Revista CENIC. Ciencias Químicas ISSN: 1015-8553 [email protected] Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas Cuba
Wisniak, Jaime Jean Antoine Chaptal Revista CENIC. Ciencias Químicas, vol. 34, núm. 3, septiembre-diciembre, 2003, pp. 159-165 Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas La Habana, Cuba
Disponible en: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=181626024007
Cómo citar el artículo Número completo Sistema de Información Científica Más información del artículo Red de Revistas Científicas de América Latina, el Caribe, España y Portugal Página de la revista en redalyc.org Proyecto académico sin fines de lucro, desarrollado bajo la iniciativa de acceso abierto Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003.
RESEÑA BIOGRAFICA
Jean Antoine Chaptal
Jaime Wisniak
Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel 84105
Recibido: 11 de enero del 2002 Aceptado: 11 de febrero del 2002
Palabras clave: Jean Antoine Chaptal, historia de la química, biografía Key words: Jean Antoine Chaptal, history of chemistry, biography
RESUMEN: Jean Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832) fue un químico aplicado que no his medical license on April 11, nos dejó ningún principio teórico que lleve su nombre. Se dedicó totalmente a 1777. On April 24 he was aplicar los principios científicos a la industria con el fin de disminuir la admitted to the Societé Royale des dependencia de Francia de las importaciones, primero al nivel local en los Estados Sciences de Montpellier (Note 1) de Laguedoc y luego a nivel nacional. Se transformó en político y ocupó muchos as adjoint anatomiste, (assistant cargos públicos de importancia que lo ayudaron a alcanzar sus metas industriales. anatomist) and on May 1 he Fue Ministro del Interior de Napoleón y difícilmente escapó tres veces de ser received his diploma of docteur en guillotinado. En la cima de su carrera alcanzó gran riqueza para perderla más tarde médecine. In the same year he read y vivir una vida modesta hasta su muerte. his first memoir Le Mécanisme de la Respiration (The mechanism of ABSTRACT: Jean Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832) was an applied chemist who did respiration). In 1787 he transferred not leave us with any theoretical achievement that bears his name. He devoted to the chemical section also as himself to the application of scientific principles to industry to decrease France’s assistant, and in 1789 he was dependence on imports, first at the local level of the Estates of Languedoc and then promoted to associate member in at the national level. He became a politician and served in many high public offices the mathematics section of the that helped him achieve his industrial goals. He was Minister of Interior of Society. Napoléon and scarcely escaped the guillotine three times. At the zenith of his Chaptal never forgot what his career he was extremely rich, later he lost most of his fortune and lived a modest uncle had done for him. He dedi- life until his death. cated him his medical thesis Life and career1,2 “Conspectus Physiologicus de Fontibus Differentiarum Inter Jean Antoine Chaptal was born in Nojaret, Lozère, France, on September 5, Homines, Relative ad Scientias” 1756, the son of Antoine Chaptal (1718-1772) and Françoise Brunel, relatively (A Physiological Treatise on the well-off landowners. At the age of 10 he was taught rudiments of Latin by Jean- Origin of Differences Between Antoine Carylar de Bardon to allow him to enter, in 1767, the religious Collége de Humans Based on Science), a 62- Mende, (managed by the Pères de la Doctrine Chrétienne) where he spent the next page tract, written in Latin, five years. In 1772 he was admitted to Collége de Rodez, to finish his basic presented on November 5, 1776. education and obtain the Bachelor of Arts, the basic admission requirement to a This thesis was later reedited, a university. fact that “ce que ne s’etait jamais Jean Antoine’s father passed away on May 10, 1772, at the age of 64 and the vue” (never seen before in eldest sons took charge of the family business. His uncle, Claude Chaptal (1699- Montpellier).2 About ten years 1787), was a very successful and prosperous physician that had graduated from the later, when he was already very Université de Médecine de Montpellier. Claude was childless and probably this is famous, he wrote to the Société the reason why he took his 16-years old nephew under his protection and became Royale de Médecine de Paris more than a tutor to him; he was truly a foster father. Although Claude was not a recommending that they publish royal professor, he was senior vice-professor of anatomy and botany at the his uncle’s work. University and a well-known and appreciated person in Montpellier. All he did to help the advancement of his nephew was a typical example of the nepotism In spite of his medical studies, common to many societies. Chaptal was never inclined to In September 1774, the young Chaptal registered at the Université de Médecine practice the profession, for this from where he received his bachelor degree in medicine on November 5, 1776, and reason, on the fall of 1977; he
159 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003. departed for Paris with Jean-Jacques Bérard (1764-1839) who was also his of France. Chaptal was denounced Régis Cambacérès (1753-1824) (Note préparateur for the chemistry course and imprisoned. Fortunately he was 2). There he took courses of obstetrics he gave at Montpellier. This factory released from prison and being with Jean-Louis Baudelocque (1746- continued to be prosperous even after liberated he hid safely in the 1810) and courses of chemistry and Chaptal’s death. In was managed first Cévennes. It was there that his family mineralogy with Jean-Baptiste by Etiene Bérard and then by the son sent him an edict from the Committee Bucquet (1746-1780), Pierre of the latter, Jacques-Etienne (1789- of Public Health, dated December 24, Mitouard (Note 3), Balthazar-Georges 1869), who closed it in 1863. An 1793, appointing him Inspecteur Sage (1740-1824), and Jean-Baptiste interesting item is that when years Général des Poudres et Saltpêtres Romé de l’Isle (1736-1790). While in later a railroad was built in the area (General Inspector of Gunpowder and Paris, Chaptal continued to contribute the station next to the chemical Salpetre) for the Midi of France: “Le scientific memoirs to the Societé, on factory was named Gare Chaptal. besoin de saltpetre se fait sentir par different medical subjects. In 1788, the Estates of Languedoc toute la République. La chimie est On September 11, 1781, he petitioned and obtained from Louis une des occupations humanes don’t la married Anne-Marie-Rose Lajard at XVI that Chaptal be awarded him République doit tirer un des ses plus the Notre-Dame des Tables church. nobility at the Cross of Saint-Michel, puissants secours pour sa défense. This marriage was extremely as a reward for what he done to his … C’est au nom de la Patrie que nous beneficial for Chaptal not only province. t’invitons et qu’au besoin, même, because of the dowry contributed by Chaptal studied many applications nous t’enjoignons de te render a the bride but also because her family of chemistry to industry; he published Paris”1 (There is a need of saltpetre in was extremely well related in society his book Eléments de Chimie that all of the Republic. Chemistry is a and industry. eventually would become Chimie profession from which the Republic Chaptal made a very fast career, Appliquée aux Arts3, the first French should obtain the most powerful aids already in 1789, under the kingdom of work on industrial chemistry. Two for its defence... It’s in the name of Louis XVI, he was appointed to the important industrial projects realized your country, who in her out of chemistry chair created in 1780 in by Chaptal were the production of red necessity looks to you, that we Montpellier by the Estates of brown pigment and sulphuric acid. At command you to come to Paris). This Languedoc; he was director of many that time the pigment was imported order was signed by Lazare Carnot mining and manufacturing enter- from England and Spain. The (1753-1823) and Prieur de la Côte- prises; a member of the Royal Order sulphuric acid he began manu- d’Or (1763-1832).2 Under the de Saint-Michel, and after May 12, facturing was of better quality and pressure of his friends, Chaptal 1788, a member of the nobility. cheaper than the one imported from accepted the appointment. After Chaptal (the same as Le Chátelier England. Within ten years Chaptal reporting to Maximilien Robespierre did later) tried to conciliate industry established himself as talented (1758-1794) he started working in the and science. He believed was that by entrepreneur that put the results of his general inspection until three months the use of chemistry in manufacturing chemical research into industrial acts. later a second edict arrived, issued on processes it would be possible to All these projects made Chaptal very April 22, 1794, appointing him liberate France from the tribute she rich and he invested his fortune Directeur de l’Agence Révo- was paying every year by importing wisely. Among his investments was lutionnaire des Poudres et Saltpêtres products for which there was no purchasing the Hotel Joubert in (Agency of the Revolution for reason she could not manufacture Montpellier. Gunpowder and Saltpeter) and herself. He used to criticize In 1789 he became infected with ordering him to organize the manufacturing chemists who enthusiasm by the reforms that would manufacture of explosives (see complained of the arbitrary progress take France away from a regime hated below). of certain operations, saying: by everyone, but the way in which the It is hard to explain how Chaptal, “Nature...obeys invariable laws; and Assemblies put in practice the re- thus compromised, was able in the the inanimate substance which we volution ideas, which were generous middle of the Terror regime, to evade make use of in our manufactures and just in theory, transformed him the scaffold and receive these high exhibits necessary effects in which eventually into a counter revo- functions (his dossier had been the will has no part and consequently lutionary.4 During the first months of presented three times to a committee in which caprices cannot take place.”2 1793 he was appointed Président du of the Revolution). The second edict In 1782 he installed in Le Paille, Comité Fédéraliste du Midi, a was signed by Louis-Bernard Guyton near Montpellier, an industry for committee that congregated the de Morveau (1737-1816), Prieur, and manufacturing sulphuric, nitric, and delegates of thirty-two Departments Lazare Carnot. Although these hydrochloric acids, alums, sodium and during the siege was located in members of the Convention were not sulfate, red and brown colors, red of Montpellier. He took under his ardent Montagnards (Note 4), for Andrianopolis, colors for cotton, responsibility the organization of the them national defens e was more enamels for bricks, copper sulfates troops, which were to fight those of important than politics; France was and copper acetate, glass for bottles, the Convention. invaded and in need of gunpowder. and pozzolans (Figure 1). His In the early 1790’s war was Chaptal had good friends among the principal collaborator was Etienne desolating Lozére and the North-west members of the Committee of Public
160 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003.
Committee of Public Health, par- 1818), and Amédée-Barthélemy society, although the latter had lost ticularly Antoine François Fourcroy Berthollet (1748-1822). He was also a much power. (1755-1809), Gaspar Monge (1746- high functionary of the franc mason
FIGURE CAPTION 1. Example of the price list of the chemicals manufactured by Chaptal.
161 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003.
After the Dix-Huit Brummaire hide her loathing for the Emperor’s positioned just below the first (Note 5) Napoléon Bonaparte behavior. Under the Restoration she platform of the structure, on the appointed him State Counsellor and became an aggressive royalist and outside. The letters in the names are ten months later, Minister of the showed an unlimited scorn for the 60 cm high. Chaptal’s name is located Interior. Now, Chaptal extended to prisoner of Sainte-Hélène.2 on the first façade, opposite the the national level what he had started Napoléon accepted Chaptal’s Trocadero. to do not long ago in Languedoc, that resignation but could not do without is, the transformation of industry by the services of such a distinguished Academic and political science. In 1801 he founded the administrator. He appointed him positions Society for the Encouragement of senator and then Count of Chateloup, Chaptal served in many positions National Industry that he directed after the name of a castle near showing the esteem he was held in the until the day of his death in 1832. Amboise. Chaptal now spent part of different political and academic Louis-Jacques Thénard (1777-1857) his time in Paris and the rest in his circles: In 1794 the Committee of succeeded him in this post. Chaptal estate where he dedicated to Public Instruction put him in charge created the first School of Arts et agricultural activities. He published of reorganizing the teaching of Métieres (School of Crafts and his works on chemistry applied to medicine in France; in 1798 he was Trades), and the School of Mines, he agriculture and to the professions5-8, nominated as Instituteur de Chimie, at enlarged the Collége de France and and wrote the draft of a book, Mes the École Polytechnique; replacing the Museum of Natural History. Souvenirs Sur Napoléon9, narrating Berthollet. He was appointed Grand While in Paris Chaptal undertook his life while at the service of the Officier de la Legion d’Honneur large public works: Rue Rivoli, the Emperor. Eventually, one of his (1804); treasurer of the Senate of the quais of the Rue Gauche, the Ourcq grandchildren published the book in Republic (1804); member of the channel, and the bridges of the Saint- 1893 adding a biography of Chaptal. Council of Commerce and Manu- Louis isle. He improved the prison Chaptal was a friend of Berthollet facturing (1810); Member of the High system and that of the hospitals; he and belonged to the Societé d’Arcueil. Council for Prisons (1818); appointed put the nuns Files de la Charité in He belonged to the Académie des by Louis XVIII as member of the charge of a hospital at the Hotel Dieu Sciences and the Chambre des Pairs, Chamber of Paris (1819); elected to and set up a Maternity ward there. In to where Napoléon had appointed him the Académie de Médecine (1820); his job of Minister of the Interior he during the Hundred-Days and Louis etc. undertook the high supervision of all XVIII, Charles X, and Louis Philippe imperial industries. It is under his had kept after the Restoration. Ruined Contributions orders that Thénard looked and found at 66 years of age, Chaptal was forced During his teaching tenure at the blue color necessary for the to sell Chanteloup and his hotel in Montpellier Chaptal published a large Manufacture de Sèvres. Being in Paris to pay the debts that his children number of research memoirs on a charge of public instruction he had incurred in the chemical industry. wide variety of subjects. These works proposed that Thènard be appointed Afterwards he lived modesty in Paris included: The pyrites of Languedoc; professor at the Collége de France. from the income of his other the extinct volcanoes of d’Adge, of Chaptal was also in charge of properties, until his death on July 30, Sainte-Thibéry, and of Gabian; the Beaux Arts and used this position to 1832. petroleum well of Gabian; the coal insure the admittance of his lover to One hundred years after his death, mines of Alès, Uzès, and Yeuset; the Comédie Française (she failed in the government of the Republic and decomposition of nitrous acid by her efforts to have an affaire with the French scientific societies phosphorus; generation of CO2 by the Napoléon). inaugurated a statue in his memory, fermentation of grapes and its conversion into acetic acid; In August 1804, Chaptal resigned erected in Gévaudan, his native town. 10 all of the sudden from his position. On the occasion of the bicentenary of crystallization of vitriolic acid ; According to his great-grandson the Chaptal’s birthday, the Archives of influence of light and air on the reason for the demission were the Lozère Department held an vegetation of salts; combustion of political differences with Napoléon, important exhibition of his sulfur; manufacture of glass without but others claim that the real reason documents. the help of soda; bleaching of old was jealousy. At that time Thérese As a suitable final remark we can prints and books by the action of oxygenated muriatic acid (chlo- Bourgoin was Chaptal’s lover. mention that when Gustave Eiffel 11,12 Thérese was a young woman with (1832-1923) built his famous tower in rine) ; etc. strong character with talent and spirit 1889, he decided to honor 72 The work on the crystallization of and who did not show respect for any distinguished French scientists by vitriolic (sulfuric) acid is interesting of the important persons of her time; putting their names in the structure. because it illustrates very well for example, she called Chaptal, the This 'invocation of science", as Eiffel Chaptal’s methodic approach to Minister, papa clystère (daddy called it, reflected his worry over observation of phenomena. His enema). Eventually she became one accusations that the tower was useless workers reported him that they had of Napoléon’s many lovers. After and waste less. There are eighteen found crystals in a sulfuric acid vessel Napoléon dropped her, she never did names per side of the tower, all that had been left in an outside storeroom of the factory.
162 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003.
Chaptal observed the presence of gave to the Societé Royale des for a single entrepreneur, the scale too solids that had crystallized as a Sciences on December 27, 1780. He large for the crown. hexahedral prism ending on a justified the project by pointing out The leading part in reforming the hexahedral pyramid (the paper that the Dutch bought yellow bole munitions industry was played by contains a drawing of the same), a from the locality of Berry at 16 sols Lavoisier. He made the munitions phenomenon that he could not per quintal and sold the finished industry his main occupation and understand. He then performed a large pigment at 10 to 12 livres per quintal. proceeded to revamp it by installing number of experiments using sulfuric Interesting enough, no local new administrative, technological, acid of different concentration and entrepreneur became interested in the and research policies that would taking advantage of the fact that it manufacture of the pigment. Its eventually turn it into a financial was winter and the outside production had to wait until 1782 success. He constructed new temperature was below freezing. when Chaptal decided to install a factories, mills, refineries, and Some of the samples corresponded to chemical factory on a piece of land he warehouses, reinforced the methods the liquid obtaining by melting of the had bought at La Paille. Passing from for checking the quality of crystals; others were the mother laboratory scale to industrial pro- production, and organized courses in liquor left after crystallization and the duction proved that the large scale physics, chemistry, and mathematics liquid obtained by distilling the latter. manufacturing of the pigment was not for the personnel. He also looked into He concluded that crystallization was economical because heating in the the possibility of enlarging saltpetre possible only within a certain furnace was not homogeneous and the production by building artificial concentration range (expressed as raw material had to go through nitrate works (nitrières). In addition, weight percent of acid). Highly expensive purification processes. He he published a manual giving concentrated acid did not crystallize. actually made the whole process potential investors very detailed In the early 1800’s Chaptal began economical when he found that the instructions on how to look for soils manufacturing chlorine bleach at his residues of the raw material could be containing saltpeter and how to factory. He was the first to use it for sold as cements. Once again, his extract, refine, evaporate, and whitening paper using a solution of practical approach succeeded and crystallize the product. chlorine in water. This procedure was made a fortune for him. In 1775, at the beginning of the used for the restoration of valuable Manufacture of gunpowder14 crash program, the Gunpowder Farm books in the French National Library. In 1774 Anne-Robert-Jacques was producing about 800 tons/year Production of red of Prussia Turgot (1727-1781), comptroller whereas 1600 tons were needed. The pigment (brown-red pigment) general of finance under Louis XVI measures taken by Lavoisier brought The economic development policy (1754-1793), the last King of France, about a dramatic increase in gun- that Chaptal put into action in the instituted a crash program to develop powder production, to 1,000 tons/year Estates of Languedoc led to such an the saltpeter industry and engaged the in 1777 and 1750 tons in 1787. economic boom that in 1780 the local help of the Académie des Sciences to Thanks to all the improvements authorities instituted for him a chair in achieve its objectives. He revoked the introduced by Lavoisier, French chemistry in Montpellier. contracts of the Powder Farmers and gunpowder became the best in Chaptal’s first contribution to local replaced them by a new adminis- Europe. The tables were now industry was the development of a tration, Régie royale des poudres et reversed, and part of the production process for the manufacture of the saltpêtres (Royal Gunpowder and was exported to Holland and Spain, as brown-red pigment. This material was Saltpeter Company). well as to America for use by the imported from Spain in large Four régisseurs (governors) were Revolutionaries. In thirteen and a half quantities and used for coloring the appointed to manage the operation: years the Régie was a resounding bricks and pavements of houses, for Le Faucheux and Barbault de financial success. It had paid the sums painting doors and windows of Glatigny, who were experienced in owned to the original Powder Farms country houses, and for coating the industry, and Jean François Clouet under their contract, and on the eve of barrels used by the French Navy. (1751-1801) and Antoine Laurent de the Revolution it had restored the Yellow clay bole (limonite clay) was Lavoisier (1743-1794), who were French munitions industry with large abundant in Languedoc; Chaptal had experienced chemists. The Académie profits and savings. tested the material by heating it in a was also ordered to draw up a detailed In 1794 Lavoisier was executed at furnace at medium heat and obtained work program that included a the guillotine and Chaptal was called a beautiful brown-red, superior to that literature survey on what was known to Paris as his substitute. There he purchased from England and Spain, about the formation of saltpeter and was put in charge of the Saint- which required addition of minium to the experimental routines to follow in Germain-des Prés gunpowder refinery hold the color. On the basis of his order to test the different ideas. At the and also of installing a large new experiences Chaptal proposed manu- same time, the Régie was given three refinery in Grenelle. These refineries facturing the material by heating the years to turn the project into reality. operated actively under his command; yellow bole in a reverberation furnace Eventually, the project would fail not Chaptal was under constant pressure until it achieved a brown color, which because of chemistry but of from the Committee demanding an on cooling turning into red.13 He incentives. The risks were too large increase of the daily production. It described his procedure in a talk he was necessary, simultaneously, to
163 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003. manufacture, to improve and cons- between the nitrous gas (NO) and BIBLIOGRAPHY truct. These exigencies lead to such a atmospheric oxygen. This nitrous gas 1. Pigeire J. La Vie et Euvre de disorder that at a certain time (August was extremely corrosive to the lead Chaptal, Domat-Montchrestien, 31, 1794) the Grenelle refinery coating of the furnace, it led to the Paris, 1931. exploded resulting in more than one appearance of a layer of lead white 2. Péronnet M. Chaptal. Biblio- thousand deaths. A week later that could be used for manufacturing thèque Historique Privat, Paris, (September 4, 1794) the Saint- white lead. 1988. Germain refinery caught fire, hardly Alums16 3. Chaptal J.A. Chimie Appliquée three months after it had initiated its Chaptal compared the principal aux Arts. Déterville, Paris, 1807. operations. Chaptal was not worried alums available at that time (alum of 4. Chaptal J.A. Cathéchisme à because of these difficulties because it Rome, alum of Levant, alum of l’Usage des Bons Patriotes. was after Thermidor (Note 6). England, and manufactured alum) and Tournel, Montpellier, 1790. Anyhow, it is not clear if because of commented about their nature and 5. Chaptal J.A., Tableau Analy- these industrial accidents or because different uses. The most valuable tique du Cours de Chimie. Picot, political reasons he was dismissed alum was that of Rome, it Montpellier, 1783. from his position at the factories. He commanded a price three times larger 6. Chaptal J.A. Eléments de Chimie. returned to Montpellier to teach than those of the others. A made a Picot, Montpellier, 1790. chemistry for the next four years, and thorough comparison among the 7. Chaptal J.A. L’Art de Faire le then returned to Paris to fund at different alum varieties, based on Vin. Déterville, Paris, 1807. Ternes, a large industry for the their calcination, dissolution in water, 8. Chaptal J.A. Chimie Appliquée à manufacture of chemicals. When and sulfuric acid treatment of the l’Agriculture. Huzard, Paris, moving to in Paris, he officially insoluble residue. 1823. resigned his chemistry chair at French economic geography 9. Chaptal J.A. Mes Souvenirs sur Montpellier and Joseph-Guillaume In 1819 Chaptal published one of Napoléon, Plon, Paris, 1893. Virenque replaced him. his most important books, De 10. Chaptal J.A. Observations sur la In his diary, Chaptal described in l’Industrie Française17, which may be Cristallisation de l’Huile de this words his achievements at the considered the most comprehensive Vitriol, Mémoires de l’Académie post: “During eleven months we and detailed exposition of France’s Royale, 622-630, 1784. manufactured twenty-two million industrial situation by the end of the 11. Chaptal J.A. Observations sur pounds of powder, an accomplish- XIX century. Its different chapters l’Acide Muriatique Oxigéné, ment so extraordinary that posterity cover the international commerce of Mémoires de l’Académie Royale, will scarcely credit it.”2 France with European countries and 611-616, 1787 15 Combustion of sulfur colonies, agriculture, manufacturing 12. Chaptal J.A. Notice sur une In this publication Chaptal industries, administration of the Nouvelle Méthode de Blanchir le reported his experience on the industry (including all pertinent Coton, J. Physique, 51,305-309 burning of sulfur in his chemical legislation), privileges, franchises, 1800. factory, in order to help improve the customs, and prohibitions. The book 13. Chaptal J.A. Moyens Simples et links that existed between the new contained a very large number of peu Coûteux de Faire du Brun- chemistry (after Lavoisier) and the art statistical tables that allowed the rouge Supérieur à Ceux of manufacturing. He indicated that reader to compare the industrial and d’Espagne et de Hollande; le Bol when sulfur was burned in a furnace economical situation before and after Jeune de Saint-Victor, Près caoted with lead then, by directing the the Revolution, the relative d’Uzès”, Premiers Mémoires sur fumes into another chamber, it was importance of each activity, and the Quelques Établissements Utiles à possible to obtain at will, sublimated influence of Government on the la Province de Languedoc, 1780. sulfur, molten sulfur, sulfurous acid industrial activity. 14. Wisniak J. "The History of (SO2), and sulfuric acid. To obtain The book may be considered the Salpeter Production - With a Bit sublimated sulfur it was necessary to first written exposition of the of Pyrotechnics and Lavoisier", pass a fast current of air; this economical geography of France after Chem. Educator [On line], 5(4), decreased the amount of oxidation the Revolution. The ultimate purpose 205-209; S1430-4171(00) 04401- and sulfur vapors deposited without of Chaptal’s analysis may be 8 (2000). alteration. When the conditions were expressed in his own words: “ J’ai cru 15. Chaptal J.A. Sur Quelques such that SO2 was produced it was qu’il étail de mon devoir de tracer la Phénomènes que Nous Présente possible to condense it, using low ligne qu’un gouvernement doit suivre, la Combustion du Soufre, Ann. temperatures, as had been described et de marquer la ligne où il doit Chim., 2, 86-91, 1789. by Gaspar Monge (1746-1818). s’arrêter” (I believe it was my duty to 16. Chaptal J.A. Comparée des Production of sulfuric acid was not trace the road that a government must Quatre Principales Sortes d’Alun possible using air alone; it was follow and to mark the line where it Connues dans le Commerce; et necessary to mix previously the sulfur must stop). Observations sur leur Nature et with saltpetre (KNO3). Chaptal The book was divided in two leur Usage, Ann. Chim., 22, 280- reported that use of saltpetre led to the volumes, with a total of about 550 296, 1797. generation of a red gas by the reaction pages.
164 Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2003.
17. Chaptal J.A. De l’Industrie 2. Cambacéres played a more reported that when phosphorus was Française. Renouard, Paris, important role than Chaptal in the burned to form acid, air seemed to be 1819; 2 volumes. Reprinted by French Revolution. He was deputy of absorbed. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier Impremerie National Éditions, l’Herault to the Convention, member (1743-1794) verified this finding. Paris, 1993. of the Council of the Five-Hundred, 4. The Montagnards were thus called Minister of Justice, and played a very because they sat on the highest Notes important role in the coupe de force benches of the Assembly. After the th 1. The Societé Royale des Sciences of the 18 of Brummaire. The first Second Republic they were identified was one of the oldest academies of Consulate was headed by Napoléon with the extreme right. the French Kingdom, having been (Premier consul) and had Cambacérès 5. Dix-Huit Brummaire (November 9, recognized in 1706. It was affiliated and Charles François Lebrun (1739- 1799), the date when a coup d’etat to the Académie des Sciences in Paris, 1824) as additional consuls. took place that replaced the Directory which gave the right to its senior 3. Pierre Mitouard was a Parisian with the Consulate and brought members (titulaires) to attend its pharmacist who offered chemistry sessions. courses at his establishment. He had
La Revista CENIC Ciencias Químicas le puede ayudar eficazmente a difundir su mensaje, así como a viabilizar sus contactos y propiciar intercambios y relaciones futuras con la comunidad científica nacional e internacional y sus instituciones respectivas.
Aproveche esta oportunidad que a módicos precios le ofrece para que su mensaje viaje y llegue con ella, a sus círculos especializados de lectores.
TARIFAS (USD)
$ 200 $ 100 $ 70 $ 300 $ 120 $ 50 $ 150 $ 350
1 2 2 P P ½ P /3 P /3 P ¼ P ¾ P 2 P CENTRALES $ 850.00 CONTRA CUBIERTA $ 500.00 REVERSO DE CUBIERTA O DE CONTRACUBIERTA (cuatricomía) (cuatricomía)
La contratación por un año (tres números) de este servicio, le proporciona como beneficio adicional, un descuento del 15 %.
Dirija su solicitud a: Editorial CENIC Centro nacional de Investigaciones Científicas, Ave. 25 y 158, Playa, Apartado postal 6412, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba.
165