Y.: American Life Foundation, and Karson, see Mary Blaine Korff, "Stephen 94. Miles L. Colean, "An Early FHA 1978), i-iv. Child," 49-52; Cydney E. Millstein, "Sidney J. Hare Experiment—A Forgotten Chapter in Housing and S. Herbert Hare," 162-68; Nell Walker, 106. Gowans ascribes the term "homestead- History," Mortgage Banker 38, no. 8 (May "Marjorie Sewell Cautley," 47-49; and Behula temple house" to this housing type, 94-99. 1978):86-88; "A New Policy for Housing," Shah, "Ralph E. Griswold," 151-56. Architectural Forum (August 1936): 150-53. 107. Clark, 131-32, 121. Virginia Lopez Begg, "Mrs. Francis King 95. Rowe, Modernity and Housing, 127. See 108. Clark, 167-78; Palen, 38-39. (Louisa Yeomans King)," in Pioneers, ed. also James M. Goode, Best Addresses 109. See Clark, 171-91; Gowans, 74-83; Rowe, Birnbaum and Karson, 216-17. In Pioneers, see (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, Making a Middle Landscape, 68-69; Robert also biographies of Steele, Bottomley, Requa, 1988), 332-36; Staff, Virginia Landmarks Winter, The California Bungalow (Los Angeles: and Waugh. Commission, Colonial Village NRHP Nomination, Hennessey & Ingalls, 1980; Clay Lancaster, The Virginia SHPO, December 9, 1980. 122. Committee reports, including the results American Bungalow (New York: Abbeville Press, of a survey of small houses and a scorecard for 96. "Building Types—Low-Rent Suburban 1985). Palen used the term "bungalow suburb" home appraisal, can be found in John M. Gries Apartment Buildings," Architectural Record 86, in Suburbs, 51. and James Ford, eds., House Design, Construction no. 3 (September 1939): 88-114. 110. Gowans, 84; Rowe, Making a Middle and Equipment. Proceedings of the President's 97. Southworth and Ben-Joseph, 88; Rowe, Landscape, 73. Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership (Washington, D.C: National Capital Making a Middle Landscape, 202, , 205-06. See 111. Gowans, 48-63; Katherine Cole Press, Inc., 1932), 1-110. also Girling and Helphand, 90-94, 94-102; Kelly, Stevenson and H. Ward Jandl, Houses by Mail 35-37. (New York: National Trust for Historic 123. Committee report can be found in Gries 98. Weiss, 45. Preservation and John Wiley and Sons, 1986), 19. and Ford, eds., Planning, 163-209. 99. Jackson, MS-MI. See Paul E. Sprague, 112. Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 84- 124. FHA, Planning Small Houses (1936), "The Origin of Balloon Framing," Journal of 87; FHA, Principles of Planning Small Houses, 21-23. Society of Architectural Historians 40, no. 4 technical bulletin 4, rev. ed. (Washington, D.C.: 125. Hise, 68-69; FHA, Planning Small Houses (December 1981): 311-19. GPO, 1940), 28-29. (1936-1939 eds.), 24-27. 100. Schuyler, Apostle of Taste, 57-60, 128-29. 113. Gowans 71; Jan Jennings, "Housing the 126. Ibid., 28-33. 101. For further discussion and lists of pat- Automobile," in Roadside America, ed. Jan Jennings (Ames: Iowa State University Press and 127. FHA, Planning Small Houses (rev. ed., tern books, see Clifford E. Clark Jr., The American 1940), 14-15. Family Home (Chapel Hill: University of North Society for Commercial Archeology, 1990), 95- Carolina Press, 1986); Alan Gowans, The 106. 128. Ibid., 37-43. Comfortable House (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986); 114. Virginia T. Clayton, The Once and Future 129. Rental Housing Division, "Architectural Dell Upton, "Pattern Books and Professionalism: Gardener (Boston: David R. Godine, 2000), xxiii- Bulletins" (Washington, D.C.-.FHA, 1940). See also Aspects of the Transformation of Domestic xxxi. H. Wright, Rehousing Urban America, 29-50, 99- Architecture in America, 1800-1860," Winterthur 115. Woodburn, 246-48; Robert E. Grese, 102,119-28; Perry, Housing for Machine Age, 44- Portfolio 19, no. 1 (spring 1984): 107-150; "Liberty Hyde Bailey" in Pioneers, ed. Birnbaum 48. Marie Ryan, Buckingham Historic District Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model and Karson, 6-8. NRHP Nomination, Virginia SHPO, January 21, Home (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. 116. Woodburn, 248, 259. 1980). 130. Early in the twentieth century, Architect 102. Elisabeth Woodburn, "American 117. G. Wright, Building the Dream, 197-98; Grosvenor Atterbury used prefabrication meth- Horticultural Books," in Keeping Eden, ed. Janet Hutchison, "The Cure for Domestic ods in the construction of houses for Forest Hills, Walter T. Punch (Boston: Massachusetts Neglect," in Perspectives in Vernacular Long Island, and Frank Lloyd Wright introduced Horticultural Society and Bulfinch Press, 1992), Architecture II, ed. Camille Wells (Columbia: a process called, American System Ready-Cut, in 252. Other early books include: Country Life: A University of Missouri, 1989), 168-78; Joseph B. the construction of several duplexes and small Handbook of Agriculture, Horticulture and Mason, History of Housing in the U.S., 1930-1980 houses in Milwaukee. See Alfred Bruce and Landscape Gardening (1859) by Robert Morris (Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1982), 16. See also Harold Sandbank, A History of Prefabrication Copeland; The Practical Gardener (1855) by G.M. Janet Anne Hutchison, "American Housing, (New York: John B. Pierce Foundation, 1943; Kern; Architecture, Landscape Gardening and Gender, and the Better Homes Movement, 1922- reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1972); and John Rural Art (1867) by George E. and F.W. 1935," Ph.D. dissertation (University of Delaware, Burns, "Technology and Housing," in Preserving Woodward; and Beautifying Country Homes: A 1989). the Recent Past, ed. Slaton and Sniffer, 11/129-35. Handbook of Landscape Gardening (1870) by 131. Hise, 56-57; Bruce and Sandbank, 10-11. Jacob Weidenmann. 132. Hise, 58, 62-63; Bruce and Sandbank, 11-12.

114 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN 133. Ibid., 11, 13-14,74. 157. Architectural Record, eds., Apartments 134. FHA, Recent Developments in Building and Dormitories (New York: F.W. Dodge, 1958), 9. Construction (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1940), Lake Shore Drive Apartments and 100 Memorial 9, 12. Drive were recognized in the AlA's Cenntennial list of the fifty most influential buildings in 135. Bruce and Sandbank, 71-74; for a America. Directory of Wartime Prefabricators, see 61-68. See also H. Ward Jandl, et al. Yesterday's Houses 158. Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, of Tomorrow (Washington D.C.: Preservation 93-94; Hines, 168; Marc Treib, "Thomas Church, Press, 1991), 183-99. Garrett Eckbo, and the Postwar California Garden," in Preserving the Recent Past 2, ed. 136. Gutman, 12. See also Gilbert Herbert, Slaton and Foulks, 2-149. See also Marc Treib and The Dream of the Factory-Made House Dorothee Imbert, Garrett Eckbo (Berkeley: (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984). University of California Press, 1997). 137. Mason, 56-57; Better Homes and 159. David Streatfield, "Western Expansion," Gardens 33, no. 3 (March 1955), 192. in Keeping Eden, ed. Punch, 110-12. 138. Jackson, 233. 160. See Callender, 67-76; Marc A. Klopfer, 139. Ibid, 235. "Theme and Variation at Hollin Hills," and Daniel Donovan, "The Hundred Gardens," in Dan Kiley, 140. Clark, 221-23; Jackson, 234-35; G. ed. William Saunders (Princeton: Princeton Wright, Building the Dream, 251-53. Architectural Press, 1999), 37-64. 141. See also Clark, 217-36; G. Wright, 161. Claudia R. Brown, "Surveying the Building the Dream, 256-58, and, for profiles on Suburbs," in Preserving the Recent Past, ed. postwar developers, Mason, 48-51. Slaton and Shiffer, 11/105-12. 142. Kelly, 16, 18, 59-65; Rowe, Modernity and Housing, 196-97; Jackson, 235; Girling and Helphand, 94-102. 143. David Gebhard, "Royal Barry Wills and the American Colonial Revival," Winterthur Portfolio 27, no. 1 (spring 1992): 45. 144. Clark, 211; Rowe, Making a Middle Landscape, 73-77. 145. See Clark, 193-216; David Bricker, "Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same," in Preserving the Recent Past 2, ed. Slaton and Foulks, 2/115-23; and "Cliff May," in Toward a Simpler Life, ed. Robert Winter (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1997), 283-90; Esther McCoy and Evelyn Hitchcock, "The Ranch House," in Home Sweet Home, ed. Charles W. Moore (New York: Rizzoli, 1983), 84-89. 146. Clark, 201. 147. Kelly, 80-84. 148. Rowe, 82-84. 149. Jandl, 101, 128-39. 150. Elizabeth AT. Smith, ed., Blueprints for Modern Living (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989), 75-76; See also Esther McCoy, Case Study Houses, 1945-1962 (Reprint of Modern California Houses, Santa Monica: Hennessey and Ingalls, 1977), 188-93. 151. For architects working in this style, see Mason, 73-77. 152. Mason, 53; Diane Wray, Arapahoe Acres (Englewood, Col.: Wraycroft, 1997), 4-5, and Arapahoe Acres NRHP Nomination, Colorado SHPO, November 3, 1998. 153. John Hancock Callender, Before You Buy a House (New York: Crown Books, 1953), 31-32, 88-89, 117-19. 154. Hollin Hills (Alexandria, Vir.: Civic Association of Hollin Hills, 2000), 181. 155. Clark, 215; G.Wright, Building the Dream, 251; Helen Stark, "How to Stretch Space in a Small House," Homes and Gardens, 33, no. 3 (March 1955), 56-59+; Thomas Hine, "The Search for the Postwar House," in Blueprints, ed. Smith, 178-81. 156. Mason, 78; Rowe, Modernity and Housing, 126-27; Stein, 86-91, 188-216.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 115

RESOURCES

An 1866 steriopticon view of the McGrew House (1862) in Glendaie, Ohio, shows the influence that the writings of Catharine E. Beecher and Andrew Jackson Downing had on mid- nineteenth-century domestic design and the rise of a "picturesque" aesthetic for suburban villages that encompassed romantic revival styling, decorative vergeboards, capped chimneys, elaborately worked porch details, wooden fences, cupola-topped carriage houses, and neatly planted yards with an abundance of specimen trees and shrubbery. (Photograph by Glessner, courtesy Glendaie Heritage Preservation) writings on topics such as vernacular aids and guides to the collection are available. REFERENCE SERVICES AND housing, landscape design, and planning. A reference volume listing Olmsted projects, Organization regularly publishes a newsletter The Master List of Design Projects of the SPECIALIZED REPOSITORIES that contains current bibliography. Olmsted Firm, 1857-1950 (1987), has been pub- The Catalog of Landscape Records in Proceedings of annual meetings are published by the National Association for the United States A national catalog designed to assist Tennessee Press, Knoxville, and University of Archives of American Gardens, researchers find records and repositories Missouri Press, Columbia. Horticultural Services Division, documenting the work of landscape archi- Library of Congress Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. tects and landscape architectural firms in the maintains an extensive library collection, includes the Garden Club of newsletter featuring special collections, tographs, maps, and microfiche versions of America Collection, containing more than advances in records management such as collections in other repositories. A catalog of 40,000 images documenting private and pub- planning digital collections, and researcher bibliographical references and a number of lic gardens across the United States, and the J. queries. research tools are available online. The Horace McFarland Collection, containing WAVE HILL Manuscripts Division contains the Frederick glass lantern slides and black and white pho- 675 West 252nd Street Law Olmsted Papers and records of the tographs, many from McFarland's business as Bronx, New York 104471-2899 American Civic Association. Prints and a printer of seed and nursery catalogs. Email: [email protected] Photographs Collection maintains many orig- Smithsonian's Horticultural Branch Library US COPAR/Cooperative Preservation inal materials and offers an online catalog of maintains an extensive collection of books, of Architectural Records. A national net- many of its holdings; its holdings include the trade catalogs, and periodicals related to hor- work of State or regional committees com- maps of the Sanborn Fire Insurance ticulture and landscape design. mitted to the preservation of architectural Company, which are currently being digitized Division of Rare Books and records. A national newsletter for COPAR (along with those maintained by the Bureau Manuscripts Collection, Cornell was published from 1980-1985 and 1996-1997. of Census) and are being made available to University, Ithaca, New York Regional guides to architects and architectur- libraries on CD by a private vendor. A com- . al firms have been published for New York plete set of Garden and Forest is available A special collection of manuscripts, drawings, City, Chicago, Boston, and Philadelphia. A online . blueprints, and other records pertaining to nationwide list of state and regional commit- Oral History Association maintains planning, includes records of masters of mittee and is available electronically an up-to-date bibliography and "Oral History design such as John Nolen and Clarence . National inquiries should Association, Pamphlet Number 3, adopted Association responsible for the New York be addressed to: 1989, revised Sept. 2000). Association pub- Regional Plan of the 1920s. C. Ford Peatross lishes Oral History Review twice a year. National Agricultural Research Curator of Architecture, Design, and Library of the U. S. Department of Library, Beltsville, Maryland Engineering Collections Housing and Urban Development, . Extensive library of Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C.. Extensive books on agriculture, horticulture, and land- Library of Congress collection of literature on the history of sub- scape architecture, and circulars and bulletins Washington, DC 20540-4840 urbanization and housing in the United States, produced nationwide by agricultural exten- Email: [email protected] including the multi-volume Proceedings of sion services and agricultural research sta- U.S. Geological Survey makes available U.S.G.S topo- and Home Ownership (1932) and technical roadside plantings, and village improvements. graphic maps. As part of the Global Land bulletins, circulars, and manuals published by Online catalog, Agricola, is available Information System (GLIS), it also makes the Federal Housing Administration in the . orthophoto quadrangles or DEQ's, used to Olmsted Archives/Frederick Law revise digital line graphs and topographic Environmental Design Archives, maps . Olmsted National Historical Site, 99 University of California, Berkeley Warren Street, Brookline, Massachusetts . VAF/Vernacular Architecture Forum 02445 . Collection Collections document the work of many main- includes general plans and drawings for the prominent West Coast architects and land- tains a link to a bibliography of published firm's many subdivisions. Selected finding scape architects, including Julia Morgan,

118 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Charles Sumner Greene, Garrett Eckbo, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, inventories (P.I.) are available on-line and in Thomas D. Church, and William Wurster. An Washington, D.C. . published form for most record groups. index describing each collection and provid- Contains an extensive collection of books and Records of the Federal Housing ing biographical and bibliographical informa- periodicals on landscape architecture and Administration (FHA), dating from 1934, are tion is available . horticulture. found in R.G. 31 (P.I. in, 1965, and P.I. 45,1952) Department of Special Collections, Library of the Arnold Arboretum, and includes selected applications for FHA- Library of the University of California, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts . vard.edu/>. In conjunction with the Institute records pertaining to selected examples of Principal repository for the records of archi- for Cultural Landscape Studies, the library FHA-insured, large-scale rental housing tect A. Quincy Jones, including several thou- maintains an expanding collection of works complexes, and real estate survey records and sand sets of plans and presentation boards. A in landscape conservation, design, history, rating maps. Records include a representative catalog is currently being compiled. management, and preservation, particularly group of applications for FHA mortgage approval. Unfortunately many of the admin- Architecture and Design Collection, related to activities in the northeastern United States. istrative files for FHA's early years have been University Art Museum, University of lost. California, Santa Barbara . Extensive repository containing Wilmington, Delaware . Major library of are found in R.G. 32 (P.I. 97,1956) and the scripts, photographs, and models represent- American domestic design, especially furni- U.S. Housing Corporation of the U.S. Depart- ing more than 350 architects and landscape ture and furnishings. Printed Books and ment of Labor are found in R.G. 3 (P.I. 140, architects, including Douglas Baylis, Stephen Periodicals Collection contains an extensive 1962) include textual, cartographic, and pho- Child, Thomas D. Church, Charles Eames, collection of home and garden magazines. tographic records of World War I emergency Garrett Eckbo, Irving Gill, Charles and Philadelphia Architects and Buildings housing, 1918-19. Henry Greene, Myron Hunt, Reginald Project, Philadephia, Pennsylvania Records for the National Housing Johnson, Cliff May, Richard Neutra, Ralph . A richly Administration established in 1942 to con- Rapson, Richard Requa, Lloyd Wright, and illustrated, web-based database providing solidate all Federal housing programs (U.S. Florence Yoch. free public access to information on the Public Housing Authority, Federal Housing Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Philadelphia region's built environment and Library, Columbia University on the work of Philadelphia-based architects. . Project is jointly sponsored by The A wide variety of plans for "architect- Extensive collection of books, catalogs, plans, Athenaeum of Philadelphia, University of designed" small houses were available to local builders in the 1920s and 1930s through periodicals, and oral history collections cov- Pennsylvania Architectural Archives, architect service bureaus, trade publications, Philadelphia Historical Commission, and ering themes in architecture, planning, land- stock-plan businesses, and even savings and scape architecture, and New York area devel- Pennsylvania Historical and Museum loan associations. From left to right: Tudor opment. Many of the Avery's extensive collec- Commission. Revival house, Chautauqua Park Historic tion of trade catalogs, architectural guides, Eichler Network . California-based organization pro- Long, courtesy of State Historical Society of major libraries. vides technical information about history and Iowa); Moderne house, Westheight Manor Frances Loeb Library, Harvard home repair to owners of homes built by Historic District, Kansas City, Kansas (photo University, Graduate School of Design, merchant builder Joseph Eichler. In addition courtesy Kansas Historical Society); Spanish Cambridge, Massachusetts . newsletter. District, Phoenix (photo by Robin Baldwin, courtesy Arizona Office of Historic Preserva- Special collections include manuscripts, draw- National Archives and Record Centers tion); Tudor Revival house, Glenview Historic ings, and plans by a number of noted archi- . Several record groups District, Memphis (photo by Carroll van West, tects, planners, and landscape architects, (R.G.) contain information about Federal courtesy Tennessee Historical Commission); including Arthur C. Comey, Eleanor housing programs, as well as a wealth of sta- English Colonial Revival house, Shaker Village Raymond, Charles Mulford Robinson, Hugh tistical and research data acquired on local Historic District, Shaker Heights, Ohio (photo Stubbins, Arthur Shurcliff, Dan Kiley, Robert housing trends, methods of home construc- by Audra Bartley courtesy Ohio Historic H. Whitten, Walter Gropius, and John C. tion, and home financing. Although most Preservation Office); Moderne/lnternational Olmsted. Also includes the photographs of records are located in Archives II in College Style house. Fort Street Historic District, Boise photojournalist Jessie Tarbox Beals, including Park, Maryland, additional records may exist (photo by Susanne Lichtenstein, courtesy State numerous views of residences and gardens. in regional repositories. Preliminary Historical Society of Idaho).

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 119 Administration, Federal Home Loan Bank Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture RECOMMENDED READING Board, and World War II housing programs) Keith's Magazine into one agency are found in the Records of Ladies' Home Journal the Housing and Home Finance Agency, R.G. 207 (P.I. 164). These include FHA files on Living Magazine Related National Register housing statistics and market analyses as well McCall's as the records of the Central Housing National Builder Bulletins Committee which was established in 1935 Parents' Magazine Defining Boundaries for National Register upon the recommendation of the National Park and Cemetery and Landscape Properties (rev. 1997) Resources Board and served as a clearinghouse on all matters pertaining to housing, Gardening Guidelines for Evaluating and including land use, prefabricated methods of Scribner's Magazine Documenting Properties Associated with construction, and financing. The Small House Significant Persons Records of the Federal Home Loan Sunset Magazine Guidelines for Evaluating and Nominating Bank Board are found in R.G. 195 (P.I. NC- Woman's Home Companion Properties That Have Achieved Significance 94,1965, manuscript form); cartographic Within the Last Fifty Years (rev. 1996) records include several hundred small-house Guidelines for Evaluating and Registering designs approved for use by the Federal Professional and Trade Archeological Sites and Districts (rev. 2001) Home Building Service Plan, 1938-1942. Records of Defense Homes Corporation, Periodicals Guidelines for Local Surveys: A Basis for 1940-1949, are among the Records of the American Architect Preservation Planning (rev. 1985) Reconstruction Finance Corporation in R.G. American Architect and Building News How to Apply the National Register 234. Records of the U.S. Department of Criteria of Evaluation Housing and Urban Development are found American Builder in R.G. 220. Records for the U.S. Census American Carpenter and Builder How to Complete the National Register Records are found in R.G. 29. Records of the American City Multiple Property Documentation Form U.S. Department of Commerce, in R.G. 167, American Civic and Planning Annual How to Complete the National Register contain the records of the National Bureau of Registration Form Standards and the President's Conference on American Garden Home Building and Ownership, 1930-33. Annals of Real Estate Practice How to Evaluate and Nominate Designed Architectural Forum (formerly Brickbuilder) Historic Landscapes Architectural Record How to Prepare National Historic Architectural Review and American Builder's Landmark Nominations HISTORIC PERIODICALS Journal Researching A Historic Property (rev. Arts and Architecture 1998). Building Age (later Building Age and The Videotape, The Multiple Property Popular Magazines Builder's Journal) Approach. American Builder City Planning The American Home House and Home General History American Homes and Gardens Housing Fishman, Robert. Bourgeois Utopias: The Better Homes and Gardens Inland Architect Bungalow Magazine Rise and Fall of Suburbia. New York: Basic Insured Mortgage Portfolio Books, 1987. California Arts and Architecture Garden Club of America bulletins California Garden Ford, Larry R. Cities and Buildings: Sky- Journal of the New England Garden History scrapers, Skid Rows, and Suburbs. Baltimore Carpentry and Building Society and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, Cosmopolitan Landscape Architecture 1994. Country Life in America NAHB Builder Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic The Craftsman National Real Estate Journal Revolution: A History of Feminist Design for Delineator Perfect Home American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities. The Family Circle and Parlor Annual (The Popular Home Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981. Family Circle) Professional Builder Jackson, Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier: Garden and Forest Progressive Architecture (formerly Pencil The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. The Garden Magazine (Garden Magazine Points) and Home Builder) Regional Planning Notes Stilgoe, John R. Borderland: Origins of the American Suburb, 1820-1939. New Haven and Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist Southwest Builders and Contractors London: Yale University Press, 1988. Good Housekeeping Urban Land Institute Bulletin Harper's Monthly Wright, Gwendolyn. Building the Dream: Western Architect A Social History of Housing in America. New The Horticulturist Western Horticultural Review (Horticultural York: Pantheon Books, 1981. The House Beautiful Review and Botanical Magazine) House and Garden

120 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Methodology, References, Carley, Rachel. The Visual Dictionary of Jensen, Bruce, and Mary Dillman. American Domestic Architecture. New York: Guidelines for Listing Your Neighborhood in and Style Guides Henry Holt, 1997. the National Register of Historic Places. Abele, Deborah Edge, and Grady Cloues, Richard R. "Architectural History Austin: Texas Historical Commission, 1999. Gammage Jr. "Shifting Signposts of Signif- and Historic Preservation: Olmsted's Druid Jester, Thomas C, ed. Twentieth-Century icance." In Preserving the Recent Past 2, ed. Hills." 11593 5, no. 2 (June 1980): 1-4. Building Materials: History and Conserva- Deborah Slaton and William G. Foulks. . "Historic Residential Landscapes in tion. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995. Washington, D.C.: Historic Preservation Georgia: The Georgia Living Places Project." Keller, Genevieve P. "The Inventory and Education Foundation, Association for CRM14, no. 6 (1991): 4-6+. 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122 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN . "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Christensen, Carol A. The American Harris, Richard, and Peter J. Larkham, Towns before i960." Journal of Urban History Garden City and the New Towns Movement. eds. Changing Suburbs: Foundation, Form 19, no. 3 (May 1993): 30-54. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan and Function. London: E & FN Spon, 1999. . "Stubborn Diversity: A Commentary Research Press, 1986. Hayden, Dolores. "Model Houses for the on Middle-Class Influence in Working-Class Creese, Walter L. The Search for Millions: The Making of the American Suburbs." In North American Cities and Environment—The Garden City Before and Suburban Landscape, 1820-2000." Lincoln Suburbs, ed. Harris, 346-54. After. New Haven and London: Yale Institute of Land Policy Working Paper, Weiss, Marc A. Own Your Own Home: University Press, 1966. 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126 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Cromley, Elizabeth Collins. Alone . "Royal Barry Wills and the American Hayden, Dolores. "Model Houses for the Together: A History of New York's Early Colonial Revival." Winterthur Portfolio 27, no. Millions: Architects' Dreams, Builders' Apartments. Ithaca and London: Cornell 1 (spring 1992): 45-74. Boasts, Residents' Dilemmas." In Blueprints University Press, 1990. . "The Spanish Colonial Revival in for Modern Living, ed. Elizabeth A. T. Smith. Cromley, Elizabeth Collins, and Carter Southern California (1895-1930) ? Journal of Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989,196-211. Hudgins, eds. Perspectives in Vernacular the Society of Architectural Historians 26, no. Hayward, Mary Ellen, and Charles Architecture V: Gender, Class, and Shelter. 2 (May 1967): 131-47. Belfoure. The Baltimore Rowhouse. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, . "Tile, Stucco Walls and Arches: The Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1995. Spanish Tradition in the Popular American 1999. 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Main Street to Miracle Crafts Movement in California, ed. Trapp, 13- Modern Living, ed. Smith, 131-43. Mile: American Roadside Architecture. 34- Boston: Little, Brown, 1985. Stevens, John Calvin, II, and Earle G. . "The Arts and Crafts after 1918: Longstreth, Richard W. City Center to Shettleworth, ]x.John Calvin Stevens: Ending and Legacy." In The Arts and Crafts Regional Mall: The Architecture, the Domestic Architecture, 1890-1930. Scarbor- Movement in California, ed. Trapp, 233-46. ough, Maine: Harp Publications, 1990. Automobile, and Retailing in Los Angeles, 1920 Wilson, Richard Guy, and Sidney K. to 1950. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997. Stevenson, Katherine Cole, and H. Ward Robinson, eds. Modern Architecture in . "Diffusion of the Community Jandl. Houses by Mail: A Guide to Houses America: Visions and Revisions. Ames: Iowa Shopping Center Concept During the from Sears, Roebuck and Company. New State University Press, 1991. York: National Trust for Historic Preservation Interwar Decades." Journal of Society of and John Wiley and Sons, 1986. Winter, Robert, and Alexander Vertikoff. Architectural Historians 56 (September 1997): American Bungalow Style. New York: Simon 268-93. Sweeting, Adam W Reading Houses and and Schuster, 1996. Building Books: Andrew Jackson Downing . The Drive-In, the Supermarket, and and the Architecture of Popular Antebellum Winter, Robert. The California Bungalow. the Transformation of Commercial Space in Literature, 1835-1855. Hanover, New Los Angeles: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1980. Los Angeles, 1914-1941. Cambridge and Hampshire: University Press of New England, , ed. Toward a Simpler Life: Arts and London: MIT Press, 1999. 1996. Crafts Architects of California. Berkeley: . "J.C. Nichols, the Country Club Schweitzer, Robert, and Michael W.R. University of California Press, 1997. Plaza, and Notions of Modernity." Harvard Davis. America's Favorite Homes: Mail-Order Wolfe, Tom, and Leonard Garfield. "'A Architectural Review 5:120-35. Catalogues as a Guide to Popular Early 20th- New Standard for Living': The Lustron . "The Neighborhood Shopping century Houses. Detroit: Wayne State House, 1946-1950." In Perspectives in Center in Washington, D.C., 1930-1941," University Press, 1990. Vernacular Architecture III, ed. Thomas Journal of the Society of Architectural Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Carter and Bernard L. Herman. Columbia: Historians 51 (March 1992): 5-34. University of Missouri Press, 1989. Frank Lloyd Wright. 12th printing. Cam- Muller, Peter O. Suburbanization of bridge: MIT Press, 1995. Wood, Charles B., III. "The New 'Pattern Corporate Headquarters. Englewood Cliffs, Szylvian, Kristin M. "Industrial Housing Books' and the Role of the Agricultural N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1978. Press." In Prophet with Honor: The Career of Reform and the Emergency Fleet Witzel, Michael Karl. 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HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 129 Yard Design and Gardening Harris, Dianne, "Making Your Private Karson, Robin. Fletcher Steele, Landscape World: Modern Landscape Architecture and Architect: An Account of the Gardenmaker's Adams, William Howard. "Breaking New House Beautiful? In The Architecture of Life, 1885-1971. New York: Sagapress/Abrams, Ground: Twentieth-Century American Landscape, 1940-1960, Marc Treib, ed. 1989. Gardens". In Keeping Eden, ed. Walter T. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Klopfer, Mark A. "Theme and Variation at Punch. Boston: Massachusetts Horticultural Press, forthcoming. Society, Bulfinch Press, 1992, 63-79. Hollin Hills: A Typological Investigation." In Hayward, D.G. "Home as an Environ- Daniel Urban Kiley: The Early Gardens, ed. Chase, Laura. "Eden in the Orange mental and Psychological Concept." Saunders, 47-64. Groves: Bungalows and Courtyard Houses of Landscape 20 (1975): 2-9. Ladd, F. "Residential History: You Can Los Angeles." Landscape 25 (3): 29-36. Helphand, Kenneth I. "McUrbia: The Never Go Home Again." Landscape 21, no. 2 Clayton, Virginia Turtle. The Once and 1950s and the Birth of the Contemporary (1977): 15-20. Future Gardener: Garden Writing from the American Landscape." Places 5, no. 2 (1980): Laurie, Michael. "The Gift of Thomas Golden Age of Magazines, 1900-1940. Boston: 40-49. Church: With a Visionary Understanding of David R. Godine Publishers, 2000. Hill, May Brawley. Grandmother's California's Climate and Clients, This Doell, M. Christine Klim. Gardens of the Garden: The Old-Fashioned American Landscape Architect Created a Lasting Gilded Age: Nineteenth-Century Gardens and Garden, 1865-1915. New York: Harry N. Vernacular for Western Garden Design." Homegrounds of New York State. Syracuse: Abrams, 1995. Horticulture, September 1985. Syracuse University Press, 1986. Howett, Catherine M. "Frank Lloyd Lawliss, Lucy. Residential Work of the Donovan, Daniel. "The Hundred Wright and American Residential Landscap- Olmsted Firm in Georgia, 1893-193"/. Winston- Gardens: The Social, Historical, and Design ing." Landscape 26, no. 1 (1982): 33-40. Salem, N.C.: Southern Gardens History Contexts of Hollin Hills." In Daniel Urban . "Graces and Modest Majesties: Society, 1993. Kiley: The Early Gardens, ed. William S. Landscape and Garden Traditions of the Leighton, Ann. American Gardens of the Saunders. New York, NY: Princeton American South." In Keeping Eden, ed. Nineteenth Century: For Comfort and Architectural Press, 1999,37-46. Punch, 81-95. Affluence. Amherst: University of Duchscherer, Paul, and Douglas Keister. Hunt, John Dixon, and Joachim Massachusetts Press, 1987. Outside the Bungalow: America's Arts and Wolschke-Bulmahn, eds. The Vernacular Lewis, Pierce. "The Making of Vernacular Crafts Garden. New York: Penguin Studio, Garden. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Taste: The Case of Sunset and Southern 1999. Oaks, 1993. Living? In The Vernacular Garden, ed. Hunt, Grese, Robert E. "The Prairie Gardens of Imbert, Dorothee. "Of Gardens and 107-36. O.C. Simonds and Jens Jensen." In Regional Houses as Places to Live: Thomas Church Major, Judith K. To Live in the New World: Garden Design in the United States, ed. and William Wurster." In Everyday AJ. Downing and American Landscape Therese O'Malley and Marc Treib. Washing- Modernism: The Houses of William Wurster, Gardening. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997. ton: D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1995,39-64. ed. Treib. Marranca, Bonnie, ed. American Garden . Jens Jensen: Maker of Parks and Jackson, John Brinckerhoff. "The Writing. N.Y.: PAJ Publications, 1988. Gardens. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Craftsman Style and Technostyle." In University Press, 1992. O'Malley, Therese. "The Lawn in Early Discovering the Vernacular Landscape. New American Landscape and Garden Design." In Griswold, Mac, and Eleanor Weller. The Haven and London: Yale University Press, The American Lawn-Surface of Everyday Golden Age of American Gardens. New York: 1984. Originally published as "The Craftsman Life, ed. Georges Teyssot. Princeton, N.J.: Harry N. Abrams, 1992. Style," VIA, Philadelphia: Graduate School of Princeton Architectural Press, with Canadian Groth, Paul. "Lot, Yard, and Garden: Fine Arts, University of Pennsylvania, 1975. Centre for Architecture, 1999. American Gardens as Adorned Yards." Jackson, J. B. "Several American O'Malley, Therese, and Marc Treib, eds. Landscape 30, no. 3 (1988). Landscapes." In Landscapes: Selected Regional Garden Design in the United States. . "Lot, Yard, and Garden: American Writings of J.B.Jackson, ed. Ervin H. Zube. Washington: D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1995. Distinctions." Landscape 32 (1990): 29-35. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1970. Padilla, Victoria. Southern California Gebhard, David. "Fifty Years of the Gardens. Berkeley: University of California American Home." Landscape 8 (Autumn . "Nearer than Eden?" In The Necessity Press, 1961. for Ruins and Other Topics. Amherst: 1958): 5-9- University of Massachusetts Press, 1980. Also Punch, Walter T., ed. Keeping Eden: A Gundaker, Grey, and Tynes Cowan, eds. published in Landscape 20, no. 2 (Winter History of Gardening in America. Boston: Keep Your Head to the Sky: Interpreting 1976): 19-36. Massachusetts Horticultural Society and African American Home Ground. Char- Bulfinch Press, 1992. lottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998. Jellicoe, Geoffrey, et al., eds. The Oxford Companion to Gardens. New York: Oxford Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. Landscape Gundaker, Grey. "African-American University Press, 1986. Design: A Cultural and Architectural History. History, Cosmology, and the Moral Universe " New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. Journal of Garden History 14:179-205. Jenkins, Virginia Scott. The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession. Saunders, William S., ed. Daniel Urban . "Tradition and Innovation in Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Kiley: The Early Gardens. New York: African-American Yards," African Arts 26: 58- Press, 1994. Princeton Architectural Press, 1999.

130 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Schroeder, Fred E.H. Front Yard America: , ed. The Architecture of Landscape, Church, Thomas D. Gardens Are for The Evolution and Meanings of a Vernacular 1940-1960. Philadelphia: University of People: How to Plan for Outdoor Living. 3rd Domestic Landscape. Bowling Green, Oh.: Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming. ed. Revised by Grace Hall and Michael BGSU Popular Press, 1993. Treib, Marc, and Dorothee Imbert. Laurie, Berkeley: University of California, Schuyler, David. Apostle of Taste: Andrew Garrett Eckbo: Modern Landscapes for 1995- Jackson Downing, 1815-1852. Baltimore: Johns Living. Berkeley: University of California . Your Private World. San Francisco: Hopkins University Press, 1996. Press, 1997. Chronicle Publishing, 1962. . Introduction to Victorian Gardens: , eds. Thomas Church. Special Issue. Cleaveland, Henry W, William Backus, Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds, Studies in the History of Gardens and the and Samuel D. Backus. Village and Farm by Frank J. Scott. 1870. Reprint, Watkins Glen, Designed Landscape, 20, no. 2 (April-June Cottages: A Victorian Style Book. 1856. New York: American Life Foundation, 1982. 2000). Reprint of Village and Farm Cottages: The Requirements of American Village Homes, Seaton, B. "Gardening Books for the Volkman, Nancy J. "Landscape Architec- with an introduction by David Schuyler, Commuter's Wife, 1900-1937." Landscape 28 ture on the Prairie: The Work of H.W.S. Watkins Glen, New York: American Life (1985): 41-47. Cleveland." Kansas History, summer 1987. Foundation, 1982. Simo, Melanie L. Loudon and the Land- Weitz, Karen. "Utopian Place Making: Cleveland, H.W.S. Landscape Architecture scape: From Country Seat to Metropolis, ij8y The Built Environment in Arts and Crafts 1843. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. as Applied to the Wants of the West. 1873. California." In The Arts and Crafts Movement Reprint, with an introduction by Daniel . "Regionalism and Modernism: Some in California, ed. Trapp, 89-108. Nadenicek and Lance M. Neckar, Amherst: Common Roots". In Keeping Eden, ed. Westmacott, Richard. African-American University of Massachusetts Press and Punch, 45-61. Gardens and Yards in the Rural South. Library of American Landscape History, Streatfield, David C. "The Arts and Crafts Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2001. Garden in California." In The Arts and Crafts 1992. Comstock, William Phillips, and Clarence Movement in California, ed. Trapp, 35-54. . "Pattern and Practice in Traditional Eaton Schermerhorn. Bungalows, Camps and . California Gardens: Creating a New African-American Gardens in Rural Georgia." Mountain Houses. Rev. ed., 1915. Reprint, with Eden. New York: Abbeville Press, 1994. Landscape Journal 10, no. 2 (1991): 87-104. an introduction by Tony P. Wrenn, Washing- Woodburn, Elisabeth. "American ton, D.C.: American Institute of Architects . "Westward Expansion." In Keeping Press, 1990. Eden, ed. Punch, 97-117. Horticultural Books." In Keeping Eden, ed. Punch, 241-59. Copeland, Robert Morris. Country Life: A Tankard, Judith B. The Gardens of Ellen Handbook of Agriculture and Book of Land- Biddle Shipman. New York: Sagapress and Wright, Gwendolyn. "Sweet and Clean: The Domestic Landscape in the Progressive scape Gardening. 1866. Reprint, Amherst: Harry Abrams, 1996. University of Massachusetts Press and Era." Landscape 20, no. 1 (October 1975): 38- Tatum, George B. and Elisabeth B. Library of American Landscape History, 43- MacDougall, eds. Prophet with Honor: The forthcoming. Yoch, James J. Landscaping the American Career of Andrew Jackson Downing, 1815-1852. Downing, Andrew Jackson. Landscape Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1989. Dream: The Gardens and Film Sets of Florence Yoch, 1890-1972. New York: Gardening and Rural Architecture. 7th ed., Tatum, George B. "Introduction to the Sagapress and Abrams, 1989. 1865. Reprint of Treatise on the Theory and Dover Edition," Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, with an Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to introduction by George B. Tatum, New York: North America. 7th ed. New York: Orange Selected Pattern Books, Dover Publications, 1991. Judd, 1865. Reprinted as Landscape Garden- . A Treatise on the Theory and Practice ing and Rural Architecture. A.J. Downing. Landscape Guides, and House of Landscape Gardening. 9th ed., 1875. New York: Dover Publications, 1991. v-xxii. Catalogs (Reprints and Recent Reprint, Little Compton, Rhode Island: Teyssot, Georges, ed. The American Editions) Theophrastus Publishers, 1977. Lawn—Surface of Everyday Life. Princeton, . Rural Essays. 1894. Reprint, New N.J.: Princeton Architectural Press, with Aladdin Company. Aladdin Homes "Built York: DaCapo Press, 1974. Canadian Centre for Architecture, 1999. in a Day" Catalog No. 29.1917. Reprint, New York: Dover Publications, 1995. . Victorian Cottage Residences. 1873. Thornton, Sally Bullard. Daring to Dream: Reprint of Cottage Residences or, A Series of The Life of Hazel Wood Waterman. San Diego Barber, George E, and Company. The Designs for Rural Cottages and Cottage Villas Historical Society, 1987. Cottage Souvenir No. 2.1892. Reprint, with an and Their Gardens and Grounds, with a pref- Tishler, William H., ed. Midwestern introduction by Michael A. Tomlan, Watkins ace by Adolf K. Placzek, New York: Dover Landscape Architecture. Urbana and Glen, New York: American Life Foundation, Publications, 1981. 1982. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000. . The Architecture of Country Houses, Tishler, William H. and Virginia Beecher, Catharine E., and Harriet Including Designs for Cottages, and Farm- Luckhardt. "H.W.S. Cleveland, Pioneer Beecher Stowe. The American Woman's houses, and Villas. 1850. Reprint, with an Landscape Architect to the Upper Midwest." Home. 1869. Reprint, with an introduction by introduction by J. Stewart Johnson, New Minnesota History, Fall 1985. Joseph Van Why, Hartford: Stowe-Day York: Dover Publications, 1969. Foundation, 1975. Treib, Marc. "Thomas Church, Garrett Eckbo, Garrett. Landscape for Living. Eckbo, and the Postwar California Garden." 1950. Reprint, Amherst: University of Massa- In Preserving the Recent Past 2, ed. Slaton and chusetts Press and Library of American Foulks. Landscape History, forthcoming.

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 131 Ely, Helena Rutherfurd. A Woman's Hardy Palliser, Charles, and George Palliser. The . Craftsman Homes: Architecture and Garden. (1903). Reprint, with a foreword by Palliser's Late Victorian. Reprint, with an Furnishings of the American Arts and Crafts Ann Lovejoy, New York: Macmillan, 1990. introduction by Michael A. Tomlan, Watkins Movement. 2nd ed., 1909. Reprint, New York: Ford, James, and Katherine Morrow Ford. Glen, New York: American Life Foundation, Dover Publications, 1979. The Modern House in America. 1940. Reprint 1978. . More Craftsman Homes. 1912. of Classic Modern Homes of the Thirties. New . Palliser's Model Homes. 1878. Reprint, Reprint, New York: Dover Publications 1982. York: Dover Publications, 1989. with a foreword by Kermit L. Darrow, Felton, Sunset Magazine, ed. Sunset Western Fowler, Orson S. The Octagon House: A Calif.: Glenwood Publishers, 1972. Ranch Houses. 1946. Reprint, Santa Monica: Home for All. 1853. Reprint of A Home for All, Parsons, Samuel, Jr. The Art of Landscape Hennessey & Ingalls, 1999. or the Gravel Wall and Octagon Mode of Architecture. 1915. Reprint, Amherst: Sunset Magazine, ed. Western Ranch Building, with an introduction by Madeleine University of Massachusetts Press and Houses by Cliff May. 1958. Reprint, Santa B. Stern, New York: Dover Publications, 1973. Library of American Landscape History, Monica: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1997. forthcoming. Gordon-Van Tine Company, ny House Unwin, Raymond. Town Planning in Designs of the Twenties. 1923. Reprint, New Radford Architectural Company. Practice: An Introduction to the Art of York: Dover Publications, 1992. Radford's Artistic Bungalows: The Complete Designing Cities and Suburbs. 6th impression. Hegemann, Werner, and Elbert Peets. The 1908 Catalog. 1908. Reprint, New York: Dover 1919. Reprint, with a new preface by Andres American Vitruvius: An Architects' Hand- Publications, 1997. Duany and new introduction by Walter book of Civic Art. 1922. Reprint, with an intro- Reed, Samuel Burrage. Victorian Dwell- Creese, New York: Princeton Architectural duction by Alan J. Plattus, preface by Leon ings for Village and Country. 1885. Reprint of Press, 1994. Krier, and introductory essay by Christiane Dwellings for Village and Country, New York: Vaux, Calvert. Villas and Cottages: The Crasemann Collins, New York: Princeton Dover Publications, 1999. Great Architectural Style-Book of the Hudson Architectural Press, 1988. Roberts, Edith A., and Elsa Rehmann. River School. 2nd ed., 1864. Reprint of Villas Holly, Henry Hudson. Holly's Picturesque American Plants for American Gardens. 1929. and Cottages: A Series of Designs Prepared for Country Seats. 1863. Reprint of Holly's Reprint, with foreword by Darrel G. Erection in the United States, New York: Country Seats and Modern Dwellings, with Morrison, Athens: University of Georgia Dover Publications, 1970. an introduction by George B. Tatum, New Press, 1996. von Hoist, Hermann Valentin. Country York: Dover Publications, 1993. Scott, Frank J. Victorian Gardens: The Art and Suburban Homes of the Prairie School Howard, Ebenezer. Garden Cities of of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds. Period. 1913. Reprint of Modern American Tomorrow. 1898. Reprint. Cambridge, Mass.: 1870. Reprint of Art of Beautifying Suburban Homes, New York: Dover Publications, 1982. MIT Press, 1965. Home Grounds, with an introduction by Waugh, Frank. Book of Landscape Hubbard, Theodora Kimball, and Henry David Schuyler, Watkins Glen, New York: Gardening. 1926. Reprint, Amherst, University Vincent Hubbard. Our Cities Today and American Life Foundation, 1982. of Massachusetts Press and Library of Tomorrow: A Survey of Planning and Zoning Sears, Roebuck and Company. Sears, American Landscape History, forthcoming. Progress in the United States. 1929. Reprint, Roebuck Catalog of Houses, 1926: An Weidenmann, Jacob. Victorian Landscape New York: Arno Press, 1974. Unabridged Reprint. 1926. Reprint of 1926 Gardening: A Facsimile of Jacob Weiden- Hutcheson, Martha Brookes. The Spirit of Catalog of Houses, New York: Dover mann's Beautifying Country Homes. 1870. the Garden. 1923. Reprint, with an introduc- Publications, 1991. Reprint of Beautifying Country Homes, with tion by Rebecca Warren Davidson, Amherst: Shoppell, R.W. et al. Turn-of-the-Century an introduction by David Schuyler, Watkins University of Massachusetts Press and Houses, Cottages, and Villas. Reprint of selec- Glen, New York: American Life Foundation, Library of Landscape History, 2000. tions from Building Designs (ca. 1890) and 1978. Jones, Robert T., ed. Authentic Small Modern Houses (1890 and 1900), with a pub- Wheeler, Gervase. Homes for the People in Houses of the Twenties. 1929. Reprint of Small lisher's note, New York: Dover Publications, Suburb and Country. 1855. Reprint, New Homes of Architectural Distinction: A Book of 1983. York: Arno Press, 1972. Suggested Plans Designed by The Architects' Simonds, Ossian Cole. Landscape- Royal Barry Wills Associates. Houses for Small House Service Bureau, Inc., New York: Gardening. 1920. Reprint, with an introduc- Good Living. Revised and expanded edition, Dover Publications, 1987. tion by Robert E. Grese, Amherst: University New York: Architectural Book Publishing Keeler, Charles. The Simple Home. 1904. of Massachusetts Press and Library of Company, 1993. American Landscape History, 2000. Reprint, Santa Barbara: Peregrine Smith, Wilson, Henry L. California Bungalows of 1979. Smith, Henry Atterbury, comp. 500 Small the Twenties, n.d. Reprint of A Short Sketch of Miller, Wilhelm. Prairie Spirit of Land- Houses of the Twenties. 1923. Reprint of The the Evolution of the Bungalow: From Its scape Gardening. 1915. Reprint, with an intro- Books of A Thousand Homes: Volume One, Primitive Crudeness to its Present State of duction by Christopher Vernon, Amherst: New York: Dover Publications, 1990. Artistic Beauty and Cozy Convenience, New University of Massachusetts Press and Stickley, Gustav, ed. Craftsman York: Dover Publications, 1993. Library of American Landscape History, Bungalows: 59 Homes from "The Craftsman." 2001. Reprint of selections from The Craftsman Nolen, John. New Towns for Old. 1927. published from 1901 to 1916, with an introduc- Reprint, Amherst: University of Massachu- tion by Alan Weissman, New York: Dover setts Press and Library of American Publications, 1988. Landscape History, forthcoming.

132 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN Dissertations Martin, Christopher. "Tract House Christgau, Eugene. "Unincorporated Modern: A Study of Housing Design and Communities in Cook County." M.A. thesis, Burns, Elizabeth Kates. "The Process of Consumption in the Washington Suburbs, University of Chicago, 1942. Suburban Residential Development: The San 1946-1960," Ph.D. dissertation, George Hamley, Kara Cathleen. "Cleveland's Francisco Peninsula, 1860-1970." Ph.D. disser- Washington University, 1999. Park Allotment: Euclid Heights, Cleveland tation, University of California, Berkeley, Merino, James Anthony. "A Great City and Heights, Ohio, and Its Designer, Ernest W. 1974. Its Suburbs: Attempts to Integrate Metropol- Bowditch." M.A. thesis, Cornell University, Chase, Susan Mulchahey. "The Process of itan Boston, 1865-1920." Ph.D. dissertation, 1996. Suburbanization and the Use of Restrictive University of Texas at Austin, 1968. Korff, Mary Blaine. "Stephen Child: Deed Covenants as Private Zoning, Wilming- Michelson, Alan R. "Towards a Regional Visionary Landscape Architect." M.A. thesis, ton, Delaware, 1900-1941." Ph.D. dissertation, Synthesis: The Suburban and Country University of Arizona, Tuscon, 1991. University of Delaware, 1995. Residences of William Wilson Wurster, 1922- Moudry, Roberta M. "Gardens, Houses, Checkoway, Barry N. "Suburbanization 1964." Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, and People: The Planning of Roland Park, and Community: The Postwar Development 1993- Baltimore." M.A. thesis, Cornell University, and Planning of Lower Bucks County, Penn- Pardun, Carol Jean. "How the Architec- 1990. sylvania." Ph.D. dissertation, University of tural Style of the House Relates to Family Pennsylvania, 1977. Savage, Beth Lynn. "The Inception and Television Viewing." Ph.D. dissertation, Early Historical Development of the Planned Clark, James Everett. "The Impact of University of Georgia, 1992. Neighborhood Shopping Center in the Transportation Technology on Suburbaniza- Prendergast, Norma. "The Sense of Washington Area from 1930 to 1942." M.A. tion in the Chicago Region, 1830-1920." Ph.D. Home: Nineteenth Century Domestic thesis, George Washington University, 1989. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1977. Architectural Reform." Ph.D dissertation, Sechrist, Stephanie Ann. "Silver Spring, Clouse, Richard Ross. "Where Art is Cornell University, 1981. Maryland: Residential Development of a Combined with Nature: Village Improvement Rome, Adam Ward. "Prairie Creek Hills Washington Suburb, 1920 to 1935." M.A. the- in Nineteenth-Century New England," Vol. I- Estates: An Environmental History of sis, George Washington University, 1993. III. Ph.D dissertation, Cornell University, American Homebuilding, 1945-70." Ph.D dis- 1987. Struble, Kristie Dixon. "Hollin Hills: The sertation, University of Kansas, 1996. Introduction of Nature into a Mid-Twentieth Clouser, Roger A. "The Ranch House in Sies, Mary Corbin. "American Country Century Suburb." M.A. thesis, University of America," Ph.D. dissertation, University of House Architecture in Context: The Virginia, 1987. Kansas, 1984. Suburban Ideal of Living in the East and Williams, Robert Luther. "Eighty Years of Flint, Barbara J. "Zoning and Residential Midwest, 1877-1917." Ph.D dissertation, Subdivision Design: An Historical Evaluation Segregation: A Social and Physical History, University of Michigan, 1987. of Land Planning Techniques in San Mateo 1910-1940." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Taylor, Henry Louis. "The Building of a County, California." M.C.P. thesis, University Chicago, 1977. Black Industrial Suburb: The Lincoln of California, Berkeley, 1952. Hancock, John L. "John Nolen and the Heights, Ohio, Story." Ph.D. dissertation, Zarakov, Barry. "California Planned American City Planning Movement." Ph.D. State University of New York at Buffalo, 1979. Communities of the 1920s." M.A. thesis, dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1964. Weise, Andrew. "Struggle for the Subur- University of California, Santa Barbara, 1977. Hawkins, Kenneth B. "The Therapeutic ban Dream: African American Suburbani- Landscape: Nature, Architecture, and Mind zation Since 1916." Ph.D dissertation, in Nineteenth-Century America." Ph.D. dis- Columbia University, 1993. Selected Multiple Property sertation, University of Rochester, 1991. Wheaton, William Linous Cody. "The Listings Haynes, Bruce. "Constructing a Black Evolution of Federal Housing Programs." Suburban Community: The Genesis and Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, Multiple Property Submission "covers" are Development of Runyon Heights, Yonkers, 1953- available at . New York, 1910-1990." Ph.D dissertation, City Wilson, Leslie. "Dark Spaces: An Account University of New York, 1994. Apartment Hotels in Birmingham, of Afro-American Suburbanization." Ph.D 1900-1930, TR, Alabama Hutchison, Janet Anne. "American dissertation, City University of New York, Housing, Gender, and the Better Homes 1991. Lustron Houses in Alabama MPS, Movement, 1922-1935." Ph.D. dissertation, Alabama University of Delaware, 1989. Spanish Revival Residences in Mobile Kehler, Joel R. "A House Divided: Selected Theses MPS, Alabama Domestic Architecture as American Bobeczko, Laura Lyn. "America Builds for Historic Apartment Buildings MPS, Romantic Subject and Symbol." Ph.D. disser- Her Renter Millions: The Built Legacy of the tation, Lehigh University, 1975. Rental Housing Division of the Federal Arkansas Lynch, Bruce E. "Shaker Heights: The Housing Administration, 1935-1942." M.A. Historically Black Properties in Little Garden Suburb in America." Ph.D. disserta- thesis, George Washington University, 2000. Rock's Dunbar School Neighborhood tion, University of Illinois, 1978. Bricker, David. "Built For Sale: Cliff May MPS, Arkansas and the Low Cost California Ranch House." Little Rock Apartment Buildings MPS, M.A. thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1983. Arkansas

HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 133 Educational Buildings in Phoenix MPS, Prairie School Architecture in Mason Early Twentieth Century Raleigh Arizona City TR, Iowa Neighborhoods TR, North Carolina Residential Subdivisions and Architec- Small Homes of Howard F. Moffitt in Eastlake Houses of Ashly TR, Ohio ture in Phoenix MPS, Arizona Iowa City and Coralville, Iowa, MPS Hobart Welded Steel Houses TR, Ohio Roosevelt Neighborhood MRA, Suburban Development in Des Moines Architecture of Ellis F. Lawrence MPS, Arizona Between the World Wars, 1918-1941, Oregon MPS, Iowa Bungalow Courts of Pasadena TR, Craftsman Bungalows in Descutes California Towards a Greater Des Moines: County MPS, Oregon Lilian Rice-Designed Buildings at Development and Early Suburbaniza- tion, ca 1880-ca 1920, MPS, Iowa Middle-Class Apartments in East Rancho Santa Fe MPS, California Portland MPS, Oregon Lustron Houses of Kansas, MPS Los Angeles Branch Library System TR Philadelphia Public Schools TR, Residential Architecture of Pasadena, Louisville and Jefferson County MPS, Pennsylvania Kentucky California, 1895-1918: The Influence of Pittsburgh Public Schools TR, the Arts and Crafts Movement MPS Historic Residential Architecture of Pennsylvania Bangor MPS, Maine Wartime Emergency Housing in Early Twentieth Century Schools in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1916-1920, Brookline MRA, Massachusetts Puerto Rico TR MPS Newton MRA, Massachusetts Single-Family Houses in Rhode Island Parkways of the National Capital Stoneham MRA, Massachusetts MPS Region MPS, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia Water Supply System of Metropolitan Lustron Houses in South Dakota MPS Boston MPS, Massachusetts Apartment Buildings in Washington, Cement Construction in Richard City D.C., 1880-1945, MPS Worcester Three-Deckers TR, MPS, Tennessee Massachusetts Clubhouses of Florida's Woman's Clubs Memphis Park and Parkway System MPS Residential Structures in Kansas City, MPS, Tennessee Missouri, by Mary Rockwell Hook TR Winterhaven, Florida MPS Oak Ridge MPS, Tennessee St. Joseph MPS, Missouri Lustron Houses in Georgia MPS Public Schools of Memphis, 1902-1915, Armour Boulevard MRA, Missouri MPS, Tennessee Shotgun Houses of Athens, Clark County, MPS, Georgia Suburban Schools in Butte MPS, Residential Resources of Memphis Montana MPS, Tennessee Boise Public Schools TR, Idaho Nineteenth Century Terrace Houses Entrepreneurial Residences of Turn-of- Tourtellotte and Hummel Architecture TR, Nebraska the-Century Provo, Utah, TR TR, Idaho Lustrons in New Jersey MPS Perkins Addition Streetcar Suburb TR, American Woman's League Chapter Utah Houses TR, Illinois Operating Passenger Railroad Stations TR, New Jersey Three-Story Apartment Buildings in Chicago Park District MPS, Illinois Multi-Unit Dwellings in Albuquerque Ogden, Utah, 1908-1928, MPS Highland Park MRA, Illinois MPS, New Mexico Hilltop Neighborhood MPS, Historic Resources of Maywood, Albuquerque Downtown Washington Illinois MPS Neighborhoods MRA, New Mexico Olympia Residential Architecture MPS, Hyde Park Apartment Hotels TR, Twentieth Century Suburban Growth Washington Illinois of Albuquerque MPS, New Mexico Women's History in Olympia MPS, Illinois Carnegie Libraries MPS A.T. Stewart Resources, Garden City, Washington Suburban Apartment Buildings in New York, TR Ernest Flagg Stone Masonry Houses of Evanston TR, Illinois Hudson Highlands MPS, New York Milwaukee County TR, Wisconsin Apartments and Flats of Downtown Masten Neighborhood Rows TR, New Public Library Facilities of Wisconsin Indianapolis TR, Indiana York MPS The Bungalow and Square House: Des Olmsted Parks and Parkways TR, Moines Residential Growth and Buffalo, New York Development MPS, Iowa African-American Neighborhoods in Iowa Usonian Houses by Frank Lloyd Northeastern Winston-Salem MPS, Wright, 1945-1960, MPS North Carolina

134 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN HISTORIC RESIDENTIAL SUBURBS 135 Rows of willow oaks frame Georgian Revival residences along Queens Road West in Myers Park, Charlotte, North Carolina. Developed between 1911 and 1943 according to a succession of plans by John Nolen, Earte Sumner Draper, and Ezra Clarke Stiles, Myers Park received considerable recognition for its outstanding qualities of landscape design and became an important regional prototype for exclusive planned subdivisions in the Southeast. (Photo by Thomas W. Hanchett, courtesy North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources)

136 NATIONAL REGISTER BULLETIN

The ideal of suburban life in the parklike setting of a self-contained subdivision away from the noise, pollution, and dangers of city streets has fueled the aspirations of increasing numbers of American families since the mid-nineteenth century. Historic residential suburbs, such as the Guilford Historic District in Baltimore, Maryland, resulted from the collaboration of developers, planners, architects, and landscape architects. The contributions of these professional groups, individually and collectively, give American suburbs their characteristic identity as historic neighborhoods, collections of residential architecture, and designed landscapes. (Photo by Greg Pease, courtesy Maryland Department of Housing and Economic Development)

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