Rodin L., 2019 www.volsu.ru 16 конечномпоследняяобоих в случаях в итогеутвердилась менеенеавтоматизацию.поддерживалаи Тем начала самого с программа космическая российскаягруппы, профессиональной каккосмонавтов ления кихарактеризуется первоначальной борьбой с автоматизацией, которая средствомвоспринималась ослаб- развивался по-разному в различных национальных контекстах. Так, если история себя. американскойВ области освоения космонавтикосмоса этическая коммодификация связана с процессом автоматизации, которыйческая коммодификацияхарактеризуется отчуждениеминдивидов отестественного окруженияиот самих технологий – экономическая и этическая – рассматривается как следствие технологическойотношенияна собойтакже с идругими.индивидовКоммодификациячеловеческие действия,а цветание, экспансии. Эт агентности, эта теоретическая традиция признает формирующее влияние технологий на общество, его про- логическогодетерминизма, предложенной Альбертом Боргманном.Не отрицая способностичеловеческой разворачивающиеся в рамках национальных космических программ, через призму «мягкой» версии техно- вопросом.ным В исследовании данном роль техникиирассматривается отношений машиной,человека с гий. Уже сегодня необходимость в пилотируемых космических экспедициях становится все более проблем- ББК 65.375 УДК 33:17:629.78 commodification. conclusion, a perspective that resists alienation is suggested for the enterprisewhich of ethicalspace exploraticommodification of hardware and socialsoftware phenomenon. manifestedDrawing on the autobiographicalitself in narrativesspaceflight of Soviet The and how it c however,automation eventually established itselfcontinuesshapecontemporaryand to perceptions on professionalasa group, Russianthe space program favoured automation from the verybeginning. b In spaceflight is characterized by the initial struggle against automation,developedprocess automationofthat seendifferently histdistinctivetothe contexts. ifnational in beThus, a means of disem natural surrounding and from the self. In the field of space exploration,effects ethical commodificationof technological is expansion. Ethical relationshipscommodification with the self isand other. characterized The commodification by ofdisattachment technology human of agency,– economicthe and ethicalthe – shapingis effect of technologytechnologicaldeterminism suggested on byhuman Albertorganization,Borgmann. Thistheoretical traditionprosperity recognizes, witho and and actionshuman as well necessity of manned space expeditions is becoming increasingly problematized. This study looks at th LBC 65.375 UDC 33:17:629.78 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15688/lp.jvolsu.2019.4.2 NOTES ON ON NOTES ЗАМЕТКИ О ПР ЗАМЕТКИ accumulated experiences of man-machine interactions are useful for understanding ethical commodifica Аннотация. words: Key Abstract.  – machine relationships unfolding within national space programs through the lens of the ‘soft’ versio ТЕХНО The future of space exploration is unimaginable without broadening the role of technology. Already, THE HUMAN – MACHINE ISSUE IN OUTER SP IN OUTER ISSUE – MACHINE THE HUMAN space exploration, automatization, commodification, human – machine interactions, ethical interactions, machine – human commodification, automatization, exploration, space Будущее освоения космического пространства немыслимо без расширения роли техноло- TECHNOLOGICAL ОБ ЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ДЕТЕР ЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ЛЕМЕ ЧЕ ЛЕМЕ Университет Сковде, г. Сковде, Швеция University of ЛОВЕК – МАШИНА В О – МАШИНА ЛОВЕК DETERMINISM GOES DETERMINISM иа Родин Лика ia Rodin Lika Skövde МИНИЗМ УХ МИНИЗМ , , Skövde, Sweden / Russian cosmonauts, I specify the ways in О СВОЕНИИ К СВОЕНИИ ДИТ ДИТ ВВЫСЬ: Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Logos 2019. Т.Рraxis. et 18. № 4 ALOFT ACE EXPLORA ACE : ФИЛОСОФИЯ on at large. powering astronauts associated with the individual from the e role of technology ould be diverted. In as on individuals’ oryofAmerican viewed to be the О СМО utneglecting othcontexts, spaceflight. TION tion as a С А n of the и- - L. Rodin. Technological Determinism Goes Aloft: Notes on the Human – Machine Issue

продолжает формировать современные представления о космических полетах. Накопленный опыт взаимо- действия человек – машина полезен для понимания этической коммодификации как социального явления. Анализ автобиографических рассказов советских / российских космонавтов, проведеннный в рамках данно- го исследования, демонстрирует, как этическая коммодификация аппаратного и программного обеспече- ния проявлялась в космических полетах и была нейтрализована. В заключении статьи предлагается перспек- тива противодействия отчуждению в деле освоения космоса в целом. Ключевые слова: освоение космоса, автоматизация, коммодификация, взаимодействие человек – ма- шина, этическая коммодификация.

Introduction This study aims to deepen the understanding of human – machine relationships in spaceflight The future of manned spaceflight is a vibrant and the role of technology in the enterprise of topic in contemporary public debates and academic space exploration more generally. Previous discussions [Launius 2006; McCurdy 2006]. research associated primarily with the disciplinary Questions about the rationale for the expansive, field of history indicated that certain political and demanding and potentially dangerous enterprise professional groups might deliberately promote or of sending humans into outer space are raised by suppress automation in the field of space various stakeholders in different political contexts. exploration [Gerovitch 2006; 2015; Mindell 2006; And indeed, why not allow robots and computers 2008]. Framed in line with a liberal anthropocentric to perform jobs aloft while humans reap the paradigm, these projects rather scarcely benefit of the data or other outcomes produced, accounted for the dynamic force of technological sitting comfortably in their offices back on Earth? development itself. In the current study, I rely on [Mindell 2008]. Such a development would a ‘soft’ version of technological determinism that broaden the role of technology in human society recognizes the shaping effect of technology on and transform the current understanding of human human organization, prosperity, actions and agency, control and well-being. relationships with the self and other, simultaneously The issue of technology in space exploration living open possibilities for reflexive practices was addressed by several disciplines and at different capable of maintaining (even if partially) one’s analytical levels. At the macro-level of analysis, embodied and mindful existence within a space technology was studied in the context of technologized environment [Borgmann 2010]. national political ethos [Gerovitch 2011; 2014; 2015; The paper consists of four parts. First, I will Mindell 2006; 2008; Siddiqi 2010], international reinterpret previous research on human – machine relationships [Krige 2006; Sariak 2017; Shayler relationships, with a focus on the logic of 2017], warfare [Klein 2012], advocacy [Sadeh technological progress. After that, Albert Borgmann’s 2005], and cultural representations [McCurdy theory of commodification of technology will be 2006]. At the mezzo-level, organizational features presented and applied in the analysis of and interinstitutional interactions were taken into autobiographical reports from the Soviet / Russian account [Brown 2006; Gerovitch 2006; 2014; space program. Finally, the (de)commodification Mindell 2006; 2008; Vaughan 2006]. At the micro- framework will be employed to account for the level, human – machine relationships, professional perspective in the enterprise of space exploration at identities and practices were subjected to large. I conclude with anticipatory reflections around examination [Gerovitch 2006; 2014; Hersch 2009; the role of technology in the future of manned Mindell 2006; 2008]. Finally, space-related spaceflight and its effects. technologies were considered within the domains of ontology [Clynes, Kline 1995; Clynes 1995] and The path to automation in spaceflight epistemology [Arnould 2013]. This accumulated knowledge allows a broad view on the place of One of the central themes in the discussion technology in the exploration and utilization of outer on technology in outer space exploration is the space, though the fundamental question of the ‘automation versus human control’ problem [Mindell perspectives of human direct presence in space 2008]. Automation is typically associated with pilots’ still remains open. deskilling and decrease in professional status, and

Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Vol. 18. No. 4 17 ФИЛОСОФИЯ therefore might be met with opposition [Mindell with the power of electronic devices steering the 2006; 2008; Gerovitch 2006]. In this section, I flight than with the airplane design. Pilots reread the research on American and Russian increasingly became elements of a complex space programs to highlight the objective dynamics managerial system built on the principle of a behind the move towards in-flight technologization ‘feedback loop’, a cybernetic system. As in its explicit and implicit forms. Such focus does presented in one of the public discussions, rather not deny the role of social-political processes, suddenly, the profession of aviation – that vocation recognizing the mutual transformative interactions of leather jackets and exciting experiences – has between different developmental forces. However, become a career of computer monitoring and as follows from the previous research, automation equipment management. You ones thought you tends to eventually establish itself and shape would dance on silver wings, and now you are mainstream perceptions on spaceflight. merely tapping on a keyboard [Mindell 2008, 267]. The American context. In the American The American spaceflight industry inherited context, the discussion on automation can be from aviation the discussion on automation and traced back to the early days of aviation and human control. It turned out to be additionally reflects the dynamics of exchange between two coloured by the political objectives of the space professional fields: aviation and astronautics. exploration enterprise. Sending humans into outer According to David Mindell [Mindell 2008, 20], space was especially important for national prestige the man-machine problem emerged in the early and professional identity. As stated during public days of aviation from the stability-control issue. debates over the lunar Apollo program, ‘it is a man, While stability – the capability of an airplane to not merely machines, in space that captures the regain a straight movement after a deviating imagination of the world’ [Mindell 2006, 148]. In manoeuver – was always seen as a desirable an ideological sense, the image of manned characteristic typically built into the very design spaceflight resonated with the traditional American of the aircraft, its excess meant a reduction of values of individualism, self-directedness and self- controllability in the form of human input. efficiency. Still, astronauts had to struggle for a Historically, European engineers tended to meaningful role in spaceflight performance. In the prioritize stability features, whereas American Apollo program, space flyers drew special attention aviation demonstrated a loyalty to pilots’ controlling to the moment of landing, perceived to be the crucial functions. Piloting as a profession enjoyed an elite point of a lunar expedition. As a result, ideas of status in the United States, having been strongly human agency, self-esteem and the explorative associated with exceptional tacit knowledge and character of spaceflight were claimed to be practical skills. However, with the development incorporated into the design of the Apollo of the air transportation industry, the situation spacecraft itself [Mindell 2006]. changed. Long-duration and frequent flights put Less enthusiastic commentators additional demands on pilots’ physical and problematized the very notion of manual control psychological strength, facilitating wider in the context of high technologization. Joe Shea, acceptance of automation in the cockpit. To a deputy director of Manned Space Flight compensate for their shrinking role in function (Systems) for NASA, indicated already in 1963 control, aviators gained pluralization in the that the opposition between manual and automatic character of their missions, which from that point piloting is rather an ‘emotional’ feature of started to involve commercial and military astronautics, since humans in the situation of interests. Moreover, pilots increasingly engaged manual landing control computers that actually in engineering training, which allowed them to steer the vehicle. In this sense, talking about the participate in the development of cockpit ‘humanization’ of the Apollo approach would be instruments (e.g. artificial horizon and directional ‘stretching things a bit’, according to Shea gyros) aimed at blind flying [Mindell 2008]. [Mindell 2008, 263]. Moreover, human operations The automation trend culminated in the aloft were typically secured by intensive pre- introduction of the autopilot capability mission simulation training aimed at mastering the [Mindell 2008]. In the 1950s – the age of jets – effective bodily and cognitive motions the issue of stability had become associated more [Mindell 2006; 2008], and assisted by manuals and

18 Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Т. 18. № 4 L. Rodin. Technological Determinism Goes Aloft: Notes on the Human – Machine Issue checklists, ‘a kind of “program” that ran on people distinctive objectives [Gerovitch 2006]. This instead of machines’ [Hersch 2009, 7; mezzo-level dynamic might be complemented in Mindell 2008]. Instructions were employed in both some periods – similar to the American space within- and extra-vehicle activities. As an enterprise presented above – by large-scale, example, Neil Armstrong had a checklist integrated social-political goals, including presage and into his spacesuit while operating on the lunar geopolitical competition, which constructed an surface [Hersch 2009]. iconic image of a spaceman [Gerovitch 2006; In the 1970s, the space pilots’ success was 2011; 2014; 2015]. However, the publically furthered in the framework of the Shuttle program, promoted anthropocentric view on space which, as some astronauts believed, was capable exploration was almost separated from the of restoring the dignity of the piloting profession technology-favouring agenda of engineering [Mindell 2008]. Even in an aesthetic sense, the bureaus [Gerovitch 2006]. shuttle had an advantage over a more traditional The first generation of Soviet manned space capsule. As one astronaut explained in regard spacecraft – Vostok – was highly automated, a to difference in landing, ‘Whereas the Apollo fact mainly perceived by engineers and space command module fell into the sea, the crew program managers to be an advantage in the recovered by helicopter like a bag of cats saved context of profound uncertainty associated with from a water grave’, the space orbiter ‘makes a early space flights [Gerovitch 2006]. The positive smooth landing at the destination airport and the initial experience laid the foundation for the flight crew steps down from the spacecraft in front further promotion of automation as a reliable, of a waiting throng in a dignified and properly heroic cost-efficient and safe solution. Spaceships were manner’ [Mindell 2008, 264]. While human input designed at first hand to function in an automatic was overly advocated, only one shuttle flight – STS- regime, with additions made for manual 2 – was allowed to realize this ideal. Typically, re- operation. As a result, the cabin configuration entry was automatic, and only touchdown was of the next-in-line manned spacecraft Voskhod performed manually. After the Columbia tragedy, was not particularly suitable for performing the even this routine was seriously reconsidered toward manual tasks that cosmonauts received from further automation [Mindell 2008]. time to time. For instance, the illuminator and The American discourse (both public and the control stick were situated very unsuitable professional) around space exploration had been and demanded from cosmonauts additional characterized by anthropocentrism grounded in motions during the flight [Gerovitch 2006]. the idea of human privilege and the related value The next generation of space vehicles – of human agency as a prerequisite of individual Soyuz – was thought to carry out a variety of and collective well-being. It was built on the new functions, including randomizing and docking aspiration of exploration as an expansion of ‘the [Gerovitch 2006]. It provided test pilots with the realm of human experience’ unrelated to any opportunity to raise their voices in favour of the special technological ambitions [Mindell 2008, human role in spaceflight. Some cosmonauts 270]. In spite of this anthropocentric ideology, as argued that in designing a spaceship, priority above presented, a non-linear – but steady – move should be given to human activities and that towards in-flight automation (technological and automata can be left as a backup option. Distinct procedural) accrued, demonstrating the shaping from their American counterparts struggling to role of technological progress. This development reclaim landing procedures from machines, partly resonated with the realities and concerns cosmonauts pressed on the issue of docking, an of the Soviet / Russian space program. operation crucial in the long-duration and multi- The Russian context. According to some vehicle missions characteristic of the Soviet space commentators, discussions around spacecraft program. From that point, a cybernetic approach automation within the Soviet space program of started coming more actively into play, though the 1960s and 1970s mirrored the fragmentation adaptation of system thinking might take some of the national space exploration community, in time. Crews were still frequently considered to which engineering agencies, the military and be a supplementary rather than a fully integrated scientific organizations occasionally pushed for operational element [Gerovitch 2006]. Similar to

Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Vol. 18. No. 4 19 ФИЛОСОФИЯ astronauts [Hersch 2009; Mindell 2008], (De)commodification of technology cosmonauts intensively practiced in-flight procedures on simulators, anticipating a variety Borgmann [Borgmann 2010, 27] defined of possible situations to achieve an almost technology as tools and the ‘procedures’ associated automatic performance. In a broad sense, humans with their utilization. The philosopher emphasized might, therefore, come to resemble machines the particularity of modern technologies that emerged [Gerovitch 2015]. with the development of the market economy and With the development of long-duration space wide industrialization of Western countries as missions that increasingly demanded the refashioning humans’ relationships with reality, raising maintenance and repair of technological devices, new questions about the moral and ontological order. technical specialists came to be included as part The main concern of the analytical discussion is the of the crews. In contrast to test pilots, engineers process of commodification that can be understood might feel more comfortable with high automation in economic and ethical terms. In an economic sense, and start to look for new objectives of spaceflight commodity refers to a good that naturally exists or beyond basic survival and space manoeuvring. can be manufactured, but which is unavoidably Valentin Lebedev, a Saluyt 7 flying engineer who brought to ‘a market’ for sale [Borgmann 2010, 28]. spent 211 days in space in 1982, was instrumental Commodification is a historical process that impacts in raising the question of the role of humans in the human condition in a variety of ways. It gradually outer space endeavours. The cosmonaut established itself in industrial countries alongside the estimated that space flyers devoted only one- initially non-economic sphere of intimate relationships fourteenth of the total time in mission to productive and public goods. A strong, but actively debated activity such as scientific research, while the rest intellectual tradition exists that links economic was spent on maintaining their own existence commodification with impoverishment. [Gerovitch 2006, 135]. His related proposal was Ethical commodification plays out along with to rethink and enlarge the scientific (meaningful) or separately from economic commodification. content of spaceflight [Roscosmos TV... web]. When ‘[a] thing or a practice is morally One proposed solution to the problem of space commodified…it is detached from contexts of mission efficiency was automation. As argued by engagement with a time, a place, and a community’ another cosmonaut, Konstantin Feoktistov, ‘No [Borgmann 2010, 29]. This ‘detachment’ from the craft is designed to carry dead weight. It must significant aspects of social reality is typically viewed have a payload that performs a kind of useful to be impoverishing, though it might be justified by work… Every operation that can be automated prospective benefits manifesting themselves in the on board a spaceship should be automated’ form of freedoms, justice or well-being. In the case [Gerovitch 2006, 136]. of technology, economic and moral commodifications Undoubtedly, a distribution of influence do not always accompany one another. Thus, while between different occupational branches (i.e. agriculture is an economic domain, it is unimaginable military, civil aviation, engineering bureaus, without reference to the specific places and people scientific institutions) played a significant role in involved in farming as well as to a specific biological the development of the Soviet / Russian space rhythm. From another perspective, internet content program [Gerovitch 2006; 2015]; however, it can can be promoted as non-economic goods while being be argued that technological progress allowed the decoupled from situated bonds and responsibilities. integration of engineers into the flying community An easy access to and withdrawal from as well as their anticipation and request for further communication sites problematizes the very nature automation. Moreover, activities of space flyers of community that they attempt to construct. In this increasingly resembled machine-like logic, sense, ‘[e]lectronic devices and goods have always problematizing the very division of humans and already been detached’ [Borgmann 2010, 30]. machines. The section that follows provides a Commodification differentiates ‘the nature theoretical framework for further analysis of of reality’ from ‘norms of conduct’: human – machine relationships in spaceflight. In the eighteenth century England, bread was I introduce the notion of ethical commodification not an object that required the mechanism of the market suggested by Albert Borgmann. to establish its value, norms of social justice to judge

20 Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Т. 18. № 4 L. Rodin. Technological Determinism Goes Aloft: Notes on the Human – Machine Issue its distribution, standards of nutrition to fix its to make the commodities of information and composition, and rules of dieting to direct its entertainment more instantly, ubiquitously, safely and consumption. The sight of bread provoked gratitude. easily available. Computers, to be sure, are skillfully If it was entirely made of wheat, it was evidence of [sic] used by highly trained experts… But such expert wealth. Sitting down to break it was an occasion of use is rarely just an exercise in the pursuit of excellence. rest and grace. Bread was the focal point of a context It usually serves to improve the machinery of of work and of working together – during harvest time technology or to produce commodities of when all able-bodied people had to help, in the barn entertainment [Borgmann 2010, 32]. when the threshers did their rhythmic flailing, at the mill when wheat was entrusted to the miller, at the Highly technologized societies can be village oven where all families took their loaves to have relatively coherent but simultaneously artificial, since them baked [Borgmann 2010, 30]. the foundation of existence is substituted by morals. Following this logic, a trip in a highly automated In ‘pre-technological times’, the reality of social car can no longer be clearly differentiated from an life was stable and intelligible. People’s relationships evening spent in one’s living room: air conditioning, with their material surroundings found direct broadcasting devices and other attributes of expression in emotional and bodily experiences. comfort are available in the modern car. However, with industrialization and marketization, Experiences of a car trip, then, lack the particularity objects and activities lost their situated character, of the context as well as specific references to the turning instead into products of rationalized and environmental and interpersonal condition. In this technologized processes. Reality became separated way, high-tech society cultivates ‘disengagement’ from moral obligations and concerns; commodified that is justified by striving towards escape from goods turned mystical by the idea of machinery, as the difficulties and discomforts of daily life. But ever-present, immediate, unproblematic and technologically ensured freedom might eventually effortlessly accessible. In this respect, ‘[m]oral turn into a devastation of human relationships and commodification is always about mechanization’ degradation of individual agency and capabilities. [Borgmann 2010, 31]. The commodification of bread The reversal of ethical commodification, according is associated with the mechanization of its production to Borgmann [Borgmann 1984; 2010], may involve that became a part of a larger process of the ‘destandardization of goods’ and the restoration industrialization. The contemporary tendency is to of ‘life-worlds’ that would promote one’s foster the mystical aspect by making machinery connections with time, place and community. as less evident as possible and the commodity as appealing as possible. A personal computer is a Experiences of the Soviet / Russian space telling example. With its size dramatically reduced, program the major concern nowadays is to keep computers ergonomically adequate for human use Technologization is unavoidably accompanied [Borgmann 2010]. by commodification [Borgmann 2010]. In this part Technological development goes hand in of the paper, I draw on the narratives accumulated hand with a desire for comfort and, in turn, in the framework of long-duration Soviet / Russian facilitates ethical commodification of technology. space missions to account for some of the possible Presently, cars and computers are reaching a level strategies for overcoming alienation. Although of sophistication that precludes the possibility of Borgmann’s theory was built on observations over a lay-user intervention in the form of repair or market-driven social systems, technology (and not improvement. Here, a ‘device paradigm’ comes the economy) is viewed to be the main shaping into play: humans might accept the mystery of factor in social development. As ethical machinery to satisfy the desire for comfort, commodification is not necessarily bound to the representing a form of ‘moral consumption’ realm of economic exchange, this concept can [Borgmann 2010, 33]. With regard to personal therefore be applied to the analysis of non-market computers, the following is argued: societies as well. Typically also, the exponential increase in the The following presentation does not aim to power of computers was directed, not to challenge exhaust the whole range of approaches to the human discipline and skills in newly created ways but decommodification of technology in spaceflight.

Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Vol. 18. No. 4 21 ФИЛОСОФИЯ

Rather, it demonstrates that variation in human – that of humans. Moreover, the station is shirked to machine interactional practices might reflect the the size of a ‘pat’ that provokes emotional plurality of entities accommodated under the label attachment and soft paternalism. It is the one who of technology. While some scholars associate space is unmovable and dependent, while humans technology primarily with advanced (typically exercise agency (to stay or / and leave) and control. digital) devices [Gerovitch 2006; 2014; Mindell It is always there, in a known location, waiting to 2008], others include into the technological family be found and attended to. In this way, shared time, procedures and supporting materials [e.g. space and community had been (re)constructed. Borgmann 2010; Hersch 2009]. In this study, The materiality of hardware eases ethical I additionally differentiate between hardware decommodification. Comparison of the station with (technological constructions) and software the aged body of a parent triggers an emotional (analogue or digital programs), claiming that ethical response and eventually restores engagement. decommodification of software might be a more Another example of this move comes from the challenging task due to its disembodied character. cosmonaut’s reflection over landing in a Soyuz As is known, the Soviet / Russian space descent capsule [Usachjov 2004]: program turned to long-duration space missions in the early 1970s after the exhaustion of mainly And as the culmination, the shooting of the lid unrealized lunar projects [Gerovitch 2014]. A number of the parachute container and the release of a of space stations were put on low orbit, including parachute. Lord, how ‘iron’ – our descent vehicle – several Salyut space stations (1971–1991) and the stands such treatment. We are beginning to be orbital complex Mir (1996–2001). A large-size ‘tormented’ by the atmosphere with strong lateral overloads. This is some kind of complex movement, construction, the space station was equipped with a but it feels like someone very big holds our descent smart life support system, allowing the vehicle for strings of a parachute line and tries to accommodation of cosmonauts for weeks and restrain our fall into the atmosphere. months. The long-term stay motivated the space flyers to develop certain relationships with the In this episode, a parallel is drawn between technological construction. Some could define the the iron body of the space capsule and human station as a ‘home’, others went even further to flesh that can feel pain and suffer. The power humanize it. Yuri Usachjov, an engineer who served balance is reversed this time, with recognition of two missions (in total, 275 days) at the orbital complex the ‘caring’ role of technology. Thus, a rigid and Mir in the mid-1990s, reported in his autobiography technical division of labour and roles, typical for on cosmonauts’ reflections over their established industrial society, is destabilized. Care is placed bonds with the space station [Usachjov 2004]: in the centre of human – machine relationships. Then the conversation went on about the station Upon his return to Mir, Usachjov finds it aged and an interesting thought sounded: she (the station) like an ‘old lady’, as ten years is a long period of has a very specific lifetime, unfortunately, much shorter time in space. The cosmonauts wonder how the than even half of human life i.e., less than 30–40 years. station survives the pressure and temperature We are eager to meet her, we will live with her a little and fluctuations [Usachjov 2004]. This attitude of leave... And we are eager to return here again, we do not humanization might be found in the early long-term know. It is similar at the same time to the fate of domestic missions as well. Cosmonaut Vladimir Savinyh animals, whose age is shorter than the human, and to participated in a repairer mission to Salyut 7 in parting with old parents – when you say goodbye, leaving 1988 after the orbital complex, flying in automatic for a long time, you do not know for sure whether you regime, stopped responding to ground control, titled will find them alive or not on your next visit. his autobiographical book devoted to this life episode The word station (stancija) has a female Notes from the Dead Station (1999). In the book, gender in the Russian language, and this linguistic the whole mission is framed in terms of reanimation feature facilitates the ‘humanization’ of the of the ‘living body’ of the station, returning function technological construction. In the extract presented, to its different systems as living organs [Savinyh the station no longer appears as an anonymous shell 1999]. Technological devices are not just humanized temporarily sheltering the space flyers, but as a but, at times, personalized in the cosmonauts’ family member whose lifespan is compared with autobiographical materials. Usachjov [Usachjov

22 Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Т. 18. № 4 L. Rodin. Technological Determinism Goes Aloft: Notes on the Human – Machine Issue

2004] reported on a discussion that took place take care of it. I have all the control programs I need, during his first mission around Progress resupply but if necessary, I’ll turn everything off for you, or vehicles. One of the cosmonauts suggested switch to sensor or engine reserve. I’ll tell you what replacing formal numerical identification by names went wrong and how I corrected it. And you, ‘my of characters from popular movies and fairy tales. intelligent passenger’, can look at the data and give reports to the Ground’. A space station is a huge piece of hardware to which cosmonauts, by virtue of the situation, In this extract, the ‘mystery’ of digital had to develop a certain attitude. As demonstrated technology [Borgmann 2010] manifests itself by above, the orbital complex might become included concealing operational procedures. While this in the web of symbolic bonds by acknowledging regime assists disburdenment of the cosmonaut, shared materiality and temporality of existence. it simultaneously separates him from the In this way, the cosmonauts reconstructed environment and pushes him into a passive role. intimacy with the technological environment. In this way, commodification of technology Borgmann [Borgmann 1984, 207] used the notion manifests itself. Gradually, however, the space of ‘practices of engagement’ that enable flyer mastered new skills – ‘like a blind man recontextualization of objects and events. regaining his sight’ [Lebedev 1988, 206] – that Decommodification of software is a more allowed him to be included in the feedback loop. complex process. Cosmonaut Valentin Lebedev, who The cosmonaut learned to anticipate and correct was among the first space flyers adapting to the possible errors in the program itself: Soyuz T launch vehicle, described the initial Because of my experience I am now ahead of the frustration over on-board digital computers in his 1988 computer and can foresee what it will do. It isn’t a book, Diary of a Cosmonaut: 211 Days in Space. mystery to me anymore. Before, I couldn’t think as fast His first impression was of a passenger-like role as it did to know what was going on inside it. Suddenly, that contrasted with flyers’ previous relatively it would display some kind of error code, which I would restricted – but still notable – involvement in try to figure out. While I was thinking, the machine navigation procedures. All calculations, adjustments would already clear the problem. Now I work quietly, and manipulations aboard Soyuz T were performed with self-confidence; I see a display of parameters, by software, and the cosmonaut needed only to start evaluate them, and make estimation about the process going on. Now I even get some time to look at the the program and supervise it. As with previous machine from the outside. Does it really do the necessary version of Soyuz, space flyers were expected to operations in the best way? I look at it: Let’s see interpret data, make judgments or anticipations over now… this is going on; if this parameter is such and a situation and decide on possible actions. Some such, then that will happen. If this is a problem, I can manoeuvers were especially demanding; for reenter data into the computer. As a result I am example, docking could generate fifty-three potential beautifully able to remain constantly up to date and problems. Cosmonauts trained on those procedures prepared for any maneuver [sic], such as engine firing for months in order to successfully master techniques, or orientation keeping, without the hectic complication a condition that fostered cosmonauts’ self-esteem, of continuous preparation [Lebedev 1988, 206]. dignity, self-confidence and particular relationships with the technological devices. As reported by Restoring shared time and space via Lebedev [Lebedev 1988, 205], ‘In it (in old Soyuz) conscious awareness and mastered calculative I felt an intelligent man and in control’. Human and approximations, the spaceman eventually re- machine were co-situated in space-time and linked established human positioning in regard to digital by the chain of interactions. Digitalization led to the devices as a flexible and holistic thinker. Borgmann ‘black boxing’ of devices: what was happening inside [Borgmann 1984, 41–42] emphasized the the computer became mainly unknown and importance of skills that facilitate human unintelligible, at least in the beginning [Lebedev, 1988, ‘engagement’ with the world and strengthen 205–206]: identities. Skills are requested in one’s relationships On the new spaceship somebody, a mysterious with ‘things’, while interactions with ‘devices’ are ‘ankle’, does everything for you. You just sit and watch. typically non-demanding. A traditional stove that If something goes wrong, you don’t need to worry, provided heating for the house had to be attended because there is no danger. ‘I, Master Computer, will to by the whole family: firewood had to be prepared

Logos et Рraxis. 2019. Vol. 18. No. 4 23 ФИЛОСОФИЯ and arranged, and the fire had to be maintained. development leads to the alienation of humans from In this collaborative labour and familiarity with each technical tools, each other and the environment. An other’s functions, a social context was created. alternative to the device paradigm is ‘focal life’, In contrast, devices are elements of the world of which is aimed at restoring social ‘engagement’ consumption. They foster a regime of facelessness [Borgmann 2010, 34]. This move will require the (of both producers and consumers), division and re-embodiment and recontextualization of objects decontextualization. The attempts of the Russian and practices as well as the restoration of their cosmonauts to regain meaningful control over digital complexity and internal coherence. ‘Focused’ things technology should then be seen as an opposition to and events are not necessarily regions of pre- ethical commodification. technological existence. Humans have to learn how Similar practices of re-engagement can be to overcome (at least partially) ethical found in the framework of the American space commodification without rejecting the benefits of program as well. Thus, checklists utilized in technological progress. This, in turn, will transform space missions might be complemented by human society as a whole: ‘It will produce fewer humoristic notes and drawings expressing cars and more buses and trains; fewer jet skis, more support or greetings, functioning as a medium canoes; fewer DVD’s, more books; fewer iPads between the ground-based personnel and flying and more flutes and guitars’ [Borgmann 2010, 34]. crews. From a different perspective, the The reform of the device paradigm will, therefore, astronauts themselves might alter instructions be in its restriction to the supplement position to give with cartoons, signatures and, at times, ‘focal life’ a priority [Borgmann 2010]. unauthorized materials to facilitate group In the field of space exploration, de-alienation dynamics during the flight [Hersch 2009]. In this can be achieved not only (or not necessarily) by way, checklists turn from unspecified ‘devices’ making digital devices more user-friendly (for a into ‘definite things’ [Borgmann 1984]. related discussion, see Gerovitch: [Gerovitch 2015]). According to Borgmann [Borgmann 1984, 47], Discussion and conclusion ‘friendliness’ is just the mark of how wide the gap has become between the function accessible to This study was devoted to the discussion of everyone and the machinery known by nearly no human – machine relationships as they played out in one’. The alternative way, as demonstrated in the the context of the Soviet / Russian space program analyses, is a restoration of one’s meaningful of the 1980s and 1990s. Distinct from the mainstream connectivity with social and physical reality. liberal-constructivism approach that focuses on the The accumulated knowledge proposes a transformative agency of the individual and collective direction for anticipatory reflections around the role human actors pushing for particular value-driven goals and place of technology in human history, including that can or cannot account for the ideals of self- the future of manned spaceflight. Why send humans directedness and self-determination, I emphasized the into outer space if the majority of outer space shaping role of technology in space enterprise and in assignments can soon be carried out by technological social development in general. agents? Humans might stay safe, without additional Borgmann’s philosophical conception costs, at their terrestrial locations; here, they would employed in the current study allows for a non- monitor aloft robotic operations on the basis of visual reductionist interpretation of contemporary social and other types of data. With this scenario realized, processes at different levels of sociality, with an we will know the cosmos mainly from pictures and emphasis on the ecological aspects of human mathematical representations, turning it eventually existence (i.e. engagement with surroundings) and into something anonymous and superficial. We will therefore is particularly helpful. According to ‘soft’ perceive outer space and solar bodies though smart determinism, technologization is relatively objective plans of their utilization, calculating and competing and self-propagating; technology increasingly for the highest profit. In this context, the chances becomes our ontology, defining and satisfying human of our detachment from the extraterrestrial needs [Borgmann 1984]. Having been interwoven environment and its degradation will elevate. with a desire for comfort – a form of ‘moral Therefore, manned spaceflight – an expansion of consumption’ [Borgmann 2010, 33] – technological ‘the realm of human experience’ [Mindell 2008,

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Information About the Author

Lika Rodin, PhD, Lecturer, School of Health Sciences, University of Skövde, G-hus, Box 408, 54128 Skövde, Sweden, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7118-5581

Информация об авторе Лика Родин, PhD, преподаватель факультета медицинских наук, Университет Сковде, зда- ние G, ящик 408, 54128 г. Сковде, Швеция, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7118-5581

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