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ACE Inhibitors in Congestive Heart Failure Theodore R Clinical Review ACE Inhibitors in Congestive Heart Failure Theodore R. Kantner, MD Lubbock, Texas Despite improved understanding of both disease mech­ nin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. In addition, some anisms and the quality of care, congestive heart failure studies indicate that ACE inhibitors may improve (CHF) remains a serious clinical problem. The tradi­ symptoms and survival. Recent evidence suggests that tional treatments, diuretics and digitalis, continue to in patients with mild to moderate CHF, ACE inhibitor play a major role in the management of many patients and a diuretic should be administered with or w ithout with CHF; however, in the last decade, angiotensin­ digitalis to achieve the maximum clinical benefit. converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors have been added Key words. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; as an important treatment option. These agents coun­ heart failure, congestive. teract the overstimulation effects of diuretics on the rc- / Tam Tract 1992; 35:305-314. Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a serious and growing output, in turn, triggers a number of interrelated hor­ clinical problem. Although our understanding of the monal and neurohormonal responses designed to in­ disease process has improved over the last several dec­ crease blood volume and systemic vascular resistance to ades, the incidence of CHF has increased, w'hile the maintain perfusion of major organ systems. However, survival rate has not substantially improved. There are hormonal and neurohormonal overstimulation contrib­ approximately 3 million existing cases and 400,000 new' utes to decompensation, perpetuating the downward spi­ cases of CHF each year in the United States.12 The ral of heart failure. 5-year survival rate of patients treated wfith the traditional One of the most important of these responses is regimen of diuretics and digitalis glycosides remains less activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) than 50%.3 4 Development of new, more effective treat­ system, which is primarily stimulated by reduced perfu­ ments for CHF has therefore been a medical priority. sion of the kidney.5-7 As a result, renin is released, and The purpose of this review is to briefly summarize angiotensinogen is converted to the physiologically inac­ the pathophysiology of CHF and to discuss the major tive peptide angiotensin I. The angiotensin-converting therapeutic interventions, addressing especially the enzyme then transforms angiotensin I into the potent emerging evidence for the utility of the angiotensin­ vasoconstrictor angiotensin II. In addition to increasing converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors in this difficult vascular resistance, angiotensin II also stimulates the treatment situation. This review focuses on the most secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.5 The common cause of heart failure, which results from sys­ release of aldosterone causes an increase in blood volume tolic left ventricular dysfunction. due to the retention of sodium and water and excretion of potassium.1-6 The resulting arterial vasoconstriction increases im­ Overview of Pathophysiology pedance to left ventricular ejection, further impairing cardiac performance, and also limits blood flow to skel­ In congestive heart failure due to systolic dysfunction, etal muscles, leading to fatigue.8 The sodium-retentive myocardial contractility, left ventricular performance, effects of aldosterone result in increases in blood volume and cardiac output arc reduced. The decline in cardiac and left ventricular filling pressure, contributing to pul­ monary edema.5-8 This increase in blood volume also raises atrial filling pressures and contributes to peripheral Submitted, revised, February 13, 1992. edema. From the Department of Family Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Other biochemical and metabolic changes observed Center, Lubbock, Texas. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Theodore R. in heart failure include increases in the levels of circulat­ Kantner, M D, Department of Family Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, T X 79430. ing catecholamines1-9 and plasma vasopressin,1-10 and © 1992 Appleton & Lange ISSN 0094-3509 The Journal of Family Practice, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1992 305 ACE Inhibitors in Congestive Heart Failure Kantner Causal Factors patients.13-14 In addition, diuretics can stimulate the RAA system, producing markedly increased plasma renin and angiotensin II activity, with concurrently raised plasma aldosterone levels.1516 Diuretic therapy may also stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, causing an increase in circulating norepinephrine levels.15’16 These stimulatory effects can further increase systemic vascular t Systemic Vascular 4 Cardiac Output resistance and reduce cardiac output, thereby exacerbat­ Resistance (afterload) ing the vicious circle of heart failure.5 A large percentage of patients who are adequately controlled initially begin t Blood Volume (preload) T LVED Pressure to experience clinical deterioration within months when managed on diuretic monotherapy.13 These limitations indicate that although diuretics continue to be highly useful in CHF, they may not represent optimal treatment when used alone. Figure 1. Vicious circle of heart failure. Decreased cardiac Digitalis output causes stimulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and aldosterone release. The resultant vasoconstriction After more than 200 years of clinical use, the efficacy and and increased systemic vascular resistance eventually act to safety of digitalis glycosides in all degrees of CHF remain perpetuate heart failure. LVED denotes left ventricular end- controversial.5’17 The usefulness of digitalis has been diastolic pressure; RAAS, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone sys­ demonstrated in severe heart failure and in cases where tem; SNS, sympathetic nervous system. (From Faxon.1 Re­ atrial fibrillation is a complication of CHF.5’18 Conflict­ printed with permission from the American Heart Journal.) ing data have been reported concerning the use of digi­ talis in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate decreases in plasma levels of bradykinin and vasodilatory CHF and normal sinus rhythm. Several controlled trials prostaglandins.1 All of these responses may be useful to have found the drug to be effective in the treatment of compensate for acute heart failure; however, they are some patients with chronic heart failure in normal sinus deleterious in chronic heart failure, leading to progres­ rhythm.19-20 In contrast, placebo-controlled, double- sively declining myocardial function and organ perfusion blind investigations by Fleg et al21’22 did not demonstrate (Figure l).1 The degree of activation of the ncurohor- any noticeable effect of digoxin on symptoms in patients monal system has been shown to be inversely related to with mild CHF. Further, whether discontinuation of prognosis in patients with CHF.511 digoxin in mild CHF leads to clinical deterioration has not been established.21-23-24 An additional consideration in the decision to institute treatment with digitalis gly­ Principal Treatments cosides in CHF is their potential for arrhythmic ef­ fects.25-27 Sudden cardiac death, presumably due to ven­ Diuretics tricular arrhythmias, is the terminal event in approximately 40% of patients with CHF.26 Digitalis Diuretic therapy remains a key component of treatment sensitizes the heart to low concentrations of potassium, a for all classes of heart failure. These agents stimulate risk factor for the development of arrhythmias.26 The excretion of sodium and water, thereby reducing pulmo­ assessment of digitalis may be complicated because dig­ nary congestion and improving dyspnea and edema. Po­ italis toxicity can occur in some patients at drug levels tent loop diuretics, such as furosemide and bumetanidc, generally regarded as safe, whereas in other patients even are preferred in patients with severe heart failure, whereas elevated levels of digitalis may not produce symptoms of oral thiazides may suffice for patients with milder condi­ toxicity or ECG abnormalities.5’28 Finally, an association tions.5 A loop diuretic can also be used in combination between digitalis and increased mortality in patients who with a thiazide or mctolazone (a quinazolinc) to achieve have had a myocardial infarction has been reported.29’30 an added effect.512 Despite these conflicting studies, in general the data Despite their considerable value in CHF, there are a suggest that digitalis remains a valuable therapeutic agent number of serious considerations regarding the use of for relieving symptoms and improving exercise perfor­ diuretic therapy. Diuretics may deplete electrolytes and mance and left: ventricular function in patients with con­ increase the risk of ventricular arrhythmias in susceptible gestive heart failure.31 It has been suggested, however, continued on page 309 306 The Journal of Family Practice, Vol. 35, No. 3, 1992 ACE Inhibitors in Congestive Heart Failure Kantner O— o Placebo (n = 26) o—o Placebo (n - 25) A— A C a p to p ril (n = 46) A— A Captopril (n > 43) Significantly < baseline (P < .05) ■“ Significantly < baseline (P < .001) Significantly < baseline (P < .01) Baseline Weeks of Therapy Baseline Weeks of Therapy Figure 2. New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class ratings (left) and exercise tolerance (right) for patients treated with captopril or placebo in addition to digoxin and diuretics. (From Captopril Multicenter Research Group.34 Reprinted with permission from the Journal
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