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Effects of Poaching, , and Change On

Lucas Barron 4/27/19 Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 1

Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes

When Dominick Gravine, and avid

Nepenthes collector and seller, visited

Borneo in March of 2013 to trek up the

slopes of mount Trusmadi, he not only saw

the endangered Nepenthes that

inhabit the misty slopes, but also the effects

of the rapid urbanization of the local villages.

He saw ‘palm oil plantations as far as the eye

Dominick Gravine and his collection of Nepenthes can see.’ (-Gravine). “Palm oil plantations completely clear the land of its natural .’ (-Gravine). “While in the local villages, I was offered many which were obviously taken from the wild. The locals see these plants as a source of money. The over collect and sell them to collectors.” (-Gravine) While climbing the , he saw many stalks cut of many plants from people along the trails, which has a large impact on these plants’ ability to reproduce. Habitat destruction and excessive poaching is having a severe 'Candy Dreams'; created by Dominick Gravine effect on species not only in places like , but also worldwide. Although many people deny human caused endangerment of plant species due to excessive poaching, reckless destruction of habitats globally, and climate change, Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 2

has a profound, and rather severe, effect on plant

species globally, but especially in extremely delicate

regions of the world, such as the Indonesian islands.

Nepenthes are (typically) vining carnivorous

plants that are native to the Indonesian islands,

Madagascar, , and the . They have

evolved cup – shaped in order to attract, trap,

and drown . There are currently (as of April Nepenthes Platychilla x Veitchii 2018), there are 172 descried species, and 2

undescribed species. These plants grow in a variety of conditions, from ultra – lowland; (0 – 500m, Day: 85-95° /

Night: 70-75° F,) lowland; (500 – 1000m, Day: 80-90° / Night: 65-70° F), intermediate; (1000 - 1500m, Day: 75-85° /

Night: 55-65° F), highland (1500 - 2000m Day: 70-80° / Night: 50-60° F), and ultra – highland (2000m +, Day: 65-75°

/ Night: 45-55° F). (-Smith). About 75% of all Nepenthes species are in the intermediate category or higher.

Almost every single species produces both lower and upper pitchers. These are pitchers produced at different

times of the plants vining stage. Lower pitchers are formed when the plant is young, or when the basal shoots are

young. They are usually larger, very colorful, have ‘wings’, or guiding rails that point insects towards the pitcher

entrance, and have the attached from the front or the Lower pitchers have evolved to attract larger, ground Forming upper pitchers of x Flava. Tendril attachment is at the back, curled up dwelling insects. Upper pitchers formed when

the plant starts to and climb. They are

usually smaller, less colorful, more ‘wine glass

shaped, have no ‘wings’, and have the tendril

attached to the back. Since they are usually

formed in the air, they have evolved to attract

smaller, flying insects. The tendril on the upper

pitchers on the majority of Nepenthes species is

capable of wrapping itself around branches. Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 3

This helps the plant

climb further into the

canopy. A few select

species are exceptions,

as they either don’t

form upper pitchers at

all (or very rarely), or

produce larger, more

colorful upper pitchers.

There are several

Nepenthes Playchila upper pitcher categories that most species fit into, and each category is unique. Many Nepenthes can be loosely put into groups, known as complexes.

Plants that share similar traits are placed into these ‘complexes.’ For example, Nepenthes species that are closely related to are placed in the ‘Maxima Complex’. Species that are in that complex are as follows:

Nepenthes Boschiana, Nepenthes Caniana, Nepenthes Epiphytica, Nepenthes Eymae, Nepenthes Faizaliana, Nepenthes

Fusca, Nepenthes Klossii, Nepenthes Maxima, Nepenthes Minima; Nepenthes Stenophylla, and Nepenthes Vogelii. All of these species share (somewhat) similar characteristics, not just in the pitcher , but also in structure,

Nepenthes Jamban lower pitchers. The glossy inside is due to the sticky residue that this species uses to catch small flying insects Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 4

tendril attachment and structure, attraction methods,

and growing structure. The Nepenthaceae family of

plants is a very diverse family of plants.

With 172 described species, there is an

absolutely immense amount of diversity. Even

within the species, there are plants that have evolved

completely different methods of attracting and

attracting insects, and some even have a different

method of killing captured prey. Many have evolved Nepenthes Vogelii upper pitchers in very unique situations, and one such example is a mutual symbiotic relationship. Nepenthes Lowii is infamous for its relationship with a particular species of tree , Tupaia Montana. (-Clarke). Nepenthes Lowii’s pitchers produce large amounts of excaudate, which is a sugary, laxative substance that the tree eats. (-Clarke). While it is doing so, it defecates in the pitcher, providing the that the plant needs. (-Clarke).The shrew gets fed, and so does the plant. (-Clarke). The tree shrews are actually very territorial with the plants, and have been known to defend their own plants. Nepenthes Lowii has even been shown to ‘signal’ the tree shrews when it is producing exudate. (-Clarke).

Currently, there are about 5 known species that have a mutual symbiotic relationships. , and Nepenthes

Macrophylla (a species that

coexists with Nepenthes Lowii). (-

Walker/Clarke). Both also have

symbiotic relationship with

Tupaia Montana, despite

drastically differing pitcher

morphology. (-Walker/Clarke).

However despite the differing

Nepenthes Lowii upper pitchers Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 5 pitcher morphology, they all serve similar purposes. Nepenthes Macrophylla

(Nepenthes Lowii’s upper pitchers are not designed to capture insects, however both the lower and upper pitchers of Nepenthes Rajah and Nepenthes Macrophylla.) (-

Walker/Clarke).

However, their rarity and uniqueness has led to an unprecedented poaching problem. Currently, poaching is currently the second biggest threat to the Nepenthaceae family. “One example is -.”;

“Since its discovery (Stewart McPherson; 2007), the wild populations have suffered severely from excessive seed collection every year, pushing this species to the IUCN status of ‘.’ (-Harrie). Nepenthes are

Nepenthes Lingulata upper pitchers extremely valuable in foreign markets, and collectors will pay obscene amounts of money for large specimen plants, which were pulled from the wild. (-Harrie).

The advent of the internet has had an overall negative effect. (-Eliya). Poachers are now finding costumers through online auction sites and plant forums. (-Eliya).

Unfortunately, the local people are seeing immense value of selling these plants, and some rely entirely on them for profit. (-Eliya). They are completely destroying the natural populations for the enormous profits from plant collectors around the world. (-Eliya). Although the poaching has slowed down some, they have almost driven some Nepenthes species to the brink of extinction in the

Close up of the linguate of Nepenthes Lingulata Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 6

Nepenthes Jacquelineae

wild, such as Nepenthes Attenboroughii and Nepenthes Aristolochioides. (-Harrie/McPherson). Nepenthes

Attenboroughii is a critically , and is currently only known to exist on one the isolated summit of , which is located in the Philippines. The entire species’ population is limited to an area estimated to be significantly less than 10km2. Unfortunately, due to the value of these plants, especially in the

Taiwanese and Japanese’s markets, poaching has become this species single biggest threat. (-Harrie). Nepenthes

Aristolochioides’ natural habitat is located within the Sebat National park, and there are three small (known) locations where it lives. Unfortunately, poachers have been poaching within the park itself, and have possibly already cleared one of the three locations. (-Brearley/McPherson) “This species is extremely close to extension (in the wild) due to rampant poaching.” (-McPherson). However, while it may not be possible to save Nepenthes species such as Nepenthes

Attenboroughii and Nepenthes Aristolochioides in the wild, conservation is possible through cultivation. A company called Borneo Exotics specializes in the cloning and ‘mass production’ of Nepenthes through tissue culture. Borneo

Exotics has had Nepenthes Aristolochioides in its tissue programs for many years now, and thanks to their efforts this Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 7 plant is more available to the public than ever. They also have Nepenthes Attenboroughii in their program, and although it has been a very difficult species to mass propagate, they have had moderate success, and have been exporting small batches of plants worldwide. (-Eliya). However, due to many issues, some moral and others political, they have not been able to start repopulating the summit of Mount Victoria. However, if Nepenthes Attenboroughii and/or Nepenthes

Aristolochioides become extinct in the wild, there are thousands of plant in cultivation around the word thanks to

Borneo Exotics efforts in ‘Conversation through Cultivation”.

Another important way to protect these plants having their habitats better protected and more strict laws set in place for damaging their habitat. “Deforestation has been occurring within protected areas in Indonesian, with worrying rates of more than 2% a year within national parks!” (-Brearley). “The main motive behind this rampant deforestation is due to commercial logging, and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes, such as oil palm plantations. (-

Brearley). Currently, is currently the largest global producer so palm oil in the world, and 55%-60% of the

expansion for plantations has come at

the expense at of the forest. (-

Brearley). Aside from heavier

restrictions on logging, and the export

of wood from protected areas, the use

of tissue culture might help with

repopulating habitats. (-Eliya). Borneo

Exotics is currently debating

repopulating what is left of the natural

habitat of Nepenthes Robcantleyi. (-

Eliya). It is currently thought that this

plant has been not only poached to

extinction (in the wild), but has had

almost all of its habitat destroyed. (-

Eliya). Rob Cantley, the founder and Nepenthes Robcantleyi Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 8 owner of Borneo Exotics, hopes to one day repopulate Nepenthes Robcantleyi in the wild. (-Eliya). But, until then, “He endeavors to continue conserving Nepenthes species through cultivation” (-Eliya).

Climate change is the biggest threat to the entirety of the Nepenthaceae family of plants. As the overall climate of the world has been steadily rising in the past century, and it’s not the Sun’s fault, it’s ours. (-Weather Underground).

It has many disastrous effects worldwide, however it will have a particularly bad effect on very intricate ecosystems, such as the Indonesian islands. “Anthropogenic climate change is predicted to have profound effects on over the coming decades. (-Gray; Clarke; Wint; Moran). Highland and Ultra - highland Nepenthes are most at risk, due to the very narrow climate ranges needed for their survival. Nepenthes Tentaculata, a highland species native to Borneo and , particularly the former. Due to the foreseeable effects caused my climate change, such as sea level rise, higher overall global climate temperatures, and the drastic changes in ecosystems worldwide, montane

Nepenthes species, such as Nepenthes Tentaculata, are expected be threatened by climate change. Other highland

Nepenthes species, which have a much smaller distribution range and population, are at a much higher risk. Species such as Nepenthes Edwardsiana (6.); Nepenthes Macrophylla (8.); and Nepenthes Rajah (9.) are at the highest risk of the effects brought on by climate change.

Many people deny the serious effects

of human caused events on plant species,

such as poaching, deforestation, and even

climate change. However, there is more

evidence that not suggesting that there

are many serious effects. Bornean plant

diversity is at risk due to deforestation

and human – caused climate events.

While about half of Borneo still remains

forested, with ever increasing rates.

Nepenthes Edwardsiana peristome close up Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 9

• While poaching is not the single biggest

threat to the entirety of the Nepenthaceae

family, it is the biggest threat or concern

for about 25 of species, and about 5

natural hybrids. The most endangered

species at the time of writing are:

Nepenthes Aristolochioides (1.);

Nepenthes Attenboroughii (2.);

Nepenthes Bellii (3.); Nepenthes

Clipeata (4.); Nepenthes Dubia (5.);

Nepenthes Edwardsiana (6.); Nepenthes

Klossii (7.); Nepenthes Macrophylla

(8.); Nepenthes Rajah (9.); Nepenthes

Rigidifolia (10.); Nepenthes Sumatrana

(11.); Nepenthes Suratensis (12.); and Nepenthes Edwardsiana peristome close up

Nepenthes Villosa (13.). All of these species are extremely valuable for poachers and their customers, due to

their rarity both in the wild and also in cultivation. In all of their respective articles, Poaching is one of the top

threats if not the top threat. “Control measures are in place for the trade of the endangered species of the

Nepenthes, but these need to better enforced, and the area(s) made a designated protected zone.” (-Harrie).

Although this particular report is referencing Nepenthes Attenboroughii, the information stated applies to all of

the aforementioned species. Their natural habitats are usually not protected, and even if they are they are very

poorly enforced, as evidence is given by the excessive poaching of these plants. All of the articles, in reference

to their aforementioned species, make a good point of poaching and over – collection of specimens, and the

effects that that has on the wild populations, and this is confirmed by Stewart McPherson’s article; “Nepenthes

Aristolochioides and Nepenthes Klossii.” Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 10

• Recent reviews of threats to

Nepenthaceae have been done,

and currently, climate change

is the one of the biggest threats

to the entirely of the

Nepenthaceae family, however

it is not officially recognized

as a threat. (-Gray; Clarke;

Wint; Moran). Habitat

destruction is one of the

Nepenthes Glabrata upper pitcher biggest driving force behind

climate change. Other threats include over – collection of specimens and pollution. (-Gray; Clarke; Wint;

Moran). It is true that climate change should be added to the list of threats to montane Nepenthes species, a

point that needs to be emphasized because many people don’t be live in climate change and its consequences.

The authors also make a very good point about the over – collection of specimens and the effects it has on wild

populations, because Stewart McPherson’s article on the Endangerment of “Nepenthes Aristolochioides and

Nepenthes Klossii.” confirms its effects.

• Currently, less than half of Borneo still remains forested, with some of the highest deforestation rates globally (-

Brearley). It is true that deforestation is in increasing in Borneo, a point that needs emphasizing since many

people don’t know that this is an extremely large threat to the Bornean ecology. “Numerous studies

examinations the effects of the 1997/1998 El Niño drought and fires have been published – this was the most

severe drought even observed directly in the region.” (-Brearley). Brearley makes a good point about the severe

effects of the 1997/1998 El Niño, because a report published by Weather underground states that “The El Niño

of 1997-1998 was the strongest in modern records.” (-Burt)

Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 11

When faced with all of these facts, it is apparent that human – caused issues are the main reason that plant families, such as Nepenthaceae, are endangered. Not only does poaching and habitat loss effect just Nepenthes, however it has and wide effect on the entire ecosystem.

The removal of these plants has a chain reaction that trickles through the entire ecosystem. Although the entire removal of Nepenthes would not have a catastrophic effect, it would still have great effects on the creatures Nepenthes Hurrelliana that are in a relationship with these plants. Habitat loss however, has not only a devastating effect on Nepenthes, but a regional effect on plant and animal species, but also a worldwide effect. Human caused effects are endangering both plant and animal species around the world, but especially in delicate areas of the world, such as the Indonesian Islands, and the Nepenthaceae family is just one of hundreds of examples of the disastrous effects of poaching, habitat destruction, and climate change.

Nepenthes Lowii Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 12

Works Cited:

In order of appearance:

▪ Smith, Micheal Kevin. Nepenthes Altitudinal

Distribution and Temperature | Ultra Lowland,

Lowland, Intermediate, Highland, Ultra Highland,

www.michaelkevinsmith.com/nepenthaceae/Nepenthes-

Altitudinal-Distribution-Temperature-Chart.html.

▪ Clarke, Charles, et al. Plant Signaling & Behavior, Juvenile Nepenthes Edwardsiana pitcher Landes Bioscience, Oct. 2010,

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3115346/.

▪ Walker, Matt. “Earth News - Giant Meat-Eating Plants Prefer to Eat Tree Shrew Poo.” BBC, BBC, 10 Mar.

2010, news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8552000/8552157.stm.

▪ D, Harrie. “Save Our Species.” Critically Endangered Species of the Week: Attenborough's ! 1 Jan.

1970, sosbiodiversity.blogspot.com/2012/11/critically-endangered-species-of-week.html.

▪ “Climate Change Today.” Weather Underground, www.wunderground.com/weather-infographics/climate-

change-today.

▪ Borneo Exotics, Nuwara Eliya,

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.730.6757&rep=rep1&=pdf.

▪ McPherson, Stewart. “Musėkautas.” Muskautas

RSS, 21 Oct. 2012, www.musekautas.lt/?p=5515.

▪ Brearley, Francis Q. “Forest Ecology Research in

Borneo: 2003-2008.” The Free Library,

www.thefreelibrary.com/Forest ecology research in

Borneo: 2003-2008.-a0228122211.

Nepenthes [(Ventricosa x Sibuyanensis) -Giant x {Ventricosa x (Spathulata x Lowii) x Trusmadiensis)}] Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 13

▪ Gray, Laura K., et al. “Potential Effects of Climate Change on Members of the Palaeotropical Pitcher Plant

Family Nepenthaceae.” Plos One, Public Library of Science,

journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journClarke, Charles, and Jonathan A. Moran.

▪ 1. , www.iucnredlist.org/details/39645/0.

▪ 2. , www.iucnredlist.org/details/39652/0.

▪ 3. Nepenthes Dubia, www.iucnredlist.org/details/39657/0.

▪ 4. Nepenthes Edwardsiana, www.iucnredlist.org/details/40107/0.

▪ 5. Nepenthes Macrophylla, www.iucnredlist.org/details/39671/0.

▪ 6. Nepenthes Rajah, www.iucnredlist.org/details/39690/0.

▪ 7. Nepenthes Rigidifolia, www.iucnredlist.org/details/49002226/0.

▪ 8. Nepenthes Sumatrana, www.iucnredlist.org/details/39700/0.

▪ 9. Nepenthes Suratensis, www.iucnredlist.org/details/21848236/0.

Nepenthes Macrophylla Effects of Poaching, Habitat Destruction, and Climate Change On Nepenthes Lucas Barron; 4/27/2018 14

Nepenthes Hurrelliana ▪ 10. ,

www.iucnredlist.org/details/39712/0.

▪ Burt, Christopher C. Weather Underground,

Weather Underground, 10 Mar. 2014,

www.wunderground.com/blog/weatherhistorian/the-el-

nino-of-19971998.html

▪ All photos taken by Lucas Barron

▪ Plants owned and grown by Redleaf Exotics and

California Carnivores

Nepenthes Lowii