Revista de Relaciones Editorial Internacionales, año Neogranadina Estrategia y Seguridad Vol. 14(2)

julio-diciembre 2019 ■ ISSN: 1909-3063 ▪ ISSN-e: 1909-7743 ■ pp. 155 - 177

DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.3756

Security Challenges for Small Island Developing States: The Case of *

João Paulo Madeiraa

Abstract: This article is an exploratory, descriptive study, with a qualitative and interdisciplinary approach. It integrates concepts and perspectives of contemporary history, international relations, and security studies. Its main aim is to analyse security issues in Africa, taking as a reference the Cape Verde archipelago, which is part of the group of Small Island Developing States. This matter suggests a wider multidimensional approach that prioritizes the intersection of data obtained from a critical analysis in order to deepen regional cooperation and integration mechanisms. This can provide the Cape Verdean state with strategic options to prevent and mitigate potential security threats.

Keywords: Africa; Cape Verde; Small Island Developing States; development and security.

Fecha de recibido: 9/11/2018 Fecha de evaluación: 21/03/2019 Fecha de aprobado: 28 /03/2019 Cómo citar: Madeira, J. P. (2019). Desafíos para la seguridad de los Pequeños Estados Insulares en Desarrollo: el caso de Cabo Verde. Revista Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia Y Seguridad, 14(2). pp. 155-177. https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.3756

* Project-based research in postdoctoral studies by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation at the School of Science and Technology, New University of Lisbon (fct-unl), as a member of the Network of realp (Net- work of Environmental Studies of Portuguese Speaking Countries).

a Assistant Professor at the (Uni-cv). Researcher at the Center for Public Adminis- tration and Public Policies (capp-iscsp-ul) and the Centre for Political and Social Sciences Research (cicsp- Uni-cv). Ph.D. in Social Sciences, University of Lisbon, Institute of Social and Political Sciences (iscsp-ul). orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0016-8167

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Desafíos de seguridad para los pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo: el caso de Cabo Verde

Resumen: el presente artículo es un estudio exploratorio-descriptivo de enfoque cualitativo e interdisciplinario, que integra conceptos y perspectivas de la historia contemporánea, las rela- ciones internacionales y los estudios de seguridad. Tiene como objetivo principal analizar los problemas de seguridad en África, tomando como referencia el archipiélago de Cabo Verde, que forma parte del grupo de pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo. Este tema sugiere un en- foque multidimensional más amplio que priorice el cruce de los datos obtenidos a partir de un análisis crítico con el fin de profundizar los mecanismos de cooperación e integración regional, lo que puede brindar opciones estratégicas al Estado de Cabo Verde para prevenir y mitigar amena- zas potenciales de seguridad.

Palabras clave: África; Cabo Verde; pequeños Estados insulares en desarrollo; desarrollo y seguridad.

Desafios de segurança para os pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento: o caso de Cabo Verde

Resumo: Este artigo é um estudo exploratório-descritivo de abordagem qualitativa e interdisci- plinar, que integra conceitos e perspectivas da história contemporânea, das relações internacio- nais e dos estudos de segurança. Tem como objetivo principal analisar os problemas de segu- rança na África, tomando como referência o arquipélago de Cabo Verde, que faz parte do grupo de pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento. Esse tema sugere uma abordagem multi- dimensional mais ampla que priorize o cruzamento dos dados obtidos a partir de uma análise crítica a fim de aprofundar os mecanismos de cooperação e integração regional, o que pode oferecer opções estratégicas ao Estado de Cabo Verde para prevenir e mitigar ameaças potenci- ais de segurança.

Palavras-chave: África; Cabo Verde; pequenos Estados insulares em desenvolvimento; desenvolvi- mento e segurança.

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Introduction To answer these questions, we suggest a flexible and interdisciplinary approach Studies on insular territories have gai- (Graça, 2014, p. 70), prioritizing the ned prominence since the 1990s, in- intersection of environmental sustaina- sofar as institutions and international bility, contemporary history, internatio- organizations have been focusing on nal relations and security studies. The their systematization and consolida- method is based on the triangulation tion (Baldacchino, 2007). In this con- of data obtained from a critical view. text, Cape Verde is no exception to the For this purpose, a systematic review rule for its paradigmatic position in the of scientific literature has been under- African region, which makes it wor- taken through searches in different thy of study. We analyse Small Island databases, thus allowing a selection Developing States (sids), especially the of articles to characterize African sids. Cape Verde archipelago, regarding se- This also entailed the identification of curity challenges in Africa based on its environmental, economic and social geographical features. In addition, we vulnerabilities in order to evaluate intend to dissect to what extent the knowledge of the subject. The analy- socio-economic and territorial struc- sis of results is mainly concerned with ture of African sids can help them get carrying out all the necessary actions to greater comparative advantages in the achieve the goals of the research. This international panorama. is justified since there is not only one approach, nor a ‘theory of small states’ In order to delimit the subject matter, able to explain their behaviour (Freire, we propose the following questions 2007, p. 73). which will constitute the starting point for this research: How will Cape Ver- Another reason for this methodological de fight the proliferation of pheno- choice is that there are few studies that mena that threaten its security? The relate sids security implications with archipelago and the other sids have environmental challenges on the Afri- daily limitations and structural constra- can continent. The works of Adebajo ints resulting from insularity and their and Rashid (2004) and Sharamo and vulnerability. In this regard, what mo- Mestin (2011) present a broad view of del for regional integration would be security in Africa, but little about the more appropriate to mitigate these role of sids; therefore, we seek to open threats? Taking into account the cost- new perspectives, particularly in rela- benefit ratio of high amounts spent on tion to the case of Cape Verde. the modernization of information and communication systems, can these in- This research allows us to analyse the vestments be a viable solution to envi- impact of the environmental security ronmental and security problems? of African sids on the geopolitical de-

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sign. Regarding the lack of theoretical similar concerns about their territorial evidence that relates sids and environ- development. These countries are mental mismanagement, natural re- particularly vulnerable to the negative source depletion, and lack of adequate consequences of climate change such security controls on the African conti- as rising sea levels, tropical storms, and nent, we try to provide researchers and long periods of drought like those fre- experts on the subject with a contribu- quently occurring in Cape Verde or, on tion that can be of public interest. the contrary, of abundant rainfall like in the São Tomé and Príncipe archipe- Integration of island territories in lago. These were some of the reasons the international context why island territories gained, through aosis, voice and visibility at different Since the 1990s, there has been a clear meetings that have been held since evolution of studies on island territo- the 1990s. ries because, besides being an empiri- cal basis for the application of different The concern of these territories is jus- scientific theories ranging from biology tified insofar as it is conjectured that, to biophysics, and from geography to over the next century, the sea level political science and international rela- may rise by an average of 6 cm per de- tions, they have also promoted intense cade (Swain, 2016). As it represents a debate within the academic communi- real threat to island states and coastal ty. Other specialized research centres zones, the aosis, whose members are and international academic institutions engaged in regional groups such as the have sought to invest in this area and, South Pacific Regional Environment therefore, safeguard the research nature Programme (sprep), required concer- of the maritime and terrestrial territory. ted actions in order to promote the development of these territories. Des- In 1989, unesco created the Internatio- pite not having a formal structure and nal Scientific Council for Island Deve- a status like that of other international lopment (insula), a non-governmental organizations, the aosis has an office in organization that promotes cultural, New York that advises its members to technical and scientific cooperation work on major current issues in a coor- among island states towards sustaina- dinated way in order to better prepare ble development. their negotiating positions.

It was during the 2nd World Climate In June 1992, the United Nations Conference held in 1990 in Geneva, Conference on Environment and De- Switzerland, that coastal islands and velopment (unced) was held in Rio small island territories established, de Janeiro to discuss environmental with the support of the United Nations issues, believing that, when organi- (un), the Alliance of Small Island Sta- zed, it is possible to achieve sustaina- tes (aosis), a coalition of states sharing ble development. Agenda 21, which

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was established as the unced strate- lopment, production and sustainable gic action plan, is the first to officia- consumption, health and culture. lly recognize sids and emphasize the importance of putting into effect Na- On 20-22 June 2012, the un Confe- tional Sustainable Development Stra- rence on Sustainable Development tegies (nsdss) that seek to, firstly, find (Rio+20) was held, where represen- the best solutions and mechanisms for tatives of 193 countries adopted the development and, secondly, outline final declaration entitled The Future policies, programs and real actions in We Want, which envisages the launch this regard(unced, 1992). of a process to establish Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs). Regarding To reaffirm these commitments, the sids, they reaffirmed the development un held in May 1994, in Barbados, commitment which takes into account a conference intended to guide sids their regional specificities, in view of in adopting strategies, programs and global environmental problems, inclu- plans that would respect the right to ding climate change, natural disasters development. It was recommended and rising sea levels. that these countries, according to their On 1-4 September 2014, the un orga- specific characteristics and priorities, nized in Samoa the 3rd Conference on used all efforts for regional develop- sids, where they discussed the thematic ment taking into account the objec- lines for the establishment of partner- tives of sustainable development and ships, namely, sustainable economic strengthened national institutions in development, climate change and di- the mobilization of available resour- saster and risk management, social de- ces, so as to promote better living con- velopment, health and prevention of ditions for their inhabitants (un, 1994). non-communicable diseases, contribu- Through strategic coordination and tion to sustainable energies, the role of international lobbying, the aosis has the oceans and seas in the preservation promoted sids, establishing cooperati- of biodiversity, water and sanitation, ve relations with developing countries, food security and waste management. in particular those belonging to g77. The final declaration of the Conference had as its motto The Way Forward and The 2nd un Conference on sids took pla- focused on the need to establish part- ce in Mauritius on 10-14 March 2005, nerships ‘with’ and ‘for’ sids. resulting in the review of the Barbados Programme of Action, whose aim was sids are recognized as a group of island to outline strategies for its implemen- developing countries that are located tation around five new core themes: in different regions of the world (Figure trade, globalization and liberalization, 1) and which face specific social, eco- strengthening of education for deve- nomic and environmental problems.

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Figure 1. Geographical Location of sids. Source: scidev (2014).

Located mainly in the intertropical can Samoa, Anguilla, Aruba, Bermuda, zone, the sids are predominantly con- British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, centrated in the Caribbean region, Commonwealth of the Northern Ma- Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean rianas, Cook Islands, Curacao, French (Faizal, 1996). The United Nations Polynesia, Guadeloupe, Guam, Mar- Department of Economic and Social tinique, Montserrat, New Caledonia, Affairs (undesa) recognizes that, cu- Niue, Puerto Rico, St Maarten, Turks rrently, 58 small states and insular te- and Caicos Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands) rritories are part of the sids, of which non-members that are often associa- 38 (Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, ted with regional commissions. Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Cape Ver- de, Comoros, Cuba, Dominica, Do- In the definition of sids, we use a set of minican Republic, Federated States of elements such as geographic area, po- Micronesia, Fiji, Grenada, Guinea-Bis- pulation size, economic and environ- sau, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Kiribati, mental characteristics (Pantin, 1994). It Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, is difficult, however, to present a con- Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, sensual definition due to the heteroge- Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint neous characteristics of these territories. Vincent and the Grenadines, Singa- pore, Suriname, Samoa, São Tomé e The expression small island state can be Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, defined as a state which usually covers Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and To- less than 1,000 km2, with a population bago, Tuvalu, Vanuatu) are members below 1 million inhabitants. But there of the United Nations and 20 (Ameri- are territories with more than 27,000

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km2 such as the Solomon Islands and km². Another characteristic is that the others with less than 22 km2 as in the state is regarded as sovereign. case of Nauru. With regard to demogra- phic variables, the same scenario some- A small state, from the perspective of times seems hard to be operationalized, the un, corresponds to extremely small since in some states like Singapore and identities in territory, population, hu- Mauritius the number of inhabitants ex- man and economic resources, which ceeds 1 million (Bass & Dalal-Clayton, are assigned the characteristic of being 1995, p. 5). There is a disagreement small under a criterion of comparison, about the quantifiable quantitative or without being absolute (Rapaport, Mu- qualitative criteria to be considered in teba, & Therattil, 1971). Small states order to define a small state (Neumann —islands in this case— meet different & Gstöhl, 2006), taking into account criteria according to the UN: popula- material, military and scientific resou- tion of less than 1.5 million inhabitants, rces, territorial space, demographic political sovereignty or autonomy re- weight, and/or institutional, political cognized by the un, and an area under and moral factors (Maass, 2009). 5,000 km² (Tolentino, 2007).

The definition of small state varies de- The sids are considered vulnerable and pending on the criteria that each entity insular territories that have a reduced uses, which can be quantitative or qua- population and territorial dimension, litative (Tolentino, 2007). We should combined with the isolation, vulnera- bear in mind that when applying a pre- bility to the occurrence of natural di- cise and rigorous definition, numerous sasters, scarcity of natural resources, exceptions could emerge (Hey, 2003). excessive dependence on interna- Considering the territorial dimension tional trade, lack of economy of sca- as the main criterion, although it is le, and high costs of transport and not consensually crucial, a small state administration infrastructures. These is usually presented as a tiny territory, characteristics require investment in which has a relatively small population infrastructure, communication, trans- with limited resources (Fox, 2006). port and energy. In addition, “the resolution capacity of the existing ins- To characterize a state as to its dimen- titutions is equally meaningful” (Swain, sion, one should take into considera- 2016, p. 152). tion both quantitative and qualitative aspects. So, one should apply a defini- The geographical dispersion of sids tion that avoids rigid and exclusionary constrains the geopolitical and geo- specifications, rather than a global de- economic context of the region in finition (Vital, 1971). The un, for exam- which they are inserted, having direct ple, even presents various criteria, implications on political stability, eco- such as a population below 2,500,000 nomic growth, development and coo- inhabitants and an area under 5,000 peration with other states (Sanguin,

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1981). The un has organized seve- Security challenges for Small Island ral meetings in order to discuss the- Developing States se issues, aware that sids, on the one hand, face various problems and, on African sids face a set of challenges the other, play a particularly important since the traditional armed conflict role in the global balance. Sustainabili- —corruption, transnational organized ty and development of these island te- crime, maritime piracy and environ- rritories necessarily include mobilizing mental problems such as climate chan- public and private capital, promoting ge, natural disasters and development good governance, political stability, problems— with negative effects on and macroeconomic policies directed the maintenance of peace and interna- to the development of human capital tional security (Payne & Sutton, 1993). (Boto & Biasca, 2012). They are both interconnected and in- To mitigate or recover from structu- terdependent. The same applies to the ring, environmental, economic and concepts of security and defence. They geographic impacts, which are usually have been evolving over the years. If se- beyond the control of states (Taglioni, curity is characterized by a set of mea- 2010), several insular territories invest sures that seeks to ensure peace among in resiliency from the interaction bet- the states when applied to different con- ween structural forces, for example, texts, defence highlights a set of goals through the efforts of agencies and including to prepare deterrent means of fundamental institutions and the par- aggression or those that are able to stop ticipation in community organizations. it (Moreira, 1988). Concerning the con- They usually opt for certain lifestyles in cept of defence, it focuses on the appli- order to find adaptation strategies to cation of several methods, including the safeguard themselves from the nega- use of force or dissuasive actions aiming tive consequences of climate change at confronting threats or aggression. In (Swain, 2016, p. 152). this context, we include, for example, the Armed Forces’ direct action, integra- Although island territories have played ted activities with other units of the state, a very important role in the world eco- and the information policy with preven- nomy, in which some have stood out — tive and repressive purposes. major powers like Japan and the United Kingdom—, the sids are often identified This study pertains to today’s geopoli- as ‘unfeasible’ since they are characte- tics, seeking to help politics in the defi- rized as vulnerable and economically nition of its objectives and to contribute dependent territories that continuously to “the strategic method, particularly face several economic, social, environ- in building credible and sustainable mental, and security challenges. scenarios” (Dias, 2005, p. 59). Since threats are complex and unevenly dis- tributed by coastal developing states,

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as well as by the least developed sta- man (2007), Raleigh and Urdal (2007), tes and island developing states, this Detraz and Batsill (2009) and Trombetta research aims to analyse and highlight (2008) have been working on security “the study of the constants and varia- and environmental issues, considering bles of the space accessible to the man that there is a causal relation between who, by objectifying himself in building the scarcity of natural resources and in- assessment and employment models, terstate and intrastate conflicts. This re- or the threat of using forms of coercion, search does not seek to delve into these projects the geographic knowledge of issues, but we believe that geographical strategic action” (iaem, 1993, p. 11). and environmental features intervene and influence the security of African sids In fact, these are real problems, which, (Zaki & Parakh, 2008) (Figure 2). however, should not be generalized. Each case should be carefully analysed. Threats Due to the high cost that investment should be identified, assessed and pro- in the sector of security may imply, perly neutralized through appropriate one believes that cross-sectoral stra- measures for each case. This should also tegies and coordinated actions should extend to all that is likely to create conflict be outlined in order to empower or impede the protection of a right. African sids to better cope with their space and geostrategic and geopoliti- Security is a feeling of protection aga- cal position. With the purpose of en- inst threats of any kind that is necessary suring strength and internal cohesion for and indispensable to a society and and, consequently, external security, every individual, group or organiza- it is necessary to work on populations’ tion. From the realist perspective, the ability of resilience to better deal with state is the main actor and almost the the problems that affect their territory. exclusive security reference. This was When the sense of area for African is- the perspective until mid-1980’s. Sin- land territories was discussed, the sea ce the 1990’s, other dimensions have was one of the central elements for arisen around the concept of securi- presenting two geopolitical sides, de- ty, also comprising military, political, pending on the relationship with it, economic, societal and environmental “either it is an open door to the World, components (Buzan, 1991). This view or an unprotected flank from where aroused the interest for other theoreti- the greatest threats may come” (No- cal and methodological approaches to gueira, 2011, p. 261). In having low security, covering human groups (Bu- capacity for efficient surveillance of zan, 1991), societies (Buzan, Weaver, & their maritime borders, some island Wilde, 1997), communities (Alagappa, states, particularly in West Africa (for 1998), and individuals (Alkire, 2003). example, Guinea-Bissau), have been making room for the multiplication of Several researchers like Barnett and Ad- transnational organized crime (Chabal ger (2007), Brown, Hammill, and McLe- & Green, 2016).

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Figure 2. Geographic Location of African sids. Source: undp (2018).

In the last decade, the United Nations ted. The ship from South America Office on Drugs and Crime (unodc) had as destination the port of Tangier official data indicates that large amou- in Morocco. The stopover at the port nts of cocaine are stored in West Afri- of was to follow legal procedu- can countries. Its origin is mainly South res related to the death, on board, of America and is carried to Western Afri- one of the crew members. This ope- ca by sea. Three main routes are used, ration was developed because of an namely, the Northern route, from the ongoing investigation, resulting from Caribbean via the Azores to Portugal the exchange of operational informa- and Spain; the South America Cen- tion with maoc-n (the Maritime Analy- tral route via Cape Verde or Madei- sis and Operation Centre – Narcotics) ra and the Canary Islands to Europe; whose headquarters are in Lisbon. In and more recently, the South America this operation of search, unloading, African route to West Africa and, then, packaging, transport and custody of to Spain and Portugal (unodc, 2018a; the seized product, the pj had the 2018b) (Figure 3). cooperation of the Portuguese Judicial Police, the French National Police and In this context, we should recall that, national security forces (Armed Forces on 31 January 2019, Cape Verde Ju- and Maritime Police), the Cape Ver- dicial Police (pj) seized, at the port of dean (enapor) and Port of Praia port Praia, a cargo ship with a Panamanian authorities. On February 2, 2019, the flag named eser, which contained 260 pj incinerated the 9,570 kg of seized bales of cocaine, weighing 9,570 kg. drugs at Praia’s waste disposal (Infor- Eleven Russian citizens were arres- press, 2019).

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Figure 3. The Flow of Cocaine through West Africa. Source: unodc (2018a)

Traffickers’ boats have been, in many taking into account their characteris- cases, registered in Panama, Liberia or tics (Table 1). But this should not ex- Togo. This is because they do not pay clusively rely on the state; focus should taxes for it. Most have as destination be placed above all on human securi- the ports of Las Palmas de Gran Cana- ty (Tadjbakhsk & Chenoy, 2009) since ria (Spain), Tangier or Dakhla (Moroc- states themselves, particularly non-de- co) in order to reach Europe (cenozo, mocratic ones, can be a threat to their 2019). Furthermore, it is worth noting citizens and those of other member that illegal migration and other types of states (Hasen & Buzan, 2009). organized crime, such as terrorist ba- ses, have been growing in the region Because of the smallness of their terri- of West Africa (World Bank, 2011). It tories, reduced population size, isola- is focusing on these threats that securi- tion and scarcity of natural resources, ty issues have taken on greater promi- nence worldwide (Bernardino, 2008; as well as the exposure to environmen- Bernardino & Leal, 2011), in particular tal challenges, it is for African sids to act for African sids (Stuart, 2014). in several strategic sectors, which ne- cessarily implies the making of policies In order to ensure interstate and intras- on governance, human rights, the fight tate peace (Moreira, 1988), security for against transnational organized crime, African sids should be established as an and the bet on sustainable and inclu- action field for other strategic sectors, sive growth.

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Table 1. Characterization of African sids

Gross Land area Population (thousands African sids domestic Strategic location (km2) of inhabitants) product Approximately 500 km off the 1,754 Cape Verde 4,030 546,388 African West Coast (off the coast of billion USD Senegal) 648,9 Off the African East coast and 230 Comoros 1,861 813,912 million USD km from Mozambique West Africa, bordering Senegal (to Guinea- 1,347 28,120 1,861,000 the North), Guinea Conakry (to the Bissau billion USD South and East) 13,34 In the Tropic of Capricorn and 855 Mauritius 2,030 1,265,000 billion USD km east of Madagascar In the region of the Gulf of Guinea São Tomé 390,9 960 204,327 and 250 km from the northwest and Príncipe million USD coast of Gabon 1,486 1,100 km northeast of Madagascar Seychelles 455 95,843 billion USD and 1,600 km east of Kenya

Source: Compiled by the author based on the websites: https://data.worldbank.org/ and http://unctadstat. unctad.org/EN/. Accessed on 22 February 2019.

The evolution of political processes rally vulnerable and fragile; therefore, on the African continent —especially the implementation of said reforms the issue of the construction of Afri- should be in accordance with an inter- can nations (Graça, 2005)— which national integration and cooperation are adversely affected by the prolife- plan that makes it possible to mitigate ration of forms of conflict, has con- national security threats. tributed to the emergence of a set of fragile states that threaten peace, Cape Verde: From security issues to stability and international security development strategies (Collier, 2007). We are facing what Castells (1997) defines as a network Discovered between 1460 and 1462 society. This has enabled globaliza- by navigators serving the Portuguese tion of various types of crimes that are crown, Cape Verde is in the middle of increasingly interdependent, which the Atlantic Ocean between Africa, Eu- requires precautions in order to tri- rope and the Americas. Being a small gger all the mechanisms for the mo- island state, consisting of ten islands bilization of resources to fight them and several islets of volcanic origin, the (Keohane & Nye, 2001). archipelago has a reduced geographic dimension, a land surface of 4,030 Some states lack the necessary capaci- km2 and a population of 539,560 in- ty to be resilient since they are structu- habitants (World Bank, 2016).

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Cape Verde is a vulnerable, isolated Aware of the efforts that Cape Verde state that lies off Senegal approxima- has made to promote consistent and tely 500 km from the West African sustainable development, we under- coast, situated between parallels 17º line that socio-economic evolution 12’ and 14º 48’ N and meridians 22º is subject to various structural cha- 41’ and 25º 22’ W. These features racteristics and intrinsic weaknesses, involve additional costs to finance its which are major challenges. Insularity development, making this a country itself constitutes one of the limitations, dependent on direct foreign inves- which implies a negative impact on the tment flows. development process of the country; therefore, this should not be set aside Independence in 1975 allowed Cape on the policy options for the sector. Verde to earn “a statute of full member The situation has been getting worse of the international community and for two decades since the archipelago acquire several compromises in order does not have enough resources for to promote its economic and social the surveillance of its vast maritime te- development, as well as to defend its rritory, especially in its Exclusive Eco- territorial integrity” (Madeira, 2015, p. nomic Zone (eez), which results in the 68). This landmark allowed the coun- fragility of its borders. Cape Verde is, in try to get respect and recognition from the context of West Africa, referred to international institutions and organiza- as one of the main routes from South tions. It was able, through the creation America to Europe. Given the prolife- of conditions and resilience strategies, ration of these forms of transnational to alleviate the negative effects of insu- organized crime, the archipelago, by larity, taking opportunities for growth its privileged geographic position, has and socio-economic development. been chosen for illegal activities (Gar- cia, 2017). Cape Verde occupies a privileged po- sition between the Atlantic shores and, Considering this scenario, there is an for this reason, has raised interest in the urgent need to think about strategies establishment of different partnerships involving Cape Verde’s current geopo- (Amante da Rosa, 2007; Matos, 2012). litical value; however, it is necessary It should be noted that the country’s to clarify that there are two main di- integration in the Economic Commu- vergent lines of analysis that should be nity of West African States (ecowas) considered with regard to this value has been important in the fight against (Tavares, 2016). The first argues that transnational organized crime, with a Cape Verde’s geographical importance particular focus on drug trafficking and is due, above all, to its important loca- the strengthening of bilateral coopera- tion in the Middle Atlantic. The second tion with other states outside the Com- line of analysis, which is opposite, de- munity (Évora, 2014) (Figure 4). values the geopolitical positioning.

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Figure 4. Map of State Members of the ecowas. Source: zif (2016)

The archipelago strategic value should to the international geopolitical and comply with political variabilities and geostrategic dynamics” (Tavares, 2016, economic dynamics. Further, it is also p. 13), although it keeps the importan- possible to realize that the whole dis- ce that distinguishes it from other spa- cursive analysis around specific is- ces for their particularities, one being land characteristics of Cape Verde is the geographical proximity to different a mere appropriation of history. Both geopolitical and geoeconomic dyna- geopolitical dynamics and historical mic spaces that will hardly stop being conjunctures condition and activa- a place of intense international traffic. te “the valences that, in a particular Given this context, Cape Verde should time, make a particular place or spa- profit from its position within regional ce be more or less conducive to the organizations to enable the expres- coordination of boards and relatio- sion of a new international identity, nal flows with other spaces” (Tavares, especially marked by the idea that it 2016, p. 13). The author presents a can act conscious of its geographical more detailed and in-depth analysis, dimension and the scarcity of natural considering that the archipelago cu- and economic resources. The country rrently has “a great strategic value to will be able to strengthen its position of the transnational criminal networks, security and credibility through geopo- which have proliferated with regard litics, seeking, above all, to cultivate

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national unity from the internal point At this Conference, the name of the of view with repercussions in promo- group of African Small Island States ting dialogue and international peace was changed to group of Small Island (Madeira, 2015). The Cape Verde-nato Developing States and Madagascar, partnership is of extreme importance which includes Cape Verde, Como- to both, regarding costs and benefits ros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mau- (Varela, 2007). Balanced partnerships ritius, São Tomé and Príncipe, and should be established for both entities, Seychelles. The Conference aimed at with mutual obligations and counter- providing an agreement platform to parts, aware of the fact that within the promote, among international orga- framework of international politics and nizations —starting with the African diplomatic relations there are neither Union (au)—, ways for African Island winners, nor losers. States to overcome difficulties, thus making effective the recommenda- As a small state that, by default, is tions and existing commitments at re- considered a “security net importer” gional and global levels. To this end, (Freire, 2007, p. 73), Cape Verde is, topics were scheduled according to in the international context, a unit the dynamics of the implementation that tends to get more help than that of the 2063 African Agenda, the Small it can effectively offer. To compensate Island Developing States Accelerated for its limitations, Cape Verde needs Modalities of Action (samoa Pathway), to associate and ally with other states, and the 2030 Agenda of the sdgs. whether small or large, thus benefiting from international institutions and or- At the 72nd un General Assembly (22 ganizations (Almeida, 2012). Further- September 2017), the current Pri- more, strategic coordination between me Minister of Cape Verde, Ulisses Cape Verde and African Small Island Correia e Silva —corroborating the States is necessary, in the adoption visions of other attending states’ re- of mechanisms that ensure security, presentatives— argued that among mainly for environmental preserva- the member states of the group, there tion, communication technologies and is the political will to join forces and maritime development. It was in these share development experiences, inte- sectors that interests converged, as evi- racting with regional and international denced at various international mee- organizations (lusa, 2016). The major tings held in Praia in 2004 and 2015. challenges faced by African Small Is- The last one took place on 16-17 De- land States require joint and assertive cember 2016, within the framework of actions effectively allowing a better the 1st Ministerial Conference of Afri- integration in development core the- can Developing Island States and Ma- mes. The empowerment of institutions dagascar also held in this town, which and human resources is demanded resulted in the Declaration of Praia from small island states in order to (mnec, 2016). build partnerships, taking advantage

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of their potential. The Prime Minister try needs to fight the phenomena that also drew attention to climate change, threaten its security. among other things, to fund adaptation measures in the most vulnerable cou- Recognizing its limitations as a small ntries and regions since Cape Verde state with scarce resources and which prioritizes the implementation of the excels in terms of aid mobilization Paris Agreement (un NEWS, 2018). To- for development, Cape Verde should gether, they will be stronger and provi- continue to promote a culture of so- de the necessary conditions to tackle cial peace reflected on internal and their vulnerabilities and create forms of external policies and bet on a diplo- resilience, as the scarce natural resou- macy of modesty and closeness based rces and the effects of climate change on the principles of peace in order to are major concerns. resolve or circumvent socioeconomic constraints. It is necessary to invest in The issue of vulnerability should be- the projection of Cape Verde at the re- come a priority for global sustainabi- gional level since the country occupies lity because for island states the big a privileged geographic position in the challenge is to outline a strategy com- West African region, and this can allow patible with the international agenda fundraising through international coo- so that they can, within the au and peration. other international forums, present joint programs under different global We have as a recent example Cape agendas. To Ulrika Richardson, resi- Verde’s participation in the Conferen- dent coordinator of the un System in ce for International Donors and Inves- Cape Verde from March 2016 to June tors in Paris under the motto Building 2018, climate change is one of the New Partnerships for the Sustainable central problems of small states and, Development of Cape Verde. On 11- therefore, she calls for international 12 December 2018, the Government political commitment, believing that made it clear it intends to continue to the un will continue to support mem- make the archipelago a Middle Atlan- ber states in order to achieve sustai- tic circulation economy based on the nable development (Expresso das recognition of human capital. This Ilhas, 2016). involves taking decisive measures in order to enhance the geographic lo- For the sustainable development of cation for connectivity among Africa, Cape Verde, it is desirable that joint Europe and the Americas. coordination mechanisms are develo- ped around fundraising, job creation The country has political, institutional, and the bet on the improvement of the social and economic stability based on inhabitants’ living conditions because, the importance of its human capital besides overcoming the issue of insu- and the confidence in its relations with larity and its vulnerabilities, the coun- investors, particularly development

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partners. These are some of the ele- as several world powers, have given ments that will enable: particular importance to these aspects not only due to their pragmatic posi- to place Cape Verde as a platform tion, but also because of their efforts for tourism, air transport, port ope- in fulfilling the sdgs. Nevertheless, it rations, trade and investment ope- is possible to observe, through a look- rations, in the digital economy and back, that the gains achieved so far in financial services; to promote a and that the great challenge faced by positive inclusion of Cape Verde in Cape Verde is related to external se- the collective and cooperative secu- curity without neglecting the efforts it rity systems, in particular, maritime has made in promoting internal secu- security and the fight against border rity and citizens’ fundamental rights. transnational crime […] turning the Although it is a small state that suffers integration of Cape Verde in ecowas due to its insularity and the conse- into opportunities for investors, to quences of social vulnerability prevent enhance the integration of Cape it from having more balanced socio- Verde in Macaronesia as first neigh- economic development, these features borhood space with the eu and a are not necessarily an insuperable ba- privileged space for triangular coo- rrier to economic performance (Arm- peration” (, 2018). strong et al., 1998).

Conclusions The establishment of alliances with other states, regional and international When one analyses the issues of se- institutions and organizations should curity and development taking into be strategic options for Cape Verde to account the geographical characteris- mitigate threats to its national security. tics and configuration of African Small With scarcity of natural resources and Island States, we should highlight the the need for external support, the ar- remarkable course of Cape Verde chipelago should be aware of the need within the framework of regional inte- to deepen relations with its internatio- gration and the international panora- nal partners, especially in the African ma. An aspect to consider is that the region where it is inserted, and to re- archipelago has a privileged geostrate- inforce its role in international trade gic position in the Middle Atlantic and by betting on strategic sectors such as political stability and good governan- tourism and in the development of the ce. The country has been prioritizing, small island economies. since its independence in July 1975, its territorial security and excelling in pea- In comparison with other African Small ce policies and international solidarity. Island States, including São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles and Mauritius, It is not by chance that international Cape Verde, by its geopolitical and institutions and organizations, as well geostrategic position, is one of the

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most wanted territories by transnatio- dealing with this issue consider that is- nal organized crime networks. Located land states such as Cape Verde need to in the Gulf of Guinea, São Tomé and form external partnerships in order to Príncipe is less preferred by these net- obtain human, material, logistical and works, which does not mean that the technological resources through an in- country is immune to these problems. tegrated effort that ensures the safety of Seychelles and Mauritius, in spite of their citizens, hoping that they result in being in the Indian Ocean, are also positive long-term effects. The forms of affected by the conflicts in Sudan and cooperation should be adapted to the by the phenomena of maritime piracy reality of Cape Verde in order to effec- in the Persian Gulf. tively respond to the threats arising in this subregion, as these go beyond the Insularity and the vast maritime space state’s capabilities and, therefore, the bring constraints that defy the Cape country cannot act on its own. Verdean state in the search for best strategic alternatives. The geostrategic References position of Cabo Verde also has poten- tial and vulnerabilities to project the Adebajo, A. & Rashid, I. (Eds.) (2004). country at an international level since West Africa’s Security Challenges: it can play an extremely important role Building Peace in a Troubled Region. both in the North and South Atlantic Bulder: Lynne Rienner. and thus constitutes an important plat- form to create a peace and coopera- Alagappa, M. (Ed.) (1998). Asian Secu- tion system in the West African region. rity Practice: Material and Ideational Over time, insularity and geopolitical Influences. Stanford: Stanford Uni- positioning have given the archipelago versity Press. a set of potentialities, in particular its Alkire, S. (2003). A Conceptual Fra- importance as intercontinental point mework for Human Security. crise of connection for trade, economic and Working Paper 2. Queen Elizabeth cultural relations. However, it is urgent House, University of Oxford: 1-52. that the state of Cape Verde invests Almeida, P. (2012). Do Poder do Pe- in an integrated computer system for queno Estado. Lisboa: iscsp. surveiling and monitoring the coastal zone that is adequate to its reality and Amante da Rosa, M. (2007). Geoestra- combines, in a balanced way, its cha- tégia de Cabo Verde no Atlântico racteristics and needs. Médio. Revista Direito e Cidadania, 25/26, 163-187. Participation in multilateral mecha- Armstrong, H., Hervenoael, R. J., Li, X. nisms is fundamental in the framework M., & Read, R. (1998). A Compa- of mutual assistance, cooperation, and rison of the Economic Performance respect for sovereignty and territorial of Different Micro-States and Bet- integrity. The majority of researchers ween Micro-States and Larger Cou-

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