M.Sh. Khasanov, V.F. Petrova

Philosophy

Almaty, 2017 Recommended for publication by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan for tertiary education students

Reviewed by: Zh.Zh. Moldabekov, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, Professor M.S. Sabit, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, Professor

M.Sh. Khasanov, V.F. Petrova Philosophy. Textbook. Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Almaty, 2017. [•] pages

This Philosophy textbook is based on the model syllabus for all Bachelor’s degree specialisations in accordance with the model curriculum approved by Order No. 343 dated 16 August 2013 issued by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan (the “RK MES”). The syllabus was reviewed and approved by the meeting of the Republic’s Education and Training Methodology Board of 17 January 2014, Minutes No. 1. The textbook introduces the reader to the history of the development of the non- material culture of mankind and world’s philosophical thought on understanding of universal problems of human existence and society, history and politics, culture and education, the theory of dialectics and epistemology, technology and global problems of our time. The textbook material is aimed at helping the reader to prepare for lectures and seminars, to complete individual student assignments and to prepare for mid-term tests and examinations and answers to test questions. Table of Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Subject, Purpose and Functions of Philosophy 1.1. Origin, Genesis and Purpose of Philosophy Chapter 2 Philosophy of the Ancient World. 2.1 Philosophy of Ancient Kazakhstan 2.2 Philosophy of Ancient India 2.3 Philosophy of Ancient China 2.4 Ancient Philosophy Chapter 3 Eastern and Western Philosophy of the Middle Ages 3.1 Arab-Islamic Philosophy 3.2 Turkic Philosophy 3.3 European Christian Philosophy Chapter 4 Philosophy of the Renaissance 4.1 Humanism as a Distinctive Feature of the Renaissance Era 4.2 Concepts of Platonism, Neo-Platonism and Aristotelianism in Science and Art 4.3 Reformation as a Protest Against the Renaissance Glorification of Man Chapter 5 Philosophy of the Modern Age 5.1 The Search for Methods of Acquiring Knowledge: Empiricism and Rationalism, Materialism and Idealism. Chapter 6 Philosophy of the European Enlightenment of the 18th Century 6.1 Enlightenment as a Path to Social Progress. Chapter 7 Classical German Philosophy 7.1 Ontology and Epistemology, Metaphysics and Dialectics, Idealism and Anthropological Materialism Chapter 8 Foreign Philosophy from Late 18th Century to Early 21st Century 8.1 Marxism 8.2 Neo-Kantianism 8.3 Philosophy of Life 8.4 Positivism and its Historical Forms 8.5 Phenomenology 8.6 Existentialism 8.7 Hermeneutics, Postmodernism, Poststructuralism 8.6 Existentialism 8.7 Psychoanalysis 8.8 Russian Philosophy. Chapter 9 Kazakh Philosophy. 9.1 Anthropocentrism and Humanism of the Philosophy of Chokan Valikhanov, Ibrai Altynsarin and Abai Kunanbayev 9.2 Socio-Philosophical, Socio-Political and Ethical-Humanistic Views of Writers and Poets of Kazakhstan of the Late 19th Century - First Half of the 20th Century Chapter 10 Being as the Central Concept of Ontology 10.1 Ontology as the Study of Being and Types of Being 10.2 Concepts of Matter Chapter 11 The Principle of Evolution: Dialectics and Synergetics 11.1 Basic Principles, Laws and Categories of Dialectics Chapter 12 Possibilities and Limits of Knowledge 12.1 Levels and Structure of Knowledge 12. 2 Truth as the Purpose of Knowledge Chapter 13 Philosophical Anthropology 13.1 Problems of Man in the History of Philosophy 13.2 Concepts of Man in Philosophical Anthropology Chapter 14 Social Philosophy 14.1 Society as a System 14.2 Contemporary Concepts of Society Chapter 15 Philosophical Understanding of Global Challenges of Our Time 15.1 Main Global Challenges of Our Time Chapter 1 Philosophy Philosophy: Subject, Functions, and Diversity 1.1 Origin, Genesis and Purpose of Philosophy

Philosophy (literally from Greek “love for wisdom”, Pythagoras) originates at such stage of the development of society when man develops the need to acquire coherent knowledge about the world and of his role and place in the world. Answers to questions being asked require the pursuit of knowledge and truth. The love for wisdom begins with reflecting on the nature and essence of man, human destiny, on rational socio-political order. Wisdom which is based on morals lets an individual to define his life stance. Philosophy arose in the 7th-5th century BC in India, China, and Greece, i.e. almost simultaneously in different civilisations and at such level of the development of society which was characterised by the division of intellectual and manual labour. During this period, we see the completion of the transformation of the tribal system into the slave-owning system and the transition from myth to logos society’s intellectual life. Society has already accrued positive knowledge and now develops the need for systemisation, consolidation of and rational reflection on the acquired knowledge. At early stages, philosophy was seen as the “science of sciences” and incorporated all knowledge about the world accumulated by humans. It developed as natural philosophy (philosophy of nature). As philosophical knowledge continued to develop, the structure of the “mother of all sciences” becomes more complex with new branches developing within it: ontology (the study of being) is followed by epistemology (the study of knowledge); methodology (the study of the methods of acquiring knowledge); philosophical anthropology (the study of humans); ethics; aesthetics, as well as by the study of society, government and state. In other words, philosophy is historic in itself, it is developing, growing and becoming more sophisticated; the subject of philosophical study and methods of knowledge and cognition are becoming broader and deeper, and the function and purpose of philosophy more complex. The functions of philosophy which deal with worldviews and belief systems, ontology, epistemology, and axiology serve as its main functions. The human nature is such that, in addition to actual, positive knowledge of the world, man aspires to acquire insight into the nature of things and phenomena. No science other than philosophy poses the essential questions of being and gives answers to these questions: what is truth, life and death, good and evil, finiteness and infinity of the world, what is human destiny. Concrete or general scientific knowledge is not sufficient to answer these questions. Someone who perceives the reality only through the prism of his area of expertise risks finding himself in a situation when the meaning of being disappears and “the time is out of joint” (Hamlet). Since its inception, philosophy has sought to provide a generalised and systematised perception and understanding of the world. By way of explaining what this world is, philosophy relied on sense perception and reason, the system of values and beliefs. Worldview is the combination of sense and reason, the axiological system of man’s attitude to the world. Worldview may be prescientific, unscientific, nonscientific, extrascientific, and scientific, it may be passive observational and active. Conventionally, we distinguish three worldview types: the mythological, religious and philosophical. The mythological worldview (mythos – a traditional story, tale) involves man’s ideas, emotionally expressive and imaginative in their form, about the creation of the world from chaos, the origin of man and the stages of his life, about heroes, spirits, gods, and the forces of nature. Religious worldview (religiō – piety, sanctity) is based on the belief in the existence of supernatural forces that determine human life. Philosophical worldview is rational perception of the world and man’s place in it. This type of worldview is determined by the fact that philosophy synthesises, consolidates and classifies the knowledge obtained by other sciences and, at the same time, gives an assessment to all that exists being guided by the scale of universal values and ideas of humanism. It builds a system of humanistic values helping humans become human. Worldview structure comprises Weltanschauung, world perception, attitude, perspective, vision, outlook, a system of values, ideals, i.e. the dream of a perfect arrangement of society and order of life. Any worldview is based on conviction, a firm and established system of beliefs and ideals, i.e. knowledge multiplied by the confidence in one’s rightness. The system of man in the world, which is the subject of philosophy, is constantly changing and developing. The conditions of existence, the means and purpose of knowledge and the transformation of reality are becoming more sophisticated. All of this requires more systemic approaches toward and a more advanced organisation of knowledge, the cognitive process and actions of humans. Accordingly, philosophical knowledge is also changing, expanding and becoming more detailed and profound. Philosophy is not only a science, but also a form of public consciousness and theoretical basis for worldview. Its central question is the question of relation between being and consciousness which has two facets: 1) ontological: what comes first – matter or consciousness; and 2) epistemological: are we capable of knowing this world. By answering these questions, philosophers are divided into materialists and idealists; and, in terms of epistemology, into optimists, skeptics and agnostics. The entire history of classical philosophy may be described as a history of conflict between materialism and idealism. Notably, however, this conflict, particularly during the early stages of the development of philosophy, was not always obvious. Since the tension between materialism and idealism is not absolute, therefore both movements represent only the interconnected, mutually complementary, facets of a single process of development of philosophical thought. The question of the relationship between the ideal and the material (physical) is discussed differently in philosophical teachings, movements, and schools of thought. There is also a second aspect to this important problem, i.e. the quest for an answer to the question of whether the world is knowable. Three approaches are possible here: optimists recognise that the world is indeed knowable, agnostics disagree with this notion and skeptics take the middle ground (it is possible, but…). Philosophical teachings is a system of certain, logically interconnected views. Philosophical teachings are being formed as long as teachings developed by particular philosophers find their disciples. Philosophical schools are a body of philosophical teachings which are united by certain key conceptual principles. A body of various modifications of same conceptual principles which are being developed by various, often competing, schools of thought, are conventionally defined as philosophical movements. Such movements comprise the largest movements that share common key tenets but allow for certain deviations from them. The inseparable unity of the scientific-theoretical, practical-spiritual, and axiological principles in philosophy determines its specific character as an absolutely unique form of social consciousness. This is reflected in the history of philosophy, i.e. in the actual process of the evolution of the worldview substance of philosophical teachings that are historically linked together in a proper way: - first, it represents the history of the universal, although stretched throughout time, man’s tendency to reflect and philosophise thus getting to know himself and the world; - second, the history of philosophy is a centuries-old synthesis of the collective human experience; - third, the history of philosophy reflects the common logic of the development of the world civilisation and culture as a whole. The logic of this development should be taken into account when defining the philosophical agenda for each historical era. Therefore, it appears reasonable to either study the philosophical thought of different countries and nations side-by-side or to separately discuss the specific characteristics of a particular historical period. Normally, the study of the history of philosophy begins with its periodisation. In most cases, researches apply the approach suggested by G.W.F. Hegel to dealing with this problem. He defined philosophy as its own time comprehended in thoughts and distinguished five historical periods each of which is characterised by a particular philosophical method: - Ancient philosophy – philosophical teachings which developed in the Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman societies from the end of the 7th to the 6th century BC. - Medieval philosophy – concepts created in Europe from the 2nd to the 15th century. - philosophy of the Renaissance era – teachings developed in Western Europe in the 15th-16th centuries. - philosophy of the Modern Age – philosophical theories of Western European and American scholars from the 17th century to the 70s of the 19th century. – modern and contemporary philosophy – teachings existing since the second half of the 19th century.

Self-check:  Main features of philosophical knowledge;  Purpose and essence of philosophy;  Functions of philosophy;  Main branches of philosophy;  Role of philosophy and philosopher in life of man and society.

Chapter 2 Philosophy of the Ancient World 2.1 Philosophy of Ancient Kazakhstan Philosophy of ancient Kazakhstan stemmed from mythology. Kazakh mythology, just as Greek mythology, began with dealing with the act of the Initial Creation, i.e. the creation of Order and Harmony from Chaos. A considerable part of Kazakh mythology is comprised of “cosmological” myths that were explaining the origin of the Universe. The key principle applied in mythology to the solution of ontological questions is the genetic principle. According to the substantive version, the creation of the world is described as follows: Umai once flew in disguised in the shape of a white swan and began moving in circles over the waters of the ocean. She kept searching and searching for at least a single patch of land, but in vain. Umai laid an egg into the water and the egg sank. The goddess grieved for a while and decided to build herself a nest on the water. She plucked her down, made a nest, but the waves broke it and scattered it around. Umai then decided to get some soil. She summoned up her courage and plunged so deeply that she reached the very bottom. The swan grabbed some soil into her beak and surfaced from the water. But where should I put the soil that I brought up? And this was when Tengri sent three iron fish to the swan. The goddess put a piece of soil on the back of one fish. Suddenly in began to grow bigger and bigger as she was watching. It was this piece of soil the Earth was created from. On this Earth Umai wove a nest and laid an egg. And people and the entire surrounding world came out from this egg. This is why Turks believed that the goddess of Umai was their ancestor and worshiped her with great devotion. The semantic Turkic version of the initial creation of the world is associated with the name of Korkut. Kazakh people believed that Korkut flew in on a white female camel or on a bird. He landed on the Syr Darya River and stuck his Kobyz in the middle of the river. Because, prior to the introduction of Islam to the Great Steppe Kazakh people followed Tengriism, Korkut was not a God for them, but an ancestor. In the world of humans, the main forces and powers of the good are Zher and Su. The legend has it that there is a milk lake in the Altai area, the lake has a sacred golden poplar tree which connects the earth and the sky into a single whole. Zher-Su has another lake which is occupied by Kuer-Balyk, who is the ancestor fish and she supports the mountains and bears the prototype models of all kinds of humans and animals. She endows them with the nuclei of the spirits acting as protectors of tribes who, in turn, spread them in real life. Ancestors saw the space occupied by Zher-Su as a rectangle (which was divided into four quarters or corners of the world) and each of such “corner” was occupied by a hostile people. The female goddess of Umai (womb) is the protectress of children, the fireplace, and the arts. She determines whether sons will be born to a family and whether the family line will continue. The lower world, the world of the dead, is headed by Erlik who is the god of death. He is an old man with black, fathomless eyes, with a beard growing to his knees, who consumes blood as his food and lives in the Toymandy River made up of tears. Erlisk is the chief villain and he must be appeased. There are older gods and goddesses in the mythological pantheon of the Turkic peoples, other than Umai or Sholpan. They are Mystan, an old woman who is made of copper and who uses her copper beak and claws to “stitch” the “crack” in the earth in the West, which is the land of the demon, she is the protectress of nature. Yet her character and role is described differently in the epic of Koblandy-Batyr. Here she is the symbol of the dark forces and chaos and is described as the opposite to Koktym- Aimak, the god of the sky and the mountains who is even more ancient than Tengri. Aruahs, the good spirits of ancestors, protected people and guarded entries to dwellings and auls (settlements). All animals were worshipped, apart from the goat and the cow who were symbols of the lower world. There was a ban on killing swans, owls, eagle-owls, woodpeckers, magpies, and cuckoos were treated as sacred birds, almost human. In other words, the good spirits (or animals) were real and concrete, people prayed to them giving a tribal cry; whereas the evil forces were abstract. Alongside with the cult of Tengri, the cult of Mitra (or Mithra) (according to the Avesta, the armed god of light) was also spread among the Turkic tribes who was considered the protector of nomadic warriors and the guardian of oaths and agreements. The nomadic tribes were also familiar with Shamanism, as well as Buddhism, Nestorianism, and Islam.

2.2 The Philosophy of Ancient India The philosophical traditions and schools in Antient India trace their history back to the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennia BC. They took their shape within the Vedic culture and represented different movements and schools of thought ranging from mythological and religious ideas and description of rituals and hymns to philosophical and scientific concepts and notions on the structure and order of the universe. The sacred scripture, the Vedas (knowledge) are religio-philosophical treatises of the period from the 15th to the 6th century BC. They had been created for over nine centuries by the tribes of the Indo-European Aryans who mingled with the indigenous population of India (Dravidians, Mindians, and many other groups) during the Migration Period 2,500-2000 years BC. The Vedic literature is comprised of four groups of collected texts (the Samhitas): the Rigveda (the Veda of hymns), the Samaveda (the Veda of chants), the Yajurveda (the Veda of sacrifices), and the Atharvaveda (the Veda of magical formulas), several so called Brahmanas which provide and explanation of the “ultimate substance”, the Aranyakas which are “the texts born in a forest for ascetics contemplating on the truth in the silence and privacy of their solitude”, and over two hundred Upanishads, which are collections of religio-philosophical texts and which complete the Vedic literature. The post-Vedic period, from the 9th century BC to the 6th century BC, was when the most famous part of the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita (the song of the Lord), was created. Bhagavad Gita is a part of the sixth book of the historic epic of Mahabharata whose stature is similar to that of the Upanishads. The six classical philosophical systems originated in the 7th-6th centuries BC, and according to some researchers, the 6th-5th centuries BC: Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya (logic), Vaisheshika, Vedanta, Mimansa (or Mimamsa), and heterodox teachings: Ajivika, Jainism and Buddhism. The formation of the orthodox (Astika) and heterodox (Nastika) schools of Indian philosophy is connected with the immediate awareness of the truth (Darshana). In contemporary Indian languages, the words “Astika” and “Nastika” means, respectively, “theist” and “atheist”. In the philosophical literature written in Sanskrit the word “Astika” meant those “who believe in the authority of the Vedas” or those “who believe in life after death”. The Sankhya philosophy is considered the most thoroughly codified and theoretically substantiated compared to all other schools. Sankhya is translated as “to calculate, reckon or reason through enumerating the principles of being”. This school is also called Kapila, by the name of its founder. Sankhya is a universal, religio-philosphical study which incorporated elements of the Vedic and other Indian cults. Its followers were outspoken critics of Brahmanism. Sankhya reached its peak in the period from the 3rd century AD to the 9th century AD. Conventionally, Sankhya is described as philosophy of dualistic realism that recornises the existence of two realities: Purusha and Prakriti. Notably, Purusha is no longer interpreted here as “man vs. cosmos/universe”, but as a certain rational beginning whose consciousness (Chaitanya) constitutes its substance. It is a spiritual beginning which is separate from matter (Prakriti) and is defined as the transition from matter to consciousness or mind, as a nucleus or seed of the Unverse (Mahatb) which reflects the essence of the Universe as a certain “Self”, i.e. the eternal and pure consciousness. European philosophers would call it the universal mind. Yet notably, ontology does not define Sankhya as a god, but as matter (Prakriti) which is the cause of the existence of the world as a whole. On the surface, this premise may seem illogical. However, everything falls into place if we accept Kapila’s postulation that the initial form of matter was energy “which, according to the will of Brahma, “thickens” into a substance thus creating the whole variety of objects of the Universe both visible and invisible to our eye”. Sankhya differentiates five basic components or elements (Mahabhutas) that make up the foundation for any object of the Universe: - earth (Prithvi) denotes the principle of the structure or solid state of matter (it is energy “packed” into a substance); - water (Jala) denotes the principles of interaction or the liquid state of matter; - fire (Agni) denotes the principles of release of energy (the “unpacking” of energy); - air (Vayu) denotes the principle of movement of matter or the gaseous state of matter; and - aether (Akasha) is a special substance which is analogous to the contemporary notion of physical vacuum, physical field of matter. By describing the Universe as a single living organism, Kapila introduces the idea of the identity of micro- and macrocosm. Each and every action in the Universe is determined by cause-effect relations (the quality of the “fire” element); each point, according to the principles of holography, contains the information about the Universe as a whole (the quality of the “aether” element); e.g., a drop of water reflects the entire world. This is expressed by the formula “whatever is below is the same as that which is above” (the quality of the “air” element). All objects of the Universe are interconnected (the quality of the elements “water). As such, the energy of the Universe, by transforming from one state into another, will never disappear (the quality of the element “earth). In modern language, it is governed by the law of conservation and transformation of energy. The philosophy of Sankhya is closely follows by the System of Yoga, whose is thought to have been founded by the scholar Patanjali. His classical work titled the Yoga Sutras, a collection of 185 short aphorisms, sets out the ontology and epistemology of the Sankhya philosophy and acknowledges the existence of god as the creator of being. The practice of yoga represents the methods and means for the recognition of the true meanings of things, it is a necessary condition for liberation, cessation of all five functions of the mind (chittas). Yoga exercises allow those who practice it to unite into a single whole their body, mind and spirit. It is not a coincidence that the very word “yoga” means “unity” or “wholeness” in the Western version. Patanjali's main achievement is that he consolidated the experience of many previous generations and formulated the principle of ashtanga yoga (eight limbs or steps of yoga). This principle represents the logic sequence of certain stages of the practice of yoga which allows the person practicing it to achieve the highest levels of physical, intellectual and spiritual development. The system of yoga teaches the way for an individual soul for communicating with the Supreme Soule and achieving the main goal for each person (according to the Vedas), i.e. liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirths of the soul (samsara). The System of Mimansa was founded by the scholar Jaimini. It is focused on providing rationale for rituals and is prescribing the authority of the Vedas. The founder of Mimansa stated that the Vedas are of eternal existence and are spread through prophets. The rituals that are prescribed by the Vedas must be followed not to gain a reward, either during life or after death, but out of sense of duty, for selfless reasons and being guided by the knowledge and self-control. Only in this case the soul is liberated after death, which was initially described by the Mimansa as "a state of heavenly blissfulness" and later as "the cessation of the birth of the soul", i.e. all kinds of suffering. The followers of this school offer original and indigenous solutions to epistemological problems. They are convinced that the soul contained in the body possessed different kinds of knowledge. "The sources of sense and irrational knowledge (Pramana) are perception (Pratyaksha), inference (Anumana), comparison (Upamana), testimony (Sabda) and postulation (Arthappaty)”. There is clearly a logical approach prevailing here. The System of Vedanta is the end of the Vedas. The Brahma Sutra (also called the Vedanta Sutra), which is the main canon of the Vedanta, codified the Upanishad teachings, and the comments to them were compiled by Badarayana, Shankara, and Ramanuja. In this teaching, the notion of the existence of a certain supreme being (Purusha) is substituted with the concept of the one cosmic spirit, the single Brahman. The fundamental premise of Mimansa is that “everything is god (Brahman), spirit or soul (Atman) and they are reality”. The world stems from this reality, rests on it and, after its destruction, returns back to it. From the point of view of Indian philosophy, the recognition of the existence of a single reality is very important because it allows us to explain the world not only as an actual creation, but also as an "appearance" caused by god in people’s imagination through the incomprehensible power of illusion (Maya). Nyaya is the school of logicians, it was formed during the same period as the Vaisheshika. Both schools complement each other. Nyaya was founded by Gotama; and his disciples focus their attention on the issues dealing with the attainment of valid knowledge and its logical justification. They consider the criteria for the authenticity of knowledge and the means for its acquisition. Because this system studies the nature and sources of knowledge, its truth or falsity, it is also called "the science of critical inquiry". Followers of this school, using a system of logical inferences, develop a method that makes it possible to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge. The school of logicians recognises such sources of knowledge as senses, inferences, analogies, syllogisms, and texts (testimonies). Its representatives argue that the only way to achieve the liberation of human beings is to "acquire knowledge about the external world and its relationship with the mind and soul”. If you master the methods of logical reasoning and persistently apply them in everyday life, you can get rid of all suffering and comprehend the truth. The school of Vaisheshika (1st century AD) postulates that the world is in the process of eternal cyclical change, everything in it develops alternately and falls into decay. The only fundamental elements of existence that remain unchanged are atoms, which are eternal, created by no one, indestructible, have a perfect round shape, and possess seventeen different qualities. Animate and inanimate objects, perceived at the sensory level, are formed from various compounds of atoms. The followers of this school developed a terminology framework by dividing all concepts into two groups: general and specific categories. These categories reflect the properties and qualities of objects conveying their originality and distinctive features. Buddhism is a religio-philosophical system which originated in India in the 6th-5th centuries BC, almost simultaneously with Jainism and Hinduism. It originated in North-East India in the areas of where pre-Brahman culture was prevalent. It later spread throughout India and reached its peak during the period from the end of the 1st millennium BC - beginning of the 1st millennium AD. The founder of Buddhism was the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama (624-544 BC), who was later named the Buddha, i.e. awakened, enlightened because the path to the salvation of humankind was revealed to him. He was not a Creator or God, but just a man who was capable of understanding life as the source of all kinds of external and internal problems. Siddhartha was able to overcome all his problems and to realise all his potential to help others in the most effective way. The Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of the teaching of Buddha: life is suffering; exaggerated attachment to material goods is the source of suffering; to overcome suffering one must choose the Middle Way; and the ultimate life goal is to attain Nirvana). All the postulates of Buddhism focus on the explanation and development of these concepts and, in particular, of the notion of personal autonomy which is contained in these concepts. Buddhism describes suffering and liberation from suffering as different states of same existence: suffering is the state of manifested existence and liberation is the state of unmanifested existence. Buddhism interprets liberation primarily as elimination of desires, or, to be more precise, as the diminishing of their intensity. Liberation, or nirvana, is the state of complete satisfaction, inward awareness, and absolute independence of inner existence, which represent the positive equivalent of “diminishing desires”. Buddha said that “Without a perfectly healthy body, man is unable to attain bliss”. The Buddhist principle of the so called Middle Way recommends that one should avoid extremes, both urges for sensual pleasure, as well as complete suppression of such urges. In the domain of morals and emotions, Buddhist is dominated by the concept of tolerance and relativity, according to which moral precepts are not binding and can be violated. Jainism is a dualistic religio-philosophical teaching that originated during the period from the 6th century BC to the 5th century BC. It acknowledges the dual nature of human beings; with karma being the connecting link between his body (matter) and soul. Karma is sometimes described as subtle matter. Only man himself is the master of his destiny and only he decides what is good and what is evil. God is spirit that once lived in a material body, but managed to get rid of karma through a series of rebirths (the wheel of samsara). Everybody can free themselves from karma and samsara by observing austerity, leading a righteous lifestyle and doing good deeds. Jainists believe that a person can control and manage his material substance through spiritual practice. Jainist ethics is based on the religious and philosophical reasoning and is traditionally called “The Three Jewels” which means: - the right understanding, which is only possible on the basis of the right faith; - the right knowledge, which is achievable by the right mental attitude; - the right conduct, which leads to the liberation from karma and the wheel of samsara (a cycle of reincarnations). Only humans themselves are responsible for their own liberation from samsara. Followers of the School of Charvaka (Lokayata/Lokayatika) are more consistent in their materialistic views. It is conventionally believed that the roots of their teachings go back to the ancient sage Brihaspati, the son of Loki and the teacher of the gods. According to the Mahabharata, he was teaching materialistic views among the titans (antigods) to make them, by following his teachings, destroy themselves. The skepticism that runs through this teaching demonstrates the freedom of the mind that refuses to accept traditional wisdom without critical scrutiny.

2.3 Philosophy of Ancient China The philosophical thought in China traces its roots back to the I Ching or Book of Changes. Its role in the formation of Chinese culture is so great that, even to this day, all roads in any sphere of the Chinese people life lead to the Book of Changes. Notably, the first sentence of this treatise, which reads that Yin is Yang and Yang is Yin, and this is what well call the Way (of Dao), became the fundamental principle for all Chinese philosophy. The wording of this fundamental law was formulated in the Book of Changes by using graphic symbols. According to I Ching, the whole world process is an alternation of situations originating from the interaction and struggle of the opposites, i.e. the forces of light and shadow (darkness), tension and relaxation. In China, a great value was attached to such qualities as humanness and benevolence which were aimed at harmonious and rational coexistence of all members of the community. Man’s self-development is one of the core principles of the Chinese culture. The teachings of Confucius are concerned with the implementation of this cultural principle. The substance of the Confucian theory of ethics may be boiled down to the following: a man's self is not to serve himself, but the community; everyone must devote attention to their business and follow the Dao; everything must be in order: both in respect of man’s attitude toward nature, and his attitude to his fellow-men and the community and the state; order gives rise to etiquette. The Code of Conduct comprises the rules for exhibited behaviour that may not be breached either the governor, or his subordinates; an ideal gentleman, a nobleman or gentleman (Junzi), must be aware of and fulfil his duties; virtue (De) is one of most essential qualities of a social man: “Order is ensured by virtue”. The four key virtues are: “a nobleman” is polite and considerate in his behaviour, and precise, benevolent, and just when he is on duty. Humanness is the fundamental responsibility of man and his main virtue. A (spiritually) noble man who possesses these virtues can actualise the faculty for self-improvement which is inherent in everyone. A man is not born noble, but becomes one. Daoism is one of the most thoroughly theoretically substantiated systems of Chinese philosophy which traces its history back to the 5th-3rd centuries BC. For many generations of the Chinese people not only it has become a philosophical interpretation of the structure of the Universe and nature of things, but also a way of life and eventually a religion. The “Old Master” Laozi is conventionally believed to be the founder of Daoism and is named as the author of the treatise Dao Te Ching. In addition to Dao Te Ching, the other branches of Daoism were developed in Zhuangzi, Lie Yukou, and Wenzi. Interest in Daoism increased after the fall of the Han Dynasty by when Confucianism had exhausted its effectiveness as the official ideology. At the heart of this concept is Dao, which reveals the absolute parallelism of the earthly and the heavenly, the cosmic and human. Laozi defies the existence of god and strips heaven from its sacred meaning. He emphasises that everything in the world happens according to natural laws. Nothing is permanent and everything is finite, everything is moving, changing, and developing due to the dialectical unity of the opposites – the Ying and the Yang (“everything contains the Ying in itself and embraces the Yang”). Human nature conforms to the Dao, he carries within himself a part of the Dao, De (a seed of spirituality and the faculty for self-improvement) and the meaning of his life is in following the natural laws of the universe. In other words, man is part of nature and he must live in peace and harmony with it, without disrupting the conformity between the inner and the outer worlds. Laozi proposed the concept of unity of cosmos, nature, man and society. To avoid disturbance of this unity, man must act in moderation according to the concept of wuwei. One of man’s most important goals in his relations with nature and society is to follow "the principle of inaction”, which was outlined as early as in the ancient source of Chinese culture, The Book of Changes. “Inaction” (or “actionless action”) does not mean that man should do nothing or be passive, but that he should act observing moderation and following laws, that is live in harmony with the world and himself. Inaction is a spiritual effort that rests on following traditions and rituals. True ritualism becomes a kind of spontaneity, a form of symbolic thinking, a way of life. And here there is a possibility for the natural course of things -- everything is done by itself, in accordance with the law of Dao. It is not a coincidence that one of the symbols of Chinese culture is a man in a boat without paddles: the current of the river (i.e. time) itself determines his life and actions. And the man in the boat does not need paddles. In other words, the purpose of a rational human being is not change and destruction, but a harmonious coexistence of man and the universe. In Daoism, the goal of moral and mental self-improvement is the state of complete identity of the "true substance" of man himself with the true substance of all things and phenomena. This identity was not viewed as an intellectual synthesis of human subjectivity and the objectivity of the world, or as a rational idea of mediation (intercession) between them. It is understood as a direct, spontaneous, and instantaneous mutual dissolution of man and nature.

2.3 Ancient Philosophy By ancient philosophy we understand a corpus of philosophical teachings that had been compiled in the ancient Greek and Antient Roman slave societies for almost a millennium from the 7th century BC to the 6th century AD. Philosophical thinking began to take shape in ancient Greece at a time when the tribal society was breaking up, crafts and trade were developing, and external relations with Babylon, Egypt, Asian countries, and India were expanding. Contacts of Eastern countries with the ancient Civilisations had a favourable influence on the development of ancient culture in general and philosophy in particular. In Greece, all spiritual and theoretical achievements served as a basis for the systematisation of knowledge, its transformation into a strict logical form. Philosophy here is first and foremost a love for Truth, pure knowledge, it is a science rationally explaining the organisation of the world and the universal as an object. The aim of this type of philosophising is the desire to comprehend the truth. Conventionally, we distinguish several stages in the development of ancient philosophy: Stage I (7th century BC – 6th century BC) witnessed the emergence of thinkers, politicians, lawmakers who were expressing the interests of the class of slave owners. First and foremost, these are the so called Seven Sages of Greece: Solon, Chilon, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, Periander and Thales. Pythagoras believed that they were statesmen possessing and pursuing wisdom. Thales of Miletus was the first and only philosopher among them. This period is defined as natural philosophy (the problems of physis, i.e. the primeval, constant and fundamental reality) or as pre-Socratic period. The philosophers of that time were both theoreticians and practitioners, and philosophy itself was concerned with the order of the world, nature, and cosmos, as well as the search for the fundamental principles of existence meaning that they were dealing with natural-philosophical problems. As such, Thales, the founder of the Milesian school, was an astronomer, a geometer, and a mathematician. He successfully predicted a solar eclipse and provided weather forecasts. Anaximander, a disciple of Thales, introduced a sun-dial (gnomon) and correctly predicted the earthquake in Sparta which saved its inhabitants. The Sophists, who were representatives of the Milesian and Eleatic schools, the Pythagoreans, and eclectic physicists became prominent during this stage of the development of philosophy. Stage II (5th century BC – 4th century BC) is traditionally called the classical period. It is marked by the rise of polis democracy and by the formulation and identification of basic philosophical problems in the works of Socrates, the Sophists, Plato, Aristotle. Stage III (end of the 4th century BC – 2nd century BC) is marked by the decline of the Greek democracy and the loss by the Athens of its leading role within the association of the city states after the defeat in the Peloponnesian war, by the rising power of Macedonia, and by the establishment of the Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great. This period of development of ancient philosophy is traditionally described as the Hellenistic period. It is characterised by the emergence of a number of philosophical schools and movements: Cynics, Epicureans, Stoics, Skeptics, and Eclectics. Stage IV (1st century BC – 6th century AD) is distinguished by the increased influence of Rome, which, on the one hand, remains true to the legacy of Greek philosophical thought, and on the other had marks the beginning of Christian philosophy - Neoplatonism and its modifications. The Milesian School was the first philosophical school in ancient Greece. Representatives of this so-called school of Ionian natural philosophers are Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes of Miletus, which was the largest and economically developed of the Greek cities-states of Asia Minor. They take a materialistic view to dealing with the question of the fundamental principle of everything. The natural philosophers were naive materialists and spontaneous dialecticians. They attempted to explain the world from the point of view of its development dynamics. For the first time in the history of man, these thinkers tried to describe the Universe as a harmoniously arranged, self-developing and self-regulating system. The Ionian philosophers believed that the Universe was not created by any of the gods or humans and that its existence is in principle eternal. This was the first step away from the religious and mythological perception of the existing world order (cosmos) and to its comprehension by way of human reasoning. As such, they eventually faced the inevitable question of the originating principle, the primary cause of all that exists. Thales believed water to be the basis of all things, which he abstractly defined as "an amorphous, fluid concentration of matter”. According to his reasoning, this substantial originating principle potentially contains a possibility of further development, that is everything in this world arises by way of "solidifying" or "expanding" the originating matter. Notably, though, Thales was not a materialist in the modern sense, but rather a naturalist. His "water" related to the divine principle: he presumed that God is the basis of everything, for he is not born by anyone. As such, when Thales claimed that "everything is full of gods", he meant the original beginning of everything that is everywhere. Hegel highly appreciated Thales' search for the basis of all that exists: “The proposition of Thales, that water is the Absolute, the principle, is the beginning of Philosophy, because with it the consciousness is arrived at that essence, truth, that which is alone in and for itself, are one”. Anaximander, who was a disciple of Thales, took a more profound approach to elaborating his ideas on the question of what the origin of all things is. Thales did not ask how and why all things stem from the ultimate primal element. And Anaximander, who reached a higher level of abstract reasoning, taught that the ultimate beginning of all things is apeiron, which means the infinite, boundless and void of any physical properties. This infinite beginning is divine because it cannot be destroyed and is eternal. Its relationship with all things that exist in the universe is that of “whole and part): it is where other things originate from. All things, being the opposites, derive from it, coexist with it and within it. The members of the first Eleatic school of philosophy in the south of Italy included Xenophanes of Colophon (born circa 570 BC), Parmenides of Elea (born circa 515 BC), and Zeno of Elea (born circa 490 BC.). While searching for the foundations of existence, they proceeded from the fact that being is one and the changes are illusory. In their quest for the explanation of the ultimate foundations of existence, they maintained that being uniform and that change is illusory. Xenophanes attaches a high value to intelligence and wisdom and points out that they are superior to all material values. He asserted that being is the first principle of all things. He was critical of the polytheism of his day stating that God is one eternal being which is whole with the Universe and which controls it by virtue of its reason. In other words, Xenophanes’ God is the world in its entirety. In one of the fragments of his work, that has survived to our day, he states that the existent which is God bears no resemblance to humans and that God’s essence is spherical in form (i.e. eternal and infinite). Being is uniform and absolute, it changes and moves, emerges and perishes alternately. The essence of being can be comprehended by reason, whereas senses provide us with a distorted conception of what is not the truth, but “appearance”. Parmenides, a disciple of Xenophanes, proposed a more thoroughly developed theory of being and was the first philosopher in history to talk about the role and place of "nothing" in being. By taking a metaphysical stance to the theory of his teacher, he demonstrates in his poem On Nature that being is, but nothing cannot be. Being is the absolute opposite to nonbeing. To prove this, he uses a sound argument that nature has no gaps or void (i.e. nonbeing). According to Parmenides, being has neither past, nor future; it is the eternal present. Being is unchanging and motionless, because motion and change require the existence of nonbeing. The form of being is perfect and complete; it is a sphere. Therefore, all “the existent exists, and the nonexistent does not exist. Being is and nonbeing is not, and cannot be because it is inconceivable”. He then goes on to ask: How could have what does not exist come into being? “Nothing” merely does not exist, and, therefore, being does not depend on the nonexistent, does not grow out from it, and does not use it as a part of itself. Therefore, it is timeless and unchanging. And, if we assume that it is changing, these changes require moving from one state into another which then requires that what is changing cannot longer be in its previous state and cannot yet exist in its subsequent state, which presupposes that at a certain point in time something must transform into “nothing” which is impossible by definition. As such, change of being is essentially impossible. Parmenides asserts that the essence of being can be conceived only by reason and that senses provide us with a distorted conception of it. The ultimate truth is always a product of rational knowledge and exploration of reality. He was the first Greek philosopher who distinguished knowledge from opinion. Only one permanent being is true, and multiplicity and changes are mere illusions. Truth is in the mind, and senses lead to errors. Reason shows that being is one and changeless, contrary to the illusion of multiplicity and variability, which is produced by senses. This theory was further elaborated by Zeno in many of this famous aporias (or paradoxes) asserting the inconceivability of movement and multiplicity, by Melissus of Samos in his treatise, according to which “no thing can come out from nothing, or nothing from nothing”. Zeno, a disciple of Parmenides, like the other members of the Eleatic School, only acknowledge rational knowledge to be true, because sense perception leads to errors and contradictions (aporias). By revealing the contradictions, which are the product of sense perception, Zeno came very close to understanding that there are dialectical contradictions in the objective world. However, he persisted that existence (being) is one and changeless. In his critique of the monism of the Ionians, he concludes that, in contemplating their primary elements, one of the three assertions is possible: it exists (it is); it does not exist (it is not); and it exists and does not exist (it is and is not). The second assertion is inconceivable, and the third assertion is internally contradictory. The existence of nonbeing cannot be conceived, therefore an element (e.g., water) exists. Change is inconceivable, because otherwise it would be that the original element cannot be distributed with the same density everywhere. If it was possible, there would be the void, in which the original element does not exists, but this is impossible, therefore “the Universe is a motionless, solid and uniform sphere”. He reaches this conclusion by using the method of proof by contradiction, also called the dialectic method (Greek “διαλέγομαι” (dialegomai) –“to converse”). By using this method, Zeno criticises the views of the Pythagoreans on space and time which they addressed mathematically as being made up of points and instants. By using several paradoxes, Zeno demonstrated the impossibility of dividing the continuum into points or instants based on the thesis of infinite divisibility of any continuum. The most famous Zeno’s paradoxes are “The Dichotomy”, “Achilles and the Tortoise”, “The Stadium” and “The Arrow”, where he describes the contradictions of the nature of motion: as soon as we assume the existence of motion, we are faced with irresolvable contradictions; i.e. the arrow flies and, at the same time, is at rest, and the strongest hero of the antiquity Achilles cannot catch the slow tortoise. By revealing the contradictory nature of motion, the relativity of its properties, and by proving that it cannot begin in the first place, in his aporias, Zeno skilfully uses the dialectical method: he sets out and applies “the principle of proof by contradiction” and “the principle of reduction to absurdity”. This was a significant contribution to the further development of the dialectical method of inquiry. However, describing being as one, eternal, infinite, unchangeable, and motionless, and denying the multiplicity of the phenomena of being, the Eleatics run into a contradiction, because only the ideal and absolute principle, God, can be such a being. Aristotle rightly reproached them for the elevation of the mind that does not see anything which does not correspond to its (the mind’s) laws. Nevertheless, the teaching of the Eleatics made a significant contribution to distinguishing ontology from epistemology and to the development of the concepts of phenomenon and essence. Atomism. Leucippus and Democritus. After the Eleatics, the Atomists continued to develop ontology (the theory of being) within the framework of natural philosophy. Their theory of atoms as the fundamental principles of being had been present in philosophy and science up to the end of the 19th century. The Atomists confirmed the idea proposed by the Eleatics that something can come into being only as a combination of what already exists and that it disappears in the process of decomposition. In other words, all that exists arises from being and, therefore, there is no nonbeing. They coined new philosophical terms: void (nonbeing) and atom (indivisible). Atoms, which are invisible due to their small size, are qualitatively indifferent (neutral), immutable, eternal, and differ from one another in form and are the fundamental principle ensuring its unity and identity to itself. The central concepts of the atomic theory were proposed by Leucippus of Elea. His work survived to our day only in the reports of other philosophers of antiquity. He describes atoms as the smallest particles, that possess solidity and form, differ in size, order and position, and moving in the void. Without the void, atoms would have no differences and would be motionless. Because they are infinitesimally small, their essence can only be comprehended by reason. Atoms are the causes of things, that arise and perish by virtue of their combination and separation. The atomic theory gives answers to questions raised by the Eleatics. It explains the problem of unity and multiplicity (qualitative diversity) of existence, as well as the problem of the arising and perishing of the elements of existence, which Parmenides and Zeno attempted to solve from the perspective of eternal and immutable being. The Atomists also proposed a solution for the problem of motion. The Sophists and Socrates. The golden age of ancient philosophy (5th century BC – 4th century BC) coincided and to a certain extent was caused by the economic prosperity and the establishment of polis democracy that declared the equality of citizens before the law. Notably, however, Athenian democracy applied only to the minority of the population, free men, excluding women, unfree foreign residents, and slaves. The education of free citizens was the responsibility of the Sophists, multiskilled teachers, who called themselves “wise” and taught rhetoric, logic, jurisprudence, and diplomacy. The knowledge of the Sophists was versatile, but superficial. Many philosophers reproached the Sophists for not being guided by the quest for truth, but teaching the flexibility of reasoning and the ability to persuade, to achieve a goal at any cost. This was indeed the case. But at the same time, the Sophists were the first to shift the emphasis in the public life of ancient Greece; they drew attention to man and his needs by sidelining the philosophical quest for common problems of being and by turning the direction of philosophy toward man. Their study of problems dealing with politics, ethics, religion, rhetoric, art, language, and education marked the beginning of the humanistic period of the development of ancient philosophy. Sophistry was not an accidental, but a logical phenomenon in the culture and philosophy of ancient Greece. It was conditioned by socioeconomic factors, as well as by the fact that the “old” natural philosophy had exhausted its former subject-matter and needed a shift in the line of philosophical inquiry. In their quest for knowledge, the Sophists focused on practical goals. They prioritised the problem of man’s education, rationalised the idea that we are not born virtuous, that virtue does not depend on the nobility of blood, but is based on knowledge and pursuit of excellence. By accepting payment for teaching from their pupils, they shocked the noble citizens, but also disrupted the social dogma that education and culture were a privilege for the elite. They opposed the unshakable traditions of society with freedom of spirit. As a matter of fact, the Sophists acted as Greek enlighteners, and planted in the foundation of culture the seeds for the future European Enlightenment. Sophistry had its heyday in the 5th century BC, when the group of Senior Sophists was active. It included Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias and Prodicus. The most famous among them is Protagoras, who is believed to have coined the phrase, “Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not”. This statement eventually became the central thesis of Western relativism. He denies the absolute criterion of the former natural philosophy, which distinguished existence from non-existence, justice from injustice, and truth from falsehood. By having suggested that man be used as the new criterion for measurement, Protagoras, in fact, revolutionised philosophy, shifting the centre of attention from nature and cosmos to man. Socrates was one of the most renowned ancient philosophers. His life was tragic and his teaching was humanistic. He never considered himself to be “wise”, but just a “philosopher, a lover of wisdom”. Socrates believed that philosophy is not a contemplative observation of nature, but a teaching on how we should lead our lives. His inquiries were focused on discovering and providing rational explanation of the essence of man and the essence of knowledge. Ne never wrote down anything and orally expounded his views in city agoras, surrounded by his friends. His views have survived to our day in reports of his disciples. Socrates was an ideological opponent of the Sophists; he openly supported the Athenian aristocracy and was critical of democracy believing that this form of government, not constrained by not yet elaborated laws, bears more harm than good for the people of Greece. Having selected the learning man (homo cognitus) as the subject of his inquiry, Socrates said the following about the purpose of his inquiries: “Truly, Athenians, I am not guided by anything, but the search for wisdom. And what kind of wisdom is it? It is, in the exact sense, human wisdom, (the knowledge that a human can have about a human), and in terms of this kind of knowledge, I am perhaps a wise man”. Whereas Sophists focused their research in specialised sciences such as rhetoric, mathematics, physics, and astronomy and concerned themselves with the problems of human activity, Socrates went further than them. He completely rejects natural philosophy (ontology) believing that it is a hopeless and useless activity because the world is a creation of the divine principle and it is not a human prerogative to attempt explaining or changing anything in the word, as divine reason is required for this. According to him, philosophy is not philosophising and theorising, but a science of how we should live, it is a tool for forming a virtuous man and a just state. Socrates, therefore, puts the problem of man as a subject at the centre of his inquiries. Man’s essence is his soul (understanding and intelligible). By “soul” Socrates means “the conscious self”, which includes active reasoning and moral behaviour, the unity of intellect, conscience, and morality. He maintained that man is the purpose of everything in this world. The most difficult task faced by man is to know thyself. And the task of the teacher, philosopher is to teach man to “care of his soul”, which guides him in following the call to “know himself”. In the gradual process of man’s knowing himself, Socrates emphasises the role of conscience (inner voice). He believed that conscience has a divine origin and guarantees achieving the ultimate truth. Endowing man with conscience, gods reserve a special place for him and give meaning to the whole universe. To substantiate the concept of the purposefulness of human existence, Socrates constructs a new ethical scale of values, which is different from that recognised by the previous natural philosophy. “Virtue” becomes the key concept for him here. For the Greeks, this concept has several meanings. One of which refers to a set of qualities, the use of which allows us to make something virtuous (useful) and perfect for many people. The virtue of man, according to Socrates, is that he makes his soul virtuous and perfect: “virtue is knowledge”. Knowledge can be achieved by comprehending the essence of a phenomenon. In other words, knowledge, according to Socrates, is in finding a common unity for a multitude of things and properties. Thus, ignorance is the lack of knowledge and the lack of virtue. Socrates’ ethics is based on two paradoxically formulated provisions: virtue is knowledge (i.e. wisdom, moderation, justice), and evil is the result of the lack of knowledge and ignorance (no one errs knowingly). Since man by nature is looking for benefits in everything, or what is good for himself, he often becomes a victim of a mistake in his calculations due to the lack of knowledge and ignorance seeing something to be good for himself, which it is actually not. This is an intellectual error. Where is the way out? It is in knowing oneself. The starting point of this knowledge is the understanding that a person can be happy only by caring for his soul (psyche) and achieving inner harmony. Socrates is not alone here: his predecessors interpreted the concept of happiness in a similar way. Heraclitus, Democritus, and Pythagoras alike emphasised that happiness is a moral category and it should not be sought in external goods. Socrates deserves credit for further elaborating and systematising their ideas and for developing a method for achieving a benevolent goodness. The Socratic method of philosophy is aimed at attaining true knowledge. Truth is arrived at by engaging in a discussion and proposing arguments, in a dialogue with oneself, which is aimed at testing one’s soul and grasping its essence. Applying inductive reasoning (logic), revealing contradictions in reasoning, setting them against each other, the inquirer acquires a new, more reliable knowledge. He called this method, whereby the general is revealed through the particular, by establishing the unity of opposites, dialectical. Socrates’ method of philosophy is to reveal the flaws of the “opponent’s” reasoning arguments with the help of irony (by doubting, opposing, contrasting statements, simulating) and correctly selected questions. Irony is inseparable from maieutics (midwifery), the help in acquiring new, reliable knowledge. The entire process is finished with a definition (finding, inference, conclusion). Then the process is resumed and the debate, as a way of finding the truth, continues. This way of knowing was highly valued by Aristotle. He wrote that "the main achievement of Socrates is that he was the first to undertake the study of general definitions, first acknowledged that the essence of a thing is rooted in the conceptual, the universal”. His disciples called themselves Socratics. A great many of them, who were opponents of the Athenian democracy, left Athens during Socrates’ lifetime, others emigrated after his death. They formed the so-called small Socratic Schools, which had different philosophical orientations: some gravitated toward materialism, others to idealism, and others to atheism. But what they all had in common was that they, like their teacher, concerned themselves with studying ethical problems. Plato, a disciple of Socrates, is one of the most outstanding philosophers of antiquity. He was from aristocratic background, a distant descendant of the Athenian King Codrus, the last king of Athens. When he was 20 years old he became a follower of Socrates. Plato’s works are divided into three main periods. His works are quite inconsistent. The first period, which begins after the death of Socrates, is marked by a great influence of the teacher’s ideas and lifestyle. Here Plato deals with mainly ethical and political problems. He develops the so-called Socratic "ethical idealism", ethical views and method of inquiry in particular. As stated above, the essence of the Socratic method is to teach knowledge seekers how to assemble disparate facts into a rigorous system, convert them to a common definitive denominator, a definition of the general concept. By prompting his interlocutor to come to a definite statement by means of questions and answers, Socrates pointed to the mistakes in the interlocutor's conclusions, masterly challenging them and convincing the interlocutor that any conclusion, any definition is always a limitation of a multifaceted and multidimensional truth. The process of knowing is infinite and the thirst for knowledge, the thirst for creativity is unlimited. During the second period, the focus of his work and the mode of philosophising change and the views of Heraclitus and the Pythagoreans become more influential. Plato develops the fundamentals of objective idealism and provides reasoning for his concept of supersensory, supernatural being. This is accompanied by sharp criticism of all the materialistic views that existed in ancient philosophy (the so-called "line of Democritus"). Plato openly criticises the preceding pre-Socratic natural philosophy, which, as he figuratively put it, was sailing downwind in the sea of naturalistic thought. The pre-Socratics were not able to fully explain sense-perceived objects by means of merely sense knowledge. Aristotle, a disciple of Plato, and therefore of Socrates, perfectly understood, just as his teachers, that the weakness of any determinative statement is that it obviously limits the possibilities of one who follows the path of definitive philosophy. He sets himself a goal to find such a method, such an instrument of knowledge, which will necessarily make it possible, with the use of the scientific tools, i.e. laws and categories, and the method which is logic, to achieve the stated goal of inquiry. Aristotle is also faithful to the line of Socrates-Plato line of philosophy in that no authoritative opinion is an obstacle for his search for truth. He is credited with coining the well-known maxim, "Plato is my friend, but truth is a better friend”. And last but not least, being as talented and versatile as his two predecessors, Aristotle did not limit his life to just engaging in philosophy. In Europe and in the East alike Aristotle of Stagira is referred to as the "First Teacher". He is the author of the largest scientific system of antiquity, which is based on organic synthesis and systematisation of phenomena as such, on separation of methods used for solving topics of inquiry that are distinct by their very nature. He wrote more than 150 works covering virtually all philosophical problems and some sections of natural science. Aristotle's works are divided into two groups: "exoteric", that were composed as dialogues and intended for everyone, and "esoteric", that were written for people of knowledge, the "Peripatetics", students of the Lyceum. Aristotle divides science into three large sections: 1) Theoretical sciences, which search for knowledge for the sake of knowledge; 2) Practical sciences, which are engaged in the search for knowledge for the sake of moral improvement; and 3) Productive (applied) sciences, the purpose of which is to produce something. Above all, Aristotle valued metaphysics, the science of existence (philosophy) that explores the primary causes of and methods for cognition of being and gives an idea of the supersensible reality. It is the only science among all other sciences that does not pursue empirical or practical goals, and therefore is ultimately free and self- sufficient. He said that it is a pure thirst for knowledge: all sciences are more necessary for people, but none of them will outperform philosophy. Aristotle believes that there are four fundamental causes of existence: 1) the formal cause; 2) the material cause; 3) the efficient cause; and 4) the final cause. The first two are nothing but a form (substance) and matter, from the combination of which the world of things originates. Aristotle believes that these two fundamental causes are sufficient to explain the reality in its static state. He thus rejects Plato's doctrine of being, which separates substances (ideas) from matter. Following the Eleatics and Plato, Aristotle understands the matter as something formless, passive, intelligible, as pre-matter, which is the potential foundation for the changeable, sense-perceived world of things. Emergence of real being, the world of things, from the potential requires merging of form (image) and primary matter. Form is an active, ideal beginning, which forms) the real, sense-perceived being from the potential being and the four primary elements -- fire, air, water and earth (an intermediate stage between the intelligible and real world). The aim of logic is to establish rules for obtaining reliable knowledge, which is acquired by inference and arguments -- syllogisms. Aristotle’s syllogistic logic is the theory of inferences and proofs, which are based on the relations of the general and the particular, induction and deduction. This is formal logic. Within the framework of logic, not only Aristotle develops a system of concepts and definitions, but also provides reasoning for its fundamental laws. In substantiating the theory of knowledge, the instrument of which is logics, Aristotle maintained that the purpose of scientific inquiry is the comprehension of the necessary and the universal. But the universal is comprehended through the particular, the individual, that is the sense-perceived individual being of things. Unlike Plato, he recognises the reality of the material world and its primacy in relation to the subject of knowledge. Aristotle’s theory of state is set out in his treatises Politics, The Nicomachean Ethics, and the Magna Moralia. It is inextricably linked with his views on ethics, society and politics and his theory of soul. For Aristotle, the notion of "society" and "state" are equivalent. And this is not surprising. The state has priority over an individual, not an individual over the state; the ancient Greeks lived by this law. The benefit of an individual is, by its nature, equivalent to the benefit of the state.

Self-check:  Primitive philosophy of the Kazakhs;  Orthodox and unorthodox philosophical schools of ancient India;  Main schools of Chinese philosophy;  Origin of classical Greek philosophy;  Encyclopedic philosophy of Aristotle.

Chapter 3 Eastern and Western Philosophy of the Middle Ages 3.1 Arab-Islamic Philosophy The development of Arab-Muslim philosophy was based on the elements of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. Its formation within the framework of Arab- Muslim culture differs significantly from the development of the Western European philosophical thought of the 5th-12th centuries. We distinguish three main stages of Arab-Muslim philosophy (8th-15th centuries.): - the first stage -- the formation of schools of the Mutakallimun and the Mu’tazilites (Muslim theologians), the rationale for Sufi gnosis; - the second stage -- the works of such Peripatetics as al-Kindi, Ibn Sina, al-Farabi, Averroes (Ibn Rushd); and - the third stage -- Turkic philosophy: the works of Yūsuf Balasaguni (Yusuf Khass Hajib), Khoja Akhmet Yassawi and other polymaths of the Medieval East. The development of Muslim religion spanned for several centuries. The Quran, the sacred book of Muslims, was supplemented by religious, ethical and legal documents, including the Sunnah (a collection of records of the deeds and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad). When the Quran was canonised as a sacred book, which laid the foundations for a new religious doctrine, the task was to clarify its substance and to reach an agreement on the discrepancies and the additions to it with new dogmas. This was the responsibility of Islamic theology, whose representatives sought answers to questions pertaining to state administration, economic life, legal proceedings and theological disputes. During the early stages of the spread of Islam, the main issue was that concerning the Oneness of God (Tawhid). The problem of monotheism was dealt with both from the standpoint of mysticism, and in terms of speculative and theological, rational justification. Representatives of one of the influential schools of Islamic theology, the Mu’tazilites (from the Arabs "to detach oneself", "separate", "withdraw"), whose theoretician was Wasil Ibn Ata (699-748), participated actively in the discussions on this issue. They are credited with the development of Islamic scholasticism, Kalam (word, speech), where they denied the dogma of the multiplicity of God’s attributes, since it is made impossible by his unity, oneness and eternity. God exists as a necessity that pervades everything that exists, as something that gives existence to the non-existent, but does not define its specific forms and processes. They believed that the justice of Allah rules out condemnation of most people to eternal and hopeless torment. The Mu’tazilites also believed that the Quran was not co-eternal with God and therefore Muhammad was not its creator, but the messenger. They sought to expose all religious dogmas to "judgment of reason, because only it must be a measure of the truth of any statement”. These theologian defended the right to man’s freedom of will and opposed religious dogmatism and fatalism. Mu’tazilites were persecuted by Islamic orthodox theologians (the Mutakallimun) and in the middle of the 9th century their activities were banned. The Mutakallimun (Kalamists), whose prominent representative was the Maimonid al-Ashari (873-935), criticised the reasoning and arguments that supported natural causality of wild life and social life phenomena. They maintained the thesis of the multiplicity of the names of God, who cannot be comprehended by human mind, thus strengthening the positions of creationism and fatalism in Islam. The Kalamists’ doctrine was criticised by the Brethren of Purity, who maintained that the Quran should not be understood literally, but figuratively, and preached religious tolerance. They emphasised that the day bodily is the birthday of the soul. A sage’s task in the course of acquiring more profound knowledge is to enlighten his soul, clear it from the material layers and concentrate in it as many virtues as possible. The “Brothers” said that religion is meaningless unless it is aimed at purifying and improving people's morals. “The Brethren of Purity” (or “The Pure Brethren”) were a secret religio- philosophical and scientific society founded by a group of Shiite theologians in the city of Basra, Iraq in the 10th century. Its members wrote a large Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity which consists of 52 treatises (rasa'il) on philology, politics, philosophy, theology, ethics, and social problems. They were among the first in the East to translate Plato’s Dialogues. They laid the foundations of political science, outlining 5 types of politics: "prophetic" (sīyāsat-i nabavī) which is based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad; royal (of Caliphs and Imams); "private" (based on the analysis of people's behaviour in everyday life), public and domestic. Their sought to spread medieval philosophy and scientific knowledge to improve the morals of the population. One of the main goals for them was "to unite philosophical truths with the Sharia to improve the morals of people”. The Brethren of Purity had close connections with the Ismailis and their members were neither opponents nor fanatics of any religion. They treated "heavenly" books - the Torah, the Bible and the Quran with a high level of tolerance and claimed that it is possible, based on reason and science, to build a perfect society where religious enmity will give way to the common good. They were vocal for almost two centuries and they activities had a profound influence on the worldview of the peoples of the Islamic world, and their humanistic ideas were further developed by the Sufis and the Peripatetics. Sufism is a mystical, diverse religious teaching, which “came to earth” long before Islam. It absorbed the elements of three world religions and a number of polytheistic beliefs. Sufism is compatible with philosophy, poetry, art, crafts, and medicine (the part of it that "heals the soul"). Today Sufi communities can be found in all parts of the world, on all continents. The Sufis themselves are convinced that their main task is to participate in the higher forms of human evolution. At the end of the 8th century, Sufism, which was a universal, syncretic system, found its own niche within Islam. It reflected the interests of the Caliphate’s general population who were dissatisfied with the increasing exploitation. This was a form of passive protest, escape from reality to asceticism and meditative comprehension of God. A major role in the spread of Sufism in Islam was played by the movement of dervishes, wandering mendicants. The teaching of the Sufis within Islam is rather vague. The prophet Muhammad himself, as well as his companions Abu Bakr, Salman al-Farsi, the Sayyid family, and Bayazid Bistami were not unfamiliar with the Sufi gnosis. But the Sufis of the classical period (12th-14th centuries) saw the Quran as an encoded document, which contained the Sufi teachings in an allegorical form. In other words, the Quran for a Sufi (as, indeed, the Torah and the Bible alike) is a multi-layered text, the meaning of which requires interpretation and which expands or narrows in accordance with the reader's understanding ability. The Sufis replaced the main formula of Islam "There is no god except Allah" with the postulate "There is no existence except Allah" thus affirming that everything is God and God is present in everything. For some time, this fundamental disagreement was a stumbling block for supporters of Islam and Sufism. But, in accordance with the spirit of tolerance, Islam accepted Sufism, by adapting it to the new social conditions of the Arab Caliphate. According to the concept of emanation used by the Sufis, the single deity is cast into the world and into the souls of believers. But suffering causes people to flee from this world and reconnect with God. They manage to do it in the heat of ecstasy, when the divine Spirit communicates with the soul of the Sufi. This is mystic pantheism. Hoja Akhmed Yassawi was a Sufi master and the leader of the Turkic branch of Sufism He founded the Sufi Order Yasawiyya (or Yeseviye) in the 12th century. He completed Sufi training in Bukhara under the tutorship of Sheikh Yusuf Hamadani and became qualified to "explain the ways to know the truth”. He did a lot to spread knowledge among the population. He wrote and conducted classes in the Chaghatai (Central Asian Turkic) language, that was the lingua franca among local population. He founded a religious philosophical school and special institutions offering 40-day courses in the teachings of Sufism. He was revered as a sage, a master a poet, a saint. When he was 63, the age of the Prophet, Yassawi made the decision to show by his own example that everyone can achieve a virtuous goal of knowing God as an identity, love and essence, and man as a grand unit of the universe. He then dug himself an underground cell near the mosque and spent two years in it, or, according to another legend, 63 years until his death. Kazakh people became followers of Islam fascinated by his spiritual endeavor and popularisation of Sufi truths. Yassawi called for people's unity, for love for all living creatures, for tolerance toward other beliefs that were present in Kazakhstan at that time: Zoroastrianism, Nestorianism, Buddhism, and Pantheism. In the Book of Wisdom (Divani Hikmet), which consists of 149 poetic verses, he explains the worldview guides and moral norms to his contemporaries. We know that, according to Sufism, to travel the path (Tariqat) meant a person’s achievement of certain levels of moral and spiritual perfection, the state of suppression of the flesh and the rising of the spirit. The goal of self-improvement is the renouncement of worldly vanity and the desire to "die before death arrives", that is to kill everything carnal and sinister in oneself in the name of the spirit. By raising the spiritual within himself, man will know God as the Absolute Truth and will thereby know himself. The path from self-knowledge to the knowledge of God and to the love for him, to the search for truth is accessible only to those who have a loving heart, strong will, faith and wisdom. He should praise and respect women, be silent, which is a sign of superior wisdom. For a true Sufi, symbols and parables are natural ways of spreading knowledge. And the love for God is the driving force on the path of man’s moral and spiritual growth. Arab-Islamic philosophy, as part of Islamic culture, had no previous history of its own, but, nevertheless, in the 10th-11th centuries, it formed into an independent discipline with its own range of problems and vision of the world. One of the first in the medieval East to engage in vigorous translation of the works of ancient philosophers was Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Isḥaq aṣ-Ṣabbaḥ al-Kindi (800- 879), the founder of the Arab-Islamic philosophy, a polymath, who is hailed as "the Philosopher of the Arabs”. He is renowned as a physician, mathematician, astronomer, translator and commentator of the legacy of Aristotle and Plato. By duly acknowledging the role of theology, al-Kindi, nevertheless, was a harsh critic of "shallow and narrow minded people", as he referred to the excessive zealots of faith, who "trade in faith, but are themselves enemies of faith" and of truth. In contrast to Muslim theologians, who denied the possibility of cognition of being with the help of science and who were satisfied with the revelations of the Holy Scripture, "the Philosopher of the Arabs" considered human reason to be the only source and criterion of cognition of reality. He divides knowledge into the sense and rational knowledge. Rational knowledge is available only to man, it is based on evidence. For him, as for Aristotle, philosophy is the foundation and the end of the encyclopaedic scientific knowledge acquired by other sciences. Philosophy gives knowledge about the true nature of things. The most famous among the philosophical works of al-Kindi the treatise On First Philosophy, On the Quantity of Aristotle’s Books, and On the Five Essences. In these treatises, he acts as a follower of Aristotle, a rationalist who contrasts knowledge and faith, as a polymath who widely uses the knowledge of natural sciences, as well as the data and research methods of a range of mathematical sciences, including arithmetic, geometry, astrology, and harmony of numbers. Al-Kindi believed that harmony is present in everything, and most clearly it is found in sounds, in the structure of the Universe and in human souls. Abu Naṣr Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzlag al‐ Farabi (870-950), was an outstanding thinker, a follower of Aristotelianism, the first philosopher of the Medieval East who developed his own, fully original philosophical ideas, a Turkic by birth, and a native of the city of Farab (Otrar). Al-Farabi mastered and critically rethought the achievements of ancient philosophers, collected and arranged in order the entire collection of works comprising Aristotele’s Organon, wrote comments on all his works and refined the logical legacy of the Stagirite taking into account the latest achievements of science and the demands of medieval ideology. His achievements in the development of logic and music theory were so great that al-Farabi is called to this day the Second Teacher (Al-Mu'allim al-Thani) after Aristotle. Of all Abu Nasr’s legacy, 130 works have survived to our day. Al-Farabi’s metaphysics was the fundamental methodology on which he relied in his studies of physics, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, politics, and rhetoric. It was here that he clearly formulated the methodological principles of his inquiries. For example, using the principle of monism, al-Farabi considers the most important category of ontology, Oneness, as the pre-matter, as an amorphous, indivisible substance, that gains structure through movement and reconnection with the active creative element. When looking at this issue, Abu Nasr does not oppose philosophy to religious mysticism, even though he points to the principle differences in their worldview and theoretical stance and practical goals. As such, in his Book of Letters (Kitab al-Huruf), al-Farabi notes that the fundamental difference between philosophy and religion is that philosophy is concerned with the idea of reason and scientific methods of cognition, whereas religion is based on faith and teaches to study abstract things with the help of "imagination and persuasion". In talking further about what comes "first", philosophy or religion, he, on the one hand, emphasises that "philosophy precedes religion”, and on the other hand (in his treatise The Attainment of Happiness), clarifies that he does not mean the chronological order of their emergence, but the priority of philosophy in the realm of theoretical knowledge over religion. Plunging deeper into this problem, he finds many common points between the philosophical and religious and mystical (Sufi) attitudes toward the world, morality, and man. Al-Farabi presents his ethical and social doctrine in several treatises. The keynote of all his political and social inquiries is the idea that the main goal of joint human activity is common Good and Happiness. Virtue and Happiness can be attained through knowledge and free will: “Happiness is the purpose of man. Will is related to sense knowledge and freedom is related to logical reasoning. It is only acting together that happiness is attained”. In his treatise On the Opinions of the Citizens of the Virtuous City, al-Farabi, following suit of Plato and Aristotle, constructs his own model of an ideal state. He is convinced that the easiest way for people to attain happiness and virtue is to do this within the boundaries of a certain “ideal city”, by which, according to Arab-Islamic philosophical tradition, he means any separate territory that could range from a small village to the entire Arab Caliphate. In this “city”, all citizens are free and have equal rights, they rule collectively being guided by “common Good”. In his classification of sciences, al-Farabi gives priority to the “divine science” of metaphysics. The first section in his classification of sciences is dedicated to the “science of languages”, that is grammar. Here he emphasises the universal nature of laws governing words of a language. The second section is dedicated to logic. For al- Farabi, logic is not just a science, but also an art, akin to grammar. The relation between “logic and intellect and intelligible objects of intellect is the same as the relation between grammar and language and words”. Al-Farabi’s logic is the science of correct thinking; it is based on the laws and categories of Aristotle’s Organon. The following divisions deal with music; the science of weights; science of mechanical artifices, etc., and algebra as the science of “numerical tricks” shared by both arithmetic and geometry. The Second Teacher’s philosophical explanation of the problem of God is similar to the Neoplatonic Absolute. This allows al-Farabi to explain the emergence of the world: he distinguishes two categories of being – things “possibly existent” (al- mumkin al-wugud) that may or may not exist. Their existence requires an external cause. The second category of being (things) does not require any external cause, because their existence is absolutely necessary “as far as existence is concerned” (al- wagib al-wugud), and God is the highest form of such being. God is the “ultimate beginning”, the Absolute, the First Cause and the “First Existent”. In God, the object and subject are the same. God possesses the absolute knowledge, will, omnipotence, he is immaterial, one, indivisible, he is devoid of opposites and is “the pure intelligible and the pure intelligence”. Divine emanation brings about successively the conditions for the evolution of different realms of being: celestial, higher and terrestrial, lower elements and phenomena, nature and man. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037), is known as the “Leader among the wise men” in the East (asal-Sheikh al-Rais) and the “Prince of Physicians” (princeps medicorum) in the West. He was a polymath -- a physician, jurist and judge, astronomer, poet, musician, and philosopher -- and wrote more than 100 books. Like other Peripatetics (followers of Aristotelianism), he faced persecution from orthodox proponents of Islam. What was exactly the reason for the theologians’ dislike of Avicenna’s teachings? He refuted the accusations and criticism of the orthodoxy against philosophy insisting that the role of reason in knowledge is indisputable and developed the ideas of Aristotelianism in the field of metaphysics, epistemology, logic; and in ontology, he adhered to the concept of Neoplatonism and denied the creation of the world in time. The Book of Healing is Avicenna’s most important philosophical work. It covers such topics as the fundamentals of physics, mathematics and metaphysics. He sees all that exists as a timeless emanation of God. It is only through deeper knowledge the avenue to God can be found. Avicenna distinguishes theoretical (intellectual) and practical knowledge. In his classification of sciences, theoretical sciences are not directly related to acts of men, but help them to find their way and direction in this world. These sciences include “the superior science” – metaphysics, which studies existence in general and what is outside nature; the “intermediary science” – mathematics, which consists of separate sciences (arithmetic, geometry, optics, astronomy, and music); and the “inferior science” – physics, which studies nature; “practical sciences”: ethics (the behaviour of people), economics (the management of the economy), and politics (the administration of the state and the people). This classification is similar to Aristotle’s, but it takes into consideration the new realities. What Avicenna is credited with here is that he demonstrated the relation between metaphysics as the most general teaching on being and knowledge and specialised, concrete sciences. In the spirit of Aristotle, he sees logic as the standard for all sciences, as the introduction into philosophy and any other knowledge. While Avicenna merited the title of the “Leader among the wise men” in the East, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126-1198) of Spanish Cordoba was renowned as the Prince of Philosophers of the Arab-Islamic West. He further developed, from the standpoint of rationalism, the problem of the relation between faith and knowledge, religion and science, which was of a paramount importance for all Medieval Peripatetics. Ibn Rushd’s epistemology distinguishes between passive and active intellect. Passive intellect is inseparable from a concrete person and from such person’s intellect. Active intellect is universal and uniform by nature and is eternal. As such, human single common intellect is eternal and is ever-evolving. Such “impudent” interpretations, as one would expect, could only induce anger from the dogmatically inclined theologians. They declared Avicenna an infidel and heretic. In his disputes with such theologians, with al-Ghazali in particular, who was the author of the book Incoherence of Philosophers and harsh critic of the views of the Peripatetics about the eternity, the uncreatedness of the world and the objectivity of the causal relationships of the earthly world, Ibn Rush created the famous Incoherence of Incoherence defending philosophy against orthodox Islamic theologians. In this treatise, he presents arguments supporting complete independence of philosophy from theology. Abstract, theoretical problems contemplated by philosophy cannot be solved within the limits of strict rules and prescriptions of the orthodox Islamic faith. In his theory of “double-truth”, Ibh Rush states that religion should be promoted to the status of philosophy because religious texts may and should support philosophical truths. A few decades later, the ideas of Eastern Peripatetic philosophers were picked up and developed in Western Europe by Siger of Brabant, Roger Bacon, and others.

3.2 Turkic Philosophy Yusuf (Khass Haji) of Balasagun, the outstanding scholar of the 11th century, vizier, statesman well-versed in politics, played a grand role in the development of Turkic culture and rationalistic tradition of Falsafa. This medieval philosopher "worked within the framework of Eastern Peripateticism, was influenced by Sufi ideology, and adhered to the concept of pantheism. But, despite his somewhat eclectic views, Balasaguni's focus was on the practical side of public life. The purpose and spirit of his main work, the Kutadgu Bilig (Wisdom Which Brings Good Fortune), is very close to the medieval Russian encyclopedia of practical household rules, Domostroy. For many decades, both books enjoyed immense popularity among the ordinary people. In the poem Kutadgu Bilig, which consists of 85 chapters, he provided reasoning in support of the norms of an ideal society, the code of conduct of different classes in such society, and revealed the role reason and the meaning of values in human life. This encyclopedia of Turkic life “reflected those social realities that existed in society (of the 11th century) and formulated the philosophy of man and society”. Among “essential values”, Balasaguni names the notions of justice, happiness, reason and moderation. He emphasises that the sense of justice makes people to stand for freedom and fight against violence and abuse of power. People attain happiness when they take care of the good of all and exude kindness toward them. With the help of reason, people actualise themselves and discover the laws and harmony of being. At the heart of this unity is God who created an. The purpose of man should be manifested in serving people, that is, essentially, serving god. Balasaguni also believes that knowledge makes a person peace-loving, faithful, humane, virtuous and kind. Learning and knowledge uplifts human dignity. This is why, many of Balasaguni's sayings still have not lost their significance: "A man dies, but his words live after him"; "The beauty of the mind is in a thoughtful word, the beauty of the language is in speech, the beauty of man is in the expression of his face, the beauty of a face is in the eyes”. Balasaguni’s humanistic ideas were further developed by Makhmud Kashgari (1029-1101), the author of the Turkic encyclopedia Divani Lugat at-Turk (The Book on Turks or The Dictionary of Turkic Languages). In this book, Makhmud Kashgari, who was a grandson of the Kara-Khanid Bogra Khan, described the life of the twenty Turkic groups inhabiting Central Asia and Kazakhstan in the 10th-11th centuries and reflected on the ethical foundations of the life of Kazakh people. This book is a huge collection of historical, cultural, ethnographic and linguistic material. Here, Makhmud Kashgari presented the main genres of the Turkic folklore from Central Asia and Kazakhstan, including ritual and lyrical songs, excerpts from a heroic saga, and historical tales and legends (e.g. on the Alexander the Great’s campaign to the area inhabited by the Chigil Turkic tribe). This encyclopaedia of Turkic life in the 11th century brings traditional beliefs of Kazakhs (in Tengri, Zher- Su and Umai) together with Islamic and Sufi religious views. In his dedication, Kashgari writes, “I have compiled this book in the alphabetical order, filled it with proverbs, saj rhymed prose, stories, maxims, poems, martial rajaz verses, and pieces of prose. I have made the difficult easier, have explained the unclear and have spent years working to include in this book a cluster of verses they (Turks) read in order to acquaint (the reader) with their experience and knowledge, as well as proverbs used by them as wise sayings in days of happiness and misfortune to enable the narrator to pass them on to the transmitter, and the transmitter to pass them on to others. In addition to these, I also collected in this book the mentioned objects and common (familiar) words, and thus this book achieved a high level of dignity and exceptional perfection”. Kashgari uses extensive terminology on various areas of human activity -- in the practical, religious and philosophical spheres in the Kypchak and common Turkic languages. The sayings, maxims and arguments presented in Dictionary paint a bright picture of the life of Turkic people. He showed how deeply rooted the prototurks were in nature and provided reasoning in support of the role and importance of basic values in their lives, such as knowledge and scholarship, patriotism and readiness to serve the native land, culture and language, the memory of the land of and graves of their ancestors, virtue, courage, and the pursuit of a peaceful life. He highly valued people’s pursuit of truth and justice, which can never be achieved without loyalty and benevolence. He draws direct analogies between the material and the spiritual worlds emphasising the importance and interrelation of both. He regards any acts of people from the perspective of moral principles that are built into Turkic customs and traditions. He talks about the dangers of wealth, because, in trying to earn it, man transgresses many moral laws: "Wealth is water that moves mountains and its owner will be definitely toppled down by it”. He is convinced that man must love nature as the ultimate beginning, since man as a microcosm is one whole with the macrocosm; he must not forget the call of duty and hold the elders in reverence and respect. "One who respects the is given the grace”. This is easy to see if one reads at least the following excerpts from his work: "Time flies, exhausts the force of man, and deprives the world of men. For this is what its (time’s) custom is, besides it is an equal lot (for everyone) her. If the world shoots an arrow at the set aim, mountain tops will split. “My son, here is the inheritance I am leaving to you. If you meet a virtuous man, follow him”. “The nights and days of the world pass by as pilgrims. They devitalise those with whom their paths cross”. “A man’s property and belongings are his enemies. As you have accumulated wealth, remember that it is a flow of water that has crashed down, like a boulder, it rolls its owner down”. “All men are corrupted by things. They see a property and rush like a vulture on its prey. They keep their property by locking it, they do not enjoy it and cry because of greed, they save gold. Because of property, not mindful of God, they indeed strangle their sons and relatives”. “Strive for virtue, and one you have attained it, do not get proud”. “Only he who soweth reaps the fruits”. 3.3 European Christian Philosophy The Middle Ages spanned almost a thousand years in the history of Europe (4th-5th century – 14th century), i.e. from the fall of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance era. It was also the time of expansion of Christianity, which originated in the 1st-2nd centuries AD in the Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, in particular in Palestine, during the crisis of the system of slavery. Christianity positioned itself as a religion of the "oppressed and humiliated", a religion of love and equality for all "in Christ". The first stage of development of medieval philosophy is inextricably linked with the activities of the so-called Fathers of the Church -- classifiers and popularisers of the Scripture. During the period from the 1st century to the 3rd century AD they defended in their treatises the Christian doctrine against the pagans, the Pharisees, against the state power and the influence of ancient philosophy which has its roots in polytheism. Their study was called Patristics. Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) was the greatest Christian philosopher and theologian. His main theological and philosophical works: "The City of God", "On the Beautiful and the Fitting", "The Confessions", which comprises 13 of his autobiographical writings, and many other works. "You have made us for yourself and our hearts are restless until they rest in you " is the key message of his "Confessions”. Developing this idea, Augustine says that it is not the world which is a mystery, but man became a big question posed before himself. Self-reflection implies knowledge of God and divine love, which is the purpose of the human spirit. He looks at problems of medieval philosophy through the prism of God. God is the centre of philosophical meditations as he is the cause of the existence of things. St. Augustine sees the essence of spirit as free will. His teaching is a synthesis of Christian doctrines and philosophical ideas, primarily Platonism and Neo-Platonism. According to Augustine, the main purpose of religious philosophy is to comprehend one God and divine love. He imagined God as the infinite, eternal first principle, and the real world as the product of his creation. God is in the centre of this kind of philosophising. Augustine thinks of God as the absolute ideal first principle, the creator and cause of all that exists. The world is developing only because God created it out of nothing, and continues to constantly create it. Scholasticism is rationale reasoning and systematisation of the Christian doctrine with elements of ancient philosophy, which developed within the period from the 9th to the 15th centuries. It was during this period when philosophy was reduced to the level of "handmaiden of theology". The scholastics did not concern themselves with the search for truth, which, in their opinion, was already been given by the Revelation and in the Scripture, and they spelled out this truth and justified it with the help of philosophy. They used the method of formal logic to prove religious dogmas and their opinions were reduced to syllogisms. The largest scholastic and moderate nominalist of the 13th century, an Aristotelian thinker was Thomas Aquinas. His teaching had a decisive influence on the further development of European philosophy for centuries to come. Almost all of his philosophical inquiries had a single goal -- knowledge of God. Aquinas presumed that reason and philosophy are the "preamble of faith”. Theology and philosophy are interrelated as faith perfects reason, and theology perfects philosophy. The difference between philosophy and theology is not in the subject of research, as both talk about God, man, and the world. But philosophy gives an imperfect knowledge of what is explained by theology more clearly leading to eternal salvation. Aquinas emphasised that divine grace ennobles both humans and philosophy. Theology does not push the philosophy out of its niche, but makes it correct, because "faith directs the mind”. One should not overestimate the cognitive abilities of philosophy. But its alliance with theology creates conditions for theology to become effective, while philosophy as the "preamble of faith" remains autonomous. Its methods of inquiry are not replaced by theological tools of acquiring knowledge. Philosophy helps strengthen faith, makes it informed and knowledgeable: "versatility of the mind is capable of reconciling everyone”. Thomas Aquinas maintained that reason is superior to will. Following Aristotle, he sees reason as the highest human capacity and defines will as practical reason aimed at action rather than knowledge. He emphasised that reason is powerful human nature. Man’s purpose is to understand and act with understanding. Reason makes man free. Being guided by reason, man chooses for himself to obey or disobey God. Evil is not in the lack of rationality, as the Greeks understood it, and not in the incorrect direction of human will, which sometimes acts irrationally, as was understood by St. Augustine, but in conscious disobedience by a rational being to God. The root of evil, according to Aquinas, is in the corruption of spirit and freedom. In his theory of being, St Augustine widely used categories of Aristotelian metaphysics. But he also concerned himself with the issues that were not raised by Aristotle, who, in his philosophical generalisations, relied on natural sciences. Aquinas’ Metaphysics is a very generalised, logically reconciled arguments for the existence of God without references to natural science premises. According to Aquinas, being is God: "There is nothing but God, and this God is the being. This being is the highest, perfect, and true. Everything else is the product of his conscious actions”. Developing this proposition, Aquinas argues that all reality depends on the divine reality and that only God's existence is a direct result of his own essence. The achievements of medieval philosophers, both in logic and in the development of the intellectual tradition of the European style of thinking and in the elaboration of terminology framework proved their significance. Thus scholasticism, while it did not directly contribute to the development of natural sciences, did lay the foundation for the formation of modern European science as a whole. Achievements of the Scholastics in the intellectual field foreshadowed the today’s formulation of many theoretical problems, including in mathematical logic, chemistry, astronomy, medicine, and politics.

Self-check:  Establishment of schools of Muslim theology;  Encyclopedic philosophy of al-Farabi, the Second Teacher;  Turkic philosophy;  Patristic studies of Christian dogma;  Scholasticism as logical justification of theology.

Chapter 4 Philosophy of the Renaissance 4.1 Humanism as a Distinctive Feature of the Renaissance Era The philosophy of the Renaissance is a unique phenomenon in Western culture. The Renaissance (Rebirth in French) was the process of economic and cultural development that was taking place throughout the entire Europe on the eve of the early bourgeois revolutions of the 13th-16th centuries. However, the historical time of this era was not homogenous. The Renaissance did not occur everywhere, but initially in the most economically, politically and culturally developed countries reaching its highest peak in Italy, who was a direct successor of ancient culture. The most distinctive feature of this period is the secularisation (emancipation, liberation from the universal power of the church) in all spheres of public life: in politics, art, science, philosophy, and culture in general. Religion recedes to the sidelines and the society is transformed on the basis of secular way of life, secular education. Along with this, the inextricably interlinked ideals of antiquity -- anthropocentrism and humanism – are also revived (at the new level). And all this is happening despite the fact that the society has not yet gotten rid of the Inquisition, wars, killings, or struggle for power. Perhaps this is why the humanism of the Renaissance is, above all, the aspiration for humanness, compassion and charity, for the establishment of "the earthly divinity" of man, his faith in his own strength, and the creation of conditions for a decent life. Man is seen as the co-creator with God, he is valued for freedom of thought, initiative, skill, individualism, and the ability to stand up for himself. Art and the cult of the human spirit are experiencing revival. The close connection of philosophy and art, knowledge and crafts resulted in the uniqueness and integrity of the spiritual life of that time. Philosophy acts in alliance with science and art. It is no longer the "handmaiden of theology”. The Renaissance saw a shift from theocentrism to anthropocentrism. The medieval asceticism and contempt for earthly things gives way to for the pursuit of earthly happiness. The highest value is attributed to skills, initiative, universalism, creativity and human mind. This is a new, universal man who is put on a pedestal and is related both to God as a demiurge (co-creator), and well as to nature which is, although worthy of admiration, can and should be improved. He himself is a Master, a creator, and a transformer of nature. The earthly divinity of man, and a positive attitude toward the world are established. Anthropocentrism and humanity are inextricably interlinked. The humanism of the Renaissance is based on the idea that human good is the main goal of social and cultural development. As such, the philosophy of Renaissance stands in close alliance with art and science. It has is anti-church and anti-scholastic sentiment and looks at man as the highest value. Philosophy forms the pantheistic view of the world identifying God with nature. Conventionally three periods of the philosophy of the Renaissance are distinguished: - 1st period (humanistic or anthropocentric) – from the middle of the 14th century to the beginning of the 15th century. - 2nd period (Neoplatonic) – from the middle of the 15th century to beginning of the 16th century. - 3rd period (natural philosophy) – from the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 17th century. Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) (1304-1374) is considered as the founding father of humanistic tradition in the philosophy of the Renaissance. He was a philosopher and poet, and criticised the scholastic doctrine as absolutely useless for people. Philosophy should concern itself with the sciences of man. In his opinion, it is necessary to study man himself with the entire diversity of his feelings, rather than God. Petrarch wrote his work Secretum Meum (My Secret Book or the De contemptu mundi) as a conversation between Augustine, Francis and Truth. Their dialogue aims to analyse the meaning of life and integrity of human being as part of the Christian faith and worldview. Petrarch is the first to use the "humanism" and points out the need for true Christianity to shift its attention to the love for humanity. But the humanism of the Renaissance was elitist and aristocratic. It was proclaimed by a small group of thinkers who had access to ancient culture and knew several languages. In addition to them being talented, well-educated, and hard-working, they were also patriots of their Homeland and used their knowledge and experience to educate people. Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla (1407-1457), who was one of the most renowned humanists of the era and the founder of the comparative analysis method, rejected the scholastic logic and replaced it with persuasion, Cicero’s rhetoric. In his treatise On Pleasure (De Voluptate), he not only argues in support of the Epicurean philosophy and talks about the responsibility of man, but maintains that anything that meets human nature is natural and is therefore beautiful. Valla states that “not blind faith, but Cicero’s rhetoric will help man to think and perform disputations in a new way”, i.e. to have a skeptical and critical attitude to reality and to himself. The foundation for his Epicurean ethics is individualism: virtue is understood as a utility and its main criterion is pleasure. In this treatises Dialogue on Free Will (De libero arbitrio), The Profession of the Religious (De professione religiosorum), Annotations to the New Testament (Collatio Novi Testamenti), The Falsely-believed and Forged Donation of Constantine (De falso credita et ementita Constantini donation), Valla is opposed to the temporal power of the Popes and exposes the vices of priests and the moral corruption of the monks. In the book Elegancies of the Latin language (Elegantiae linguae Latinae), Valla refers to the disputations on universals and infers that neither realistic, nor nominalist philosophising can be true, because they do not conform to normal human language, and that "general concepts" of the Scholastics is a fiction created by "pseudo-scientists”. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is one of the two titans of the Renaissance. He is renowned around the world for a wide range of brilliant scientific discoveries and philosophical insights. He is the author of the statement: "All knowledge begins with experience and ends in experience. But science is the captain, and practice the soldiers”. Knowledge of the laws of nature requires both experience, and reason. Nature provides senses with the results, concealing the causes. To reveal the causes, one must use mathematics, which is a purely theoretical science. In doing this, man also resorts to "speculative reasoning", which, again, is tested through experience. Leonardo’s work was not limited by science only. He also attempted to philosophically justify the nature of time using the language of art. In many of his paintings (The Madonna of the Rocks, The Madonna Litta, and The Mona Lisa), Da Vinci used his method of perspective to "picture" the hypothesis, according to which time is the fourth dimension of space. Both time and space are interconnected and "manifested" in one another. This bold conjecture of Leonardo, which brilliantly resolves the fundamental problem of existence, was later confirmed in Einstein's theory of relativity and in a number of discoveries of modern scientists. Leonardo da Vinci as an explorer had extremely varied interests. He studied anatomy, botany, cartography, geology, aeronautics, optics, acoustics, mathematics, engineering, and many other subjects, including city planning. Relying on art, science and philosophy, Leonardo attempted, using various methods, to justify his own concept of a universal, perfect man in whom the opposites are harmoniously combined. Perhaps this is the reason why the faces of the men and women in his portraits so similar: an ideal, perfect and universal being, the symbol of diversity in unity, the symbol of the Renaissance, is looking at us through them. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Count of Concordia (1463-1495) was one of the most prominent members of the Florentine (Platonic) Academy, whose members were engaged in translation, research and popularisation of the works of ancient philosophers. Mirandola put forward the thesis that "the world is made up of the angelic heaven and the elementary spheres. The sensory world did not emerge from nothing, but from the higher incorporeal principle”. In his famous Oration on the Dignity of Man (Oratio de hominis dignitate), he expresses the idea that man is a microcosm, and, therefore, cannot be defined within any of the above mentioned spheres. In his Oration, Pico della Mirandola wrote that by putting man at the centre of the world, the Lord declared: "Adam, we give you no fixed place to live, nor any peculiar function that is yours alone. According to your judgment and desires, you will have and possess whatever place to live, whatever form, and whatever function you yourself choose. All other things have a limited and fixed nature prescribed and bounded by our laws. You with no limit, or no bound, may choose for yourself the limits and bounds of your nature. We have placed you at the world’s centre, so that you may survey everything else in the world”. As such, man for Mirandola is the centre of the universe, he is himself the creator of his own happiness, and through self-improvement, he strives for God. Being “at the centre” is not a privilege, but a huge responsibility. “We have made you a creature neither of heaven nor of earth, neither mortal nor immortal, in order that you may, as the free and proud shaper of your own being, fashion yourself in the form you may prefer”. Arguing against the Christian religious doctrine, Pico della Mirandola maintains that man should be brought to the forefront, and only then we can talk about God. Human destiny is not determined by a supernatural cluster of stars, it is his duty to make his own destiny.

4.2 Concepts of Platonism, Neo-Platonism and Aristotelianism in Science and Art The natural philosophy of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) can be seen as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. He is the author of an original method of acquiring knowledge, which is based on mathematics and which he called "learned ignorance”. Relying on this method, Nicholas of Cusa attempts to find a philosophical solution for the problem of the relationship between God and the world, develops the ideas of the dialectic cognition of essence and phenomenon, and gives reasoning for the concept of "coincidence of opposites" (coincidentia oppositorum). Nicholas of Cusa was guided by the tradition of Neo-Platonism. However, he reinterpreted the teachings of the Neoplatonists starting from their central notion of the “One”. Nicholas of Cusa, who followed the principles of Christian monism, says that "One is opposed by nothing”. And he infers: "One is everything”. In essence, this is a pantheistic formula and it immediately precedes the pantheism of Giordano Bruno. The Cardinal maintained that the “unfolded” world, that is God, can be conceived by reason rather than faith. But the capabilities of rational knowledge are limited: we can acquire the absolute (essential) knowledge only symbolically, at the level of mathematical concepts. God as such is incomprehensible, but he can be found in a world which is sensuously perceived manifestation of God. Nature, concludes Nicholas of Cusa, is the unfolding of God, when infinity is enfolding in finity, the absolute unity, in multiplicity, and eternity is enfolding in time. This reasoning helps understand the relationship between the philosophical category of the One and the cosmological ideas of the ancients that there is a centre of the universe and, therefore, its end. Nicholas of Cusa’s acceptance of the "identity of the one and infinite" destroyed the picture of the cosmos, which was shared not only by Plato and Aristotle, but by Ptolemy and Archimedes alike. Ancient science and philosophy saw the cosmos as a very large but finite body. And an attribute of a finite body is the ability to identify its centre and periphery, the "beginning" and the "end". According to Nicholas of Cusa, the centre and the circumference of the cosmos is God, and, therefore, although the world is not infinite, it cannot be conceived as finite either, because it has no limits, between which it would be confined. These statements are contrary to the principles of Aristotelian physics, which is based on the distinction between higher - superlunary - and lower - sublunary -worlds. They destroy the beliefs of ancient and medieval science of the finity of the cosmos, in the centre of which is the immovable Earth is placed. Nicholas of Cusa thus laid the foundation for the Copernican Revolution in astronomy, which excluded the geocentricism of the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic view of the world. Thanks to Nicholas of Cusa, the cultural space of the Renaissance saw the emergence a new philosophy of nature, with its roots going back to the ancient philosophical heritage and the rapidly developing new natural science, which relies on experimental methods of inquiry and on the principle of mathematisation of science. The heliocentric concept of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), which is set out in his work On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium), revolutionised science and formed the basis for the new view of the order of the universe. This concept not merely excludes the Earth from the centre of the universe. The main contradiction between the Church and the teachings of Copernicus was that while the Polish astronomer claimed the realism of his teaching, the clergy insisted on its purely instrumental approach. Considering the doctrine of Copernicus not only as a convenient tool to describe the motion of celestial bodies, but also as a new theory of the order of the universe, his followers inevitably ended up conflicting with the letter and spirit of the Bible. By tradition, the period of time from the works of Copernicus to Newton is described as the period of the "scientific revolution" and the Polish astronomer was its pioneer. The exclusion of the Earth from the centre of the universe changed both astronomy and philosophy alike. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) supported and further developed the idea of Copernicus about the rotation of the Earth around the Sun. He claimed that the stars are also suns, but very distant from the Earth, this is why their light is so weak. Planets rotate around stars, like around, and there is life on some of them. Giordano Bruno thus proposed the fundamental idea of plurality of worlds and the infinity of the Universe. In developing this concept, Bruno created a new cosmology and draw profound philosophical conclusions from the heliocentric understanding of the world. He believed that only the mind at the level of philosophical thinking is capable of explaining the essence of the infinity of the Universe, its physical unity, and the possibility of life on other planets. According to Bruno, man can and must learn about the universe. Relying on reason and knowledge of the laws of nature, he will be able to actualise himself as a "microcosm". The scholar rejects the interference of religion in matters of philosophy, science, public relations and morality. During this free-thinking in the spirit of the Florentine Platonic Academy, he was persecuted by the Church for many years. The conflict ended with the church that in 1600, Bruno was arrested by the Inquisition and burned at the stake on the "Square of Flowers" in Rome. He was persecuted for many years by the church for this freethinking in the spirit of the Florentine Platonic Academy. The conflict with the church ended in Bruno’s arrest by the Inquisition. In 1600, he was burnt at the stake in Rome’s Campo de’ Fiori. Bruno’s pantheistic philosophy of nature was understood and accepted by many of his followers. It changed the previous views of the order of the Universe, but, at the same time, it became necessary to find and justify a new "place for God”. This also changed the very image of science, whose goal now is not to provided reasoning for Christian dogmas, but to study the laws of nature. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) confirmed by experiment (astronomical observations and mathematical calculations) the correctness of the heliocentric theory, thus striking a decisive blow against the theological view of the world. He theoretically proved the difference between the reasoning of faith and science. The Scripture and faith tell man person "how to get to heaven”, but they say almost nothing about "how the sky moves”. According to Galileo, the answer to this question is provided by scientific knowledge. It takes a neutral stance on matters of spiritual and religious values and faith, therefore, should not consider the Bible as a source of accurate factual knowledge about the world around us either. Galileo thus proclaimed the autonomy of scientific knowledge in relation to the Holy Scriptures. He developed a scientific method, using which it is possible to obtain objective scientific knowledge. The combination of sense experience with the necessary evidence constitutes scientific experience, or experiment. Galileo holds that the difference between an experiment and a simple passive observation is that an experiment is conducted to confirm or refute a hypothesis. As a result, from any hypothesis, which is experimentally confirmed, a scientific theory is formed. Galileo also widely used thought experiments, which are often impossible to be carried out in practice. He can be credited with the invention of the hypothetico-deductive method in scientific knowledge. He continued the scientific revolution in the natural sciences, which was later completed by Newton. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) in his work entitled A New Astronomy (Astronomia nova) summarised the twenty years of his experimental research and formulated the laws of planetary motion around the Sun. He significantly updated the Copernican theory by introducing for the first time in the history of science the concept of elliptical, rather than circular, orbits. As a Neo-Platonic mathematician, Kepler believed that God mathematically created the harmonious world, and that the duty of a scientist is to reveal the mathematical laws underlying the universe. In his works The Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae) (1618) and Harmony of the Worlds (Harmonices Mundi) (1619), Kepler deduced three laws of planetary motion, which have survived in their original form to our day. In trying to predict the position of Mars after years of astronomical observations, he came to the revolutionary conclusion that the apparent motion of the planets cannot be explained by circular orbits. He rejected oval orbits as well. Only taking into account the elliptical orbit was it possible to achieve compliance between the calculated and observed data. Thanks to Johannes Kepler, the heliocentric system of the world has found its practical application value as a tool for the calculation of planetary motion.

4.3 Reformation as a Protest Against the Renaissance Glorification of Man The beginning of the 15th century was marked by the biggest crisis of the Roman Catholic Church, which reached its peak with the sale of indulgencies granting remission of sins. It was common knowledge that the Church was involved in ungodly deeds. This is why Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences (Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum) that were posted on a church door in Wittenberg in 1517, caused a major stir. The theses of the theologian Martin Luther (1483-1546) marked the beginning of a strong opposition against the official ideology of the Church. It was the beginning of the Reformation, which was offering a different view, a different picture of the world, a more pragmatic and down to earth approach to the role and place of an individual in society and in the universe. Reformation is defined as a protest against the monopolistic position of the Catholic Church and its teachings in the political and ideological system of Europe. In the 16th century, the Reformation movement reached the peak of its development, which resulted in transition to Protestantism. Speaking against the privileges of the Catholic hierarchy and the way of thinking of the Roman theologians, Martin Luther said that man hold neither dignity, nor will before God. Man can be saved only when he realises that he cannot be the creator of his destiny, as the only and sufficient condition for salvation is faith. He claimed that the whole life of believers should be repentance, because there is no need for specific actions that have been detached from earthly life and are pursuing only the goal of salvation. The New -- Protestant -- ideology instructs the believer to conscientiously fulfil his earthly mission, and not run from the world as the monks do. Any deed, if it is useful, is a holy deed. And, if these deeds are profitable, but are done without usurious interest, if the manufacturer works honestly and invests the acquired wealth, such deeds are godly. Martin Luther argued for the Protestant work ethic, moral norms and values, which defined the spirit of Western capitalism. He opposed the Church as the only mediator between God and man. For him, the Church is a community of people, upon whom the mercy of God descended, and deliverance from sin is in the hands of each individual. Each person is burdened with guilt and sin, because he has to stand before God asking for redemption. The possibility of salvation does not depend on the sacraments, rites and sacrifices in favour of the Church, but is achieved with pure faith, which is God's gift. As such, during the Renaissance, when the entire society and culture were undergoing secularisation, the view of the world and the way of thinking changed and political and social issues were brought to the forefront. Political thought, too, seeks to escape from the canons and rules of medieval theology, from which it had been formed, to "spin-off" from philosophy, to separate itself from speculative thinking, ethics and religion in order to independently solve practical problems.

Self-check:  Humanism as feature of Renaissance;  Socio-political concepts of Renaissance;  Martin Luther against monopoly of church;  Theocratic doctrine of Tomasso Campanella;  Heliocentric doctrines.

Chapter 5 Philosophy of the Modern Age 5.1. The Search for Methods of Acquiring Knowledge: Empiricism and Rationalism, Materialism and Idealism The philosophy of the Modern Age covers the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. During this period, philosophy was dominated by the principle of the subject-object relationship, it considered itself with not only the object of study (the world), but also with the relation of the subject (man) to it. It was a time of rapid economic growth, the increase of the role of science in society, the emergence and formation of the natural sciences. The young natural sciences required development and justification of new methods of inquiry. The greatest contribution in this field was made by the founders of empirical and rational methods of inquiry. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) has been called the father of the empirical (experimental) approach in philosophy. He is said to have coined the phrase: “Knowledge is power” ("scientia potentia est"). In terms of knowledge, according to Bacon, the priority should be given to the natural sciences, which are based on empirical, experimental data. The duty of the mind is to process this data and to systematise and determine the cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. In his plan, which he called The Great Instauration (Instauratio Magna) and in the treatise The New Method (Novum Organum), he set out the essence of his philosophical idea, according to which experience is the only source of knowledge. His critical attitude toward the previous philosophical tradition - the Ancient and Medieval - resulted in the rejection of philosophy as a form of contemplation. Describing philosophy as a science of the real world, in the draft of The Great Instauration, Bacon tried to reconcile as far as possible philosophy and concrete scientific knowledge, to develop and provide arguments in support of the universal method of inquiry. He presumed that the subject of philosophy is the material reality which is experienced through senses. Therefore, sense knowledge together with experience and experiment is the starting point of the "new inductive method. The principle of his proposed method is the inference of general statements by abstraction from individual phenomena. However, when applying this method, there may be obstacles in obtaining true knowledge. According to Bacon, such obstacles include the errors and fallacies made by people, innate and acquired. He calls them "false images" ( "idols") and lists their four types: idols of the Tribe, idols of the Cave, idols of the Marketplace, and idols of the Theatre. The basis of his classification are the qualities of the human mind: memory; imagination; and reason. Memory pertains to historical sciences, imagination to poetry, and reason pertains to philosophy. Philosophy is the science of God, nature, and man. Man studies each of the three elements of the philosophy in different ways: the nature is studied directly through sense perception and experience; God through nature; and self through reflection (i.e. focus of thought at itself). René Descartes (1596-1650) is renowned as the founder of rationalism. Rationalism is a concept, according to which the source of knowledge is reason or the mind. He presents reasoning for the idea of the leading role of the mind in inquiry in his works The Meditations on First Philosophy (Meditationes de prima philosophia), The Principles of Philosophy (Principia philosophiae), and The Rules for the Direction of the Mind (Regulae ad directionem ingenii). According to Descartes, philosophising must not begin with appealing to the authority of the Church, but rather from the postulation of certainty of thinking: the idea must start with itself. Clarity of ideas is an innate human quality. His best known philosophical statement is: "I think, therefore I am (Cognito ergo sum)”. He believes that philosophy should not be guided by the existing definitions. In the process of inquiry, one should be guided by the thesis "doubt everything". Only doubting the seemingly obvious can we identify the true principle of philosophy. Descartes is a dualist, he acknowledges the existence of two substances: the “thinking self” and the “extended matter”. In his description of the essential characteristics of substances, he notes in particular that material things and spiritual phenomena exist independently of each other, and "the world has two beginnings”. His main method for obtaining true facts is rational deduction, comparison of knowledge with facts. Descartes was a polymath. In the field of psychology, he proposed the idea of conditioned reflex, made a number of discoveries in mathematics, and laid the foundations of analytical geometry. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) shared the sensationalism of Francis Bacon and the rationalism of Descartes. In his meditations on the first philosophy, he recognises the primacy of matter, the accidents (qualities) of which are motion, rest, colour, etc. Hobbs described his social and political ideas in his works On the Citizen (De cive) and Leviathan. In his views on social order and state he relies on the notion of so-called “natural condition of mankind”, according to which people tend to harm themselves. In his work De Homine, he develops the idea that "A man is a wolf to another man, such is his nature"(Homo homini lupus est). This human condition is characterised by "the right of all to all", i.e. war of all against all, in which obviously there are no winners. Hobbes sees a solution for this situation in the formation of a state, in which citizens, voluntarily and according to a social contract, delegate public power to one or more individuals. By transferring to them their rights, people should recognise their actions as their own and see themselves as part of the community and the state. The conclusion of the social contract between people will allow them to withdraw from the natural condition of the war of all against all. To facilitate this is the responsibility of the state – the "great Leviathan" or god of death - as a new form of mutual communication between people. The state should replace the laws of nature in human relations with the laws of society, which will limit their natural rights by civil law. In considering the question of the origin of the state, Hobbes notes that the "great Leviathan" emerges as a result of mutual agreement between people "for their peace and common defence”. According to him, one must unconditionally obey the laws of the state, the rule of the government, regardless of the form of government be it absolutism (monarchy), aristocracy, or democracy. Hobbes is a proponent of a unified, centralised state as the guarantor of the preservation of fundamental human rights: the right to life, property and freedom. Freedom and necessity are compatible; moreover, they presuppose each other, for this is God's will. In contemplating on freedom, he emphasises that we can talk only about natural (sanctified by God) freedom. By “freedom” he means the absence of external obstacles. John Locke (1632-1704) in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding examines the ability of human cognition. He denies the existence of "innate ideas, principles”, as' the human mind is a blank sheet of paper (tabula rasa)" on which life experience writes its letters. Locke defines experience as the impact of the object of the world on humans, which is why for him sensation is the source of knowledge. By separating "internal" and "external experience”, he distinguishes sense ideas (sensations) and the emerging reflections. He calls these simple ideas; whereas complex ideas, that emerge in the process of reflection, are, according to Locke, not the essence, but only a property, of the soul. And therefore, he infers, Descartes’ fact of thinking cannot be considered the first truth. John Locke also identifies primary and secondary qualities, which he refers to the ideas obtained through external experience. The ideas of primary qualities emerge are due to the effects of external objects on the human senses, these may include spatial qualities, mass, motion, etc. The ideas of secondary qualities are related to the specifics of human senses, these include the taste, smell, colour, etc. He projects the differentiation of primary and secondary qualities to the problem of universals, reliability of reasoning, and the identification of irrefutable and plausible “steps” within it. In 1690, in his main work Two Treatises on Government, Locke presented the ideological and political concept of liberalism. In England, where the concept of modern democracy comes from, it was only after the Glorious Revolution when constitutional monarchy and the Parliament (as the country’s main legislative body) were established. His claim that any legitimate government rests on the "consent of the governed" contributed to the development of democratic institutions. These are the first attempts of solving the problem of government legitimacy. He sees the natural state of society as a state of freedom and equality. Human freedom may be limited only by natural law, according to which no one has the right to restrict the other in his life, health, liberty or property. Locke strongly advocated the separation of the executive and legislative branches of government, the contract between the ruler and the ruled, which is based on respect for natural law. He identified the main (but not exhausting) three rights -- the right to life, property and freedom. Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza (1632-1677) based his philosophical system on the thesis of the unity of a single substance (God), the attributes of which are thought and nature, and their modes are finite things. In his Ethics (Etica), he wrote that communication between the attributes and modes of can be regarded as the link between the creating nature and the created nature. The phenomenon of these "two sides of nature" have causal relationships, therefore the world is rigidly determined. There are three kinds of their knowledge: - knowledge based on sense perception, it cannot be proved and is unreliable; - reasoning of mind, whose truths require proofs; - truths (definitions and axioms) are directly acquired by the mind and are independent from experience. The understanding of the substance, which merges necessity and freedom, is associated with ethical issues. God is free in his accomplishments and proceeds from his own needs. Nature is ruled by necessity, and the degree of man’s freedom is determined by the degree of rational knowledge. His behaviour depends on the instinct of self-preservation and the affects derived from it: joy, sadness, and desire. With their release, man becomes free. Freedom is the recognition of necessity. His Socio-political views are presented in The Theologico-Political Treatise (Tractatus Theologio-Politicus), in which he explains that the natural state of society are determined by the laws of nature, rather than reason. Proceeding from this understanding of the state of society, Spinoza infers that the state emerges to ensure the safety of people and mutual assistance between them. Of all the main forms of government he preferred democracy over monarchy and aristocracy. Its advantage is that all people have the opportunity to participate in government. The foundation for the philosophical views of Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) is his theory of monads (or a plurality of substances). He sees monads as simple, indivisible substance and distinguishes four classes of monads: the "bare monads" of phenomena of inanimate nature; monads of animals (spirits); monads of humans (souls); and the supreme monad (God). He also distinguishes three levels of evolution of monads. Monads of the lowest level have passive senses (perception), they produce vague perceptions. Monads of the higher level have senses and produce clearer perceptions. Monads of the highest level of evolution have consciousness. Monads are potentially capable of evolution. The causes for their evolution are the existing causes and target causes, hence the unity of matter and motion, which are inextricably interlinked. In his theory of knowledge, he criticises the concept of Descartes on innate ideas. He believes that human mind possesses only innate principles, which can evolve to ideas or concepts. Leibniz distinguishes the thesis of sensualist philosophy, according to which there is nothing in the mind that had not previously passed through the senses, and adds "apart from the mind”. Sensual knowledge reveals the random and the empirical, and rational knowledge reveals the actual, real, necessary and essential in the world. George Berkeley (1684-1753) in his Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge describes his system of subjective idealism. He further develops Locke's sensationalism from the standpoint of subjective idealism. Unlike Locke, Berkeley sees all qualities as secondary. For example, such qualities as spatial properties and relationships, in his opinion, are determined by the capabilities of human senses, because "to be is to be perceived" (esse is percipi). And, therefore, all things are human perceptions, although they may exist continuously. He acknowledges the existence of God as the one true being and criticises deism interpreting it as infidelity. David Hume (1711-1776) laid out his philosophical ideas in the works A Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. He studies the sources of knowledge from the standpoint of agnosticism assuming that the mind does not add anything to the perceptions that are derived from senses or reflection, but only connects and divides. Being a skeptic, he does not accept the arguments for the existence of God, which are based on the ideas of human imperfection or purposeful order of the world. Self-check:  Empiricism and Francis Bacon;  Rationalism and René Descartes;  Political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes;  Political philosophy of John Locke;  Pantheism and Benedict Spinoza.

Chapter 6 Philosophy of the European Enlightenment of the 18th Century 6.1 Enlightenment as a Path to Social Progress. Baron de Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Secondat (1689-1755) was an outstanding representative of the social and philosophical thought of the French Enlightenment. He was a proponent of geographical determinism and tried to explain the genesis and essence of society by natural factors. In his work The Spirit of the Laws (De l'esprit des lois), Montesquieu considers "natural" and "positive" laws. For example, although peace, as a natural law, does not cause people's desire to attack others, even in peacetime they still have feelings of inferiority and inequality. This can be "corrected" being guided by clear legal provisions, i.e. positive laws, that govern relations between people (international law), between the government and subjects (public and political law) and civil law. From the perspective of geographical determinism, Montesquieu argues that “the laws of functioning and development of the society are influenced by the natural environment, i.e. by nature and climate”. He was among the first to substantiate the need for the separation and balance of powers between the three branches of government – the legislative, executive and judicial. In 1748, Montesquieu published a treatise (On) The Spirit of the Laws, where he further elaborates this idea and stresses that it is a reliable way to guarantee personal freedom. His doctrine later found its logical conclusion in the constitutions of France at the end of the 17th century and in the Constitution of the United States in 1787. Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) (1694-1778) saw philosophy as a means of resistance against the irrational order of the world. He concerned himself with the issues of society, man and freedom and understood equality as equality of all before the law and in their rights. In his Philosophical Dictionary (Dictionnaire philosophique), Voltaire interprets in abstract terms the concept of freedom as free will, which is limited by the purposefully organised world. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) focused his work on the problems of inequality of people. In his essay A Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (Discours sur les sciences et les arts), he stressed that the development of science had not led to the development of civilisation, because the foundation of development rests on material interests and that it is embellished by non-material interests. Science and culture create artificial needs that make people "seem" rather than "be". In his another work Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (French: Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes), he maintains that inequality among men does not exist inherently, but is created by the stratification of property. Rousseau believes that equality disappeared with the emergence of property. The second stage of human inequality begins with the emergence of state, which is intended to act as a guarantor of peace and justice. The third stage of inequality emerges with the transformation of power into despotism, when the ruler betrays both the law, and the people. At this stage of inequality, people become equal in their powerlessness. The natural state of society is a society in which all are equal and not morally corrupt, because if there is no property, there is no inequality. Rousseau put forward the thesis: "Back to nature". Here he idealises the primitive society. In his work The Social Contract (Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), he asserts that only "the whole people" is the "sovereign" (master, ruler) under the social contract, because they are interested in the right and beneficial development of all members of society. Although, with the conclusion of the social contract, man loses his liberty and the unlimited right of "all for all", he acquires civil liberties and ownership of all his property. Civil liberty, unlike natural liberty, is obedience established by law. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) was the inspirational figure behind the creation of The Encyclopaedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts (Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers). He presented his philosophical ideas in the works Thoughts on the Interpretation of Nature (Pensees sur l'interpretation de la nature), Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot, and Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement. Here he presents his arguments for the objectivity, material unity, evolution and infinity of the world. He sees matter and motion as the only existing reality. By revealing the unity and interrelation of sense perception and reasoning, Diderot shows that reasoning without facts falls into empty speculation and that accumulation of facts without their rational processing leads to chaos. As such, these prominent figures of the Enlightenment demonstrated that the development of sciences per se will not save people from ignorance. Only through enlightenment of all, including the monarch himself, will open the way for social progress, which rests on social equality of people, freedom and brotherhood.

Self-check:  Political Philosophy of Charles Louis Montesquieu;  Francois Voltaire on law and equality before law;  ‘Social Contract’ of Jean Jacques Rousseau;  Critique of feudalism of Denis Diderot;  Key figurees of Enlightenment materialist philosophy.

7 Classical German Philosophy 7.1 Ontology and Epistemology, Metaphysics and Dialectics, Idealism and Anthropological Materialism Classical German philosophy, in a certain sense, revived the principles of rationalism, it concerned itself with rethinking the tradition of the Enlightenment. The philosophy of this period inherited the belief in progress and reason from French materialism. The four great outstanding thinkers of the period from late 18th century - the first third of the 19th century, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, were at the roots of classical German idealism. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the founder of classical German idealism and the author of The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft), The Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft), and The Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft), and other works. By tradition, his work is divided into two periods: Pre-critical period and Critical period. During the first period of his work, Kant adhered to the ideas of natural philosophy, that were quite new for that time. In his treatise Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven (Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels), he proposed a hypothesis of the natural causes for the emergence of the Solar System from a gaseous nebula, which afterwards became known as the Kant- Laplace nebular hypothesis. It rejects the idea of the creation of the world and justifies the evolution of inorganic and organic nature in terms of purposefulness and historicism. Notably, however, Kant does not question the existence of God, but states that “IN the meantime, while nature beautifies eternity with changing scenes, God remains busy with a ceaseless creation, forming the material for even greater worlds”. During the second period of his work, Kant develops transcendental philosophy, i.e. a system of concepts of a priori (transcendental) knowledge of objects, and calls it critical idealism. He explores the essence and limits of scientific knowledge, and the conditions under which this knowledge is possible. The Critique of Pure Reason is devoted to the evaluation of our cognitive faculties. Cognition, according to Kant, has two levels of knowledge: empirical knowledge (derived empirically) and transcendental. A priori knowledge, i.e. categories, concepts, general ideas, is anterior to sense experience, it preconditions the organisation of the empirically derived data and "attribute" to them certain meanings and values, combining empirical knowledge in time and space. Answering the question "What can I know?", Kant emphasises that neither experience nor science is possible unless a determination is added to such sense data, with the principles of such determination being judgment, and temporal and spatial observation: "experiential knowledge is arbitrary and contingent; a priori knowledge is universal and necessary”. In his critical assessment of the possibility of theoretical knowledge, Kant notes that it is limited and antinomic. Knowledge is antinomic (inconsistent) because, for us, the world is divided into “appearances” (phenomena) conceivable through theoretical knowledge and inconceivable "things in themselves" (noumena). The contradictory nature of this level of knowledge is rooted in the very nature of thinking, which is not able to “embrace the world as a whole” without the support of sense observation. According to Kant, the critique of "new" philosophy should be aimed not only at "pure" reason (theoretical knowledge), but also at "practical" reason (ethics, morality and behaviour). This philosophy should not construct a view of the world, but rather concern itself only with the critique of certain knowledge in order to establish its extensiveness and limits. Kant examines the world of man through the prism of his mind. The objects of the world and the whole world itself exist by themselves, independently of the mind and are “not revealed” to men. When they "are revealed", the results of their perception are inseparable from man. In The Critique of Practical Reason, Kant stresses that if there is indeed a science which possesses objective necessity for man, it is the one that he teaches, i.e. to take his designated place in the world and from there learn what must he be to be human. To remain human, one must be guided by three maxims (rules): - Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.; - Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end; - All actions must be aimed at achieving the common good; Therefore, every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends. Kant called these maxims the moral law, the categorical imperative, by which everyone must be guided in his actions. Justifying the categorical imperative, Kant considers the human problem independently of religion, as it is self-sufficient because of practical reason. In The Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, he showed that human freedom is conditional on the fact that there is no necessary direct connection between sensory stimulus and behaviour, even though it acts as conditionality. As an autonomous being, man is an "end in himself", while other animals are the means. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) further elaborated Kant’s transcendental philosophy and attempted to overcome its inherent contradictions. In constructing his own philosophical system, he rejected the mechanistic determinism of the Modern Age which did not distinguish between natural and social realms of being, and provided reasoning for the thesis of “the law of self-sufficiency" or “autonomy”. Fichte ontologises the ideal starting point or first principle by opposing the "I", which he describes as "the restless spirit” to the "not-I" (nature, the external world). The activity of the "I", in his opinion, is that it tends to posit itself and "alienates itself" from the "not-I", which exerts external influence upon it. The "I" and the "not- I" (the subject and the object) confront one another, restricting one other, and at the same time presuppose one another. Fichte says: “How something objective (a being) follows from something subjective (a concept), the principle of all practical philosophy”. He infers, from the standpoint of subjective idealism, and hence that the “I” must ascribe to itself a power of free purposiveness or causality in the sensible world. The “I” must posit itself as an embodied will, and only as such does it “discover” itself at all”. In his system, the "I" is defined by the "not-I" and the "not-I" is defined by the "I". What Fichte essentially says here is that there is no the “not-I” without the "I"; in other words, "without me, for me there is no "world". Fichte describes the essence of his theory as follows: “Within the “I”, I oppose to the divisible “I” the divisible “not-I”. No philosophy travels beyond this truth; but every well-grounded philosophy must recur to it, and, in proportion as it does this, becomes Wissenschaftslehre” (i.e. philosophy). Recognising the "I" (thought, consciousness) as the main reality, Fichte says in The Foundations of the Science of Knowledge (Das system der Sittenlehre nach den Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre) that it is active by nature. The activity of the "I" is aimed at self-consciousness (self-awareness). The reality of the "I" cannot be doubted: "I" am I"; this is the fundamental law of thought”. The process of realisation of the "I" occurs through the external "empirical" experience: the "not-I" affecting the "I" limits its activity. The "I" adjusts and adapts to itself both the natural and social environment thereby "humanising" it. From this Fichte infers that nature is the alienated product of the "I". According to Fichte, the world, how we see it, is such because it is “made” so by the practical attitude of the "I" toward it. In the process of self-consciousness, the pure “I” resolves the contradiction existing between the subject and the object. According to Fichte, human intellectual activity at the intuitive level actively and purposefully transforms the world. Therefore, the "not-I", i.e. the outside world, is an unconscious process of objectification of the creative "I". This "I" as an active and creative activity of the knowing mind is the true being, in contrast to Kant's "thing in itself”. Schelling’s (1775-1854) transcendental (speculative) philosophy is another attempt in the history of European philosophy (following Leibniz, Spinoza, etc.) to develop a new "true philosophy" in terms of objective idealism. He called it "identity philosophy" and laid it out in some of his works: Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (Philosophie der Natur als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissenschaft), System of Transcendental Idealism (System des transcendentalen Idealismus), " Presentation of My System of Philosophy (Darstellung meines Systems der Philosophie). Schelling began the search for a new basis for his philosophy from the justification of the ideal essence of nature maintaining that “active forces” that embody the new types of material being -- from the simplest forms to intelligent beings -- are inherent in it. He rejected the materialistic evolutionism that was prevailing in natural sciences in the 19th century and that was justifying the idea of natural transformation of one species of organic life into another, and replaced this approach with the idealistic approach and with an explanation that was, in essence, a theological explanation. The concept put forward by Schelling has a "grain of truth" -- the idea that the evolution of nature is the result of the struggle of opposites, and, therefore, it is a dialectical process. In other words, he expanded the application of the dialectic approach from the activity of human consciousness (according to Fichte) to the universal process in general and to nature in particular. In his main philosophical work The System of Transcendental Idealism, Schelling substantiated his "identity philosophy", i.e. the absolute identity of subjective and objective as the fundamental principle of all things. He supplemented the main theoretical part of his work ("theoretical philosophy") with "practical" philosophy, philosophy of natural purposes and philosophy of art. In the "practical" philosophy, Schelling examines "the manifestation and the realisation of human freedom”. He emphasises the social and historical character of human freedom, its dialectical nature and is an absolute unity of freedom and necessity. This contradictory unity, according to Schelling, must be "the condition of history itself”. But, he continues, history is overwhelmed with “blind necessity " to which individuals, with their subjective aims and intentions, are powerless. In other words, Schelling sees the actions of a "mysterious hand" of history and fate behind people’s actions. People themselves are "alienated from history". To avoid alienation, man should strive to be reunited with God (the Absolute), in whom all contradictions are solvable. This, according to Schelling, is the innermost meaning of history which he sees as "a progressive, gradually self-disclosing revelation of the Absolute”. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) in his work covered and studied a wide range of areas of philosophical knowledge: dialectic, logic, epistemology, history and law, philosophy of history. The core doctrine in his work is dialectic as a theory of development of all things and method of philosophical comprehension of objective reality. Hegel's philosophical system is traditionally defined as a system of objective dialectical idealism. Hegel’s critique of agnosticism in Kant’s theory of knowledge Kant has a very important place in the history of philosophy. According to Hegel, knowledge and aspiration to knowledge are the driving force for the development of the world. At the foundation of all that things that exist is the "idea" -- the personification of all future things, i.e. the absolute spiritual unit. The "Absolute Spirit" (Absolute Idea) actualises itself as an evolving thought (or mind). Hegel holds that the study of thought is possible only in the process of thought and criticises Kant's subjectivist opposition of "essence" and "phenomenon”. In The Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik), Hegel showed that essence "is" and phenomena is "of essence”. There is no insurmountable barrier between them. Rejecting the Kantian theory of the unknowable "thing in itself", Hegel argues that there is nothing unknowable. Hegel was an equally harsh critic of Fichte’s philosophy (Wissenschaftslehre): nature and society cannot be derived from the human "I" (self-awareness), nor can it be reduced to it. At the heart of Hegel's philosophical system is the concept of the Absolute Idea. He understood it as the whole universal mind, the essence and internal substance of all things. He holds that the Absolute Idea (universal spirit, universal mind), contains in itself, in a hidden form, all possible natural, social and spiritual phenomena. According to this concept, the evolution of spiritual culture of mankind is interpreted as a gradual revelation of the creative forces of "the universal mind". And the spiritual evolution of an individual reproduces the stages of self-consciousness of the "universal spirit" -- from the time of the determination of “sensually given things" to "absolute knowledge", i.e. knowledge of forms and laws that govern from the inside the entire process of spiritual development. The underlying principle of Hegel’s theoretical system is the identity of being and thought. The bottom line of this concept is that "the logical is anterior to the historical”. In other words, the essence of the historical process can be understood only when it has passed through all stages of its evolution and reached its peak. The essence of the historical process is manifested at the highest stage of evolution. The logic of its evolution is determined by the idea, for the self-actualisation of which the historic process is unfolding. Thus, the laws of logic are the true laws of nature and of the historical process. Hegel, therefore, argues that the global process of rational, logical, and natural and that it is developing from the lowest stage to the highest stage: "Everything that is real is rational and everything that is rational is real”. In The Science of Logic, Hegel outlines the three basic laws and categories of idealist dialectic: "being", "nothing", "quality", "quantity", "measure", the "essence", "identity", "difference", "contradiction ", "necessity and chance", “possibility and reality”. With respect to the development of categories, he derives one from another and emphasises that all categories are related to each another and are manifestations of the essence of knowledge and universal relations of being. Categories, according to Hegel, are the foundation of reality, "the determination of thought”, and nature is the lower, organic, "finite" embodiment (otherness, self-negation) of the "absolute idea”. Everything that exists in nature is a product, objectification (otherness) of the ideas of the realm of spirit. In The Phenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes), Hegel defines consciousness, in terms of objective idealism, as a self-aware reality which -- if it aims to realise itself in an individual -- must be very similar by nature to the idea in which it realises itself. In The Science of Logic, the Absolute (Absolute Idea) is described by Hegel as " determinations of thought" and as the main forces that shape the world in its own image and likeness. By further developing this concept in The Philosophy of Nature, he describes the process of the "dis-objectification" (unfolding, realisation) of the being of nature. The next level of self-knowledge and self-realisation of the Absolute Idea is the subjective (human mind) and objective preconditions (society, history) for the self-self-knowledge of these ideas as a form of their self-identity is explored in The Philosophy of Spirit (Philosophie des Geistes). For Hegel, the most profound expression of the processes that make up the substance of the Absolute Idea was not nature, but development of human spiritual life, i.e. forms of social consciousness (art, religion and philosophy). Philosophy, for him, represents the highest form of self-development of the "Absolute Idea" (logic). Therefore, Hegel defines the history of philosophy as the history of self-knowledge of the "Absolute Spirit". For him, philosophical knowledge is absolute. Hegel holds that this is the final stage of the process of self-knowledge of the Absolute Idea, and, therefore, philosophy is perfected. Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872) was the last representative of German classical philosophy. He was a materialist and the author of the anthropological principle in philosophy. He was also a critic of the idealist tradition in the Modern Age European philosophy, which, in his opinion, was merely a theoretical foundation for religion, and said that philosophy should turn toward man and that its purpose is not "to humanise God", but to recognise man as a subject. Human nature, which is "its hidden truth” and its "secret", should be put in place of Hegel’s Absolute. Philosophy should not concern itself with abstract principles or with thought, but rather with the being of man and with the world through it. In his work Principles of Philosophy iof the Future (Grundsätze der Philosophie der Zukunft), he says in this regard that "The new philosophy makes man, together with nature as the basis of man, the exclusive, universal, and highest object of philosophy; it makes anthropology, together with physiology, the universal science”. Criticising Hegel’s idealism, Feuerbach creates a new philosophy which should aim to study not “reality as thought”, but “reality as its own subject”. He says: "The real in its reality and totality, the object of the new philosophy, is the object also of a real and total being. The new philosophy therefore regards as its epistemological principle, as its subject, the real and the whole being of man. Man alone is the reality, the subject of reason”. Hence his famous says that: “the secret of new philosophy is nothing else than anthropology”. Feuerbach’s atheism is not limited to mere rejection of God. He does not seek to abolish religion as such, but advocates for the replacement of the "old religion", which is based on the belief in the supernatural with a new "religion of love”. He sees love as the essence and purpose of human life, both individual and social. He writes in The Essence of Christianity that in place of the love to God, the new religion should preach the love of man to "man in general"; love should become a universal law of reason and nature. He says: “Man is an object of love because he is an end in himself, because he is a rational and loving being. This is the law of the species, the law of the intelligence. Love should be immediate, undetermined by anything else than its object; — nay, only as such is it love”. For Feuerbach, man is not "a creation of God", but and an individual related to his species, and his nature is "biological”. The distinctive qualities of man (i.e. internal freedom, power of thought, the ability to feel, universality) make him spiritual and moral and fill human existence with philosophical meaning and love. He presupposes that the incarnation of God in a certain man-like corporeal thing is the manifestation of his essence not only in reason, morality, but also in sensuousness and physical embodiment. From this it follows that the true cause of the incarnation of God is man’s idea, perception about himself, in his need for compassion. God, according to Feuerbach, is the purified essence of man. Feuerbach’s philosophy epitomises the end of classical German philosophy, whose historic significance is that it developed, from the standpoint of idealism, a system of dialectical method and view of the world. This is precisely why classical German philosophy was one of the theoretical sources of Marxism and its philosophy -- dialectical and historical materialism.

Self-check:  Transcendental philosophy of Immanuel Kant;  Johann Fichte’s autonomy of the" I ";  Friedrich von Schelling and identity of objective and subjective;  Hegelian dialectics;  Anthropological Materialism and Ludwig Feuerbach. Chapter 8 Foreign Philosophy from Late Eighteenth Century to Early Twenty- First Century 8.1 Marxism The founders of the Marxist philosophy Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) opposed the philosophy of Hegel and his followers, the Young Hegelian idealists. In the works The Holy Family (Die heilige Familie) and The German Ideology (Die Deutsche Ideologie), they presented the "new philosophy" which examines social phenomena from the standpoint of materialism and dialectics. For example, Marx and Engels came to understand the role of the masses in the making of history when they, first of all, raised the question about the main driving force of history, which, in their opinion, is not in ideas, but in the activity of the masses. In The German Ideology, they were first to give a detailed critique of the shortcomings of Feuerbach’s materialism, which Marx touched upon in 1845 in The Theses on Feuerbach (Die Thesen über Feuerbach), for being contemplative, metaphysical, and one-sided. Marx and Engels developed the conception of materialist conception of history. The basis of this conception is to disclose the real production process, with the material production of immediate life as the starting-point, to conceive the form of the intercourse connected with the engendered by this mode of production – hence civil society in its various stages of development -- as the foundation of all history. With this approach, they showed the activities of civil society in public life and explained the different theoretical views and forms of consciousness, including religion, philosophy, morality, etc. The founders of Marxism traced how various forms of social consciousness derive from this social basis and, proceeding from here, explained the process of development of society as a whole. In the analysis of these problems, they emphasised that the mind is not a completely independent force, but, like all social phenomena, it has its foundation in the material life process. Consistently applying the principles of historical materialism to historical events, they developed the fundamental laws of social being and social consciousness (being determines consciousness; the economic base is primary, the superstructure is secondary, and there is a causal relationship between them; the foundation of society is the material mode of production, etc.). The works Capital (Das Kapital), Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (Die Ökonomisch-philosophischen Manuskripte aus dem Jahre 1844), The German Ideology (Die Deutsche Ideologie), and A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Beitrag zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie) show that society develops according to objective laws, in a natural way, from one formation (stage) to another. The basis for this development is the emergence, development and change in the modes of production of material goods and types of property. Thus, Marx shifted the focus of philosophical research from the realm of abstract, speculative reasoning to the field of material and practical human activity. There was thereby discovered the decisive role of practice of human society and human history. Even in his early works Marx already wrote about the transformative (not just an explanatory) function of theoretical thought, including philosophical thought. He later explained this function with the thesis that theory serves practice, practice determines theory: "Hitherto philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the thing, however, is to change it”. This conception of the unity of theory and practice was the basis of the Marxist theory of the transformation of the capitalist society which is based on the rule of private property and exploitation of the masses and violence, into a communist society. The classics of Marxism outlined different approaches to the understanding of practice: practice as subject-specific activity; practice as human activity aimed at the transformation of nature and society; practice as socio-historical human activity; it is the main criterion of truth in knowledge; practice as a characteristic of human activity. Marx and Engels have time and again reiterated their commitment to dialectics, but not in its Hegelian (idealistic) interpretation. Engels criticised Hegel for turning dialectics “upside down”. The founders of Marxism developed a new historical form of dialectics -- materialist dialectics. They presupposed that material being is the basis of existence: "Being determines consciousness”. In Capital, Marx demonstrated that dialectic is in essence the theory and methodology of inquiry into the laws of capitalist society and human history. He explores these laws using the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete and the unity of the historical and the logical. According to Marx, the basis of social life is the mode of production of material goods. He divides it into productive forces and relations of production. Relations of production (i.e. relations which are formed between people in the production of material goods) is the material base of society, and such forms of social consciousness as science, culture, art, politics, law, ethics, philosophy, religion are the superstructure which is built on this base. In his analysis of the initial stage of development of capitalist society, Marx presented arguments for his conception of the problem of human alienation and self- alienation, the causes for which he saw in the domination of private ownership of the means of production and the anarchy of market forces. A permanent (global) proletarian revolution makes it possible to abolish private ownership of the means of production, change modes of production and, as a consequence of these changes, antagonistic classes will be replaced with an association of large social groups, for whom "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all”. With the creation of humane conditions of social life, the problem of alienation will be solved. Marx developed the concept, according to which the history of human society is a series of successive socio-economic formations in which the main role is played by the mode of production of material goods. He distinguished from two to five formations: the primitive society; slavery; feudalism (serfdom); capitalist system; and communist (socialist) system. Friedrich Engels, in his works Anti-Dühring and Dialectics of Nature (Dialektik der Natur), formulated the fundamental laws of dialectics: 1) the law of unity and struggle of opposites (the law of dialectical contradiction); 2) the law of transformation of quantity into quality and vice versa (the law of transition from quantitative changes into qualitative changes); and 3) the law of negation of negation.

8.2 Neo-Kantianism Neo-Kantianism (a philosophical movement which followed the doctrine of Immanuel Kant) originated in Germany in the second half of the 19th century -- early 20th century, when German philosophy was in crisis and entered the dead-end of system-making. The famous -"Back to Kant!" dictum of Neo-Kantianism was formulated by Otto Liebman in his 1865 work Kant and His Imitators (Kant und die Epigonen). His criticism was directed against the dominance of positivism and metaphysical materialism. The aim of the philosophical program of Neo-Kantianism was to bring Kantian transcendental idealism back to life with particular emphasis on the constructive functions of the intelligent mind in natural sciences and social sciences. This movement was a compensation in its own way for the methodological helplessness of the idealists and vulgar materialists of the Modern Age in their philosophical interpretation of the results of the rapidly developing science. Within Neo-Kantianism we distinguishes the Marburg School, which was engaged mainly in developing a logical methodological basis for natural sciences, and the Southwest School (also known as the Baden School or Heidelberg School), which focused on the problems of values and methodology for humanities. Hermann Cohen is thought to be the leader of the Marburg School, the other prominent representatives were of which were Paul Natorp and Ernst Cassirer, and others. In a series of works, which include Kant's Theory of Experience (Kants Theorie der Erfahrung), Kant's Foundations of Ethics (Kant's Begründung der Ethik), Kant's Foundations of Aesthetics (Kant's Begründung der Aesthetik), Immanuel Kant and A Commentary on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (Kommentar zu Immanuel Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft), Hermann Cohen (1842-1918) presented a thorough critical analysis of Kant’s transcendental idealism. He attempted to offer the theoretical basis for an idealism which was more consistent than Kant’s idealism and saw it as a logical and epistemological doctrine which, as he claimed, was required to explain the possibility of a higher type of science -- mathematics and mathematical natural science. Cohen considers being not as “perceptible through senses”, but as a priori conceivable through categories. He interprets space and time not as forms of sensible intuition, but as categories of logical thinking. According to him, what ordinary consciousness perceives as the "given" reality is actually a product of scientific concepts. In his doctrine of ethical socialism, he sees the movement towards the socialist ideal as eternal and the actual achievement of this ideal as virtually impossible. Cohen’s ethics formed the basis for the revision of Marxism by Eduard Bernstein’s, who the thesis: "The movement is everything, the final goal is nothing" Another prominent member of the Marburg School was Paul Natorp (1854- 1924). As a leading historian of philosophy, he interpreted various doctrines and theories of antiquity and Modern Age as philosophical predecessors of the ideas of Kant's criticism. Natorp consecutively opposed and defended epistemological idealism. He said that there are “no objects given to thought, before they are created in thought”. For example, Natorp says that mathematics does not rely on a priori forms and sensuality, but on thinking and can even ignore the substance of space and time. In his later, works he departs even further from Kantian idealism forms leaning toward the Hegelian type of ontological idealism. By making ethics dependable on "reason" (logos), Natorp rejects any attempt of explaining and deriving ethical norms from social sources. The orthodox views of the Marburg School were further developed by Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945) in his works written before the 1920’s. He describes history of logic, of the theory of knowledge and modern philosophy as the prehistory for the Neo-Kantian theory of knowledge. Cassirer sees Kant’s "scientific objectivity" as a certain abstraction, which successfully works in a very tight framework of the general scientific method. His philosophy offers further interpretation of the Kantian idea of a priori forms of perception and thinking as a condition for the possibility of experience and knowledge. He points out that object is what it appears to be to us, it is the sum of the existing and possible forms of activity”. Therefore, human reason itself decides which phenomena to explore and how to determine them. Only reason is accountable to itself for these determinations, which allows us to see the possible as the valid. Just as Kant's a priori forms of perception and thought determine the "world for us", Cassirer’s “cultural forms” are essentially the only possible forms of existence of "the world for us". Forms of the foundations of all culture, containing a system of symbols, which carry various basic modes of human thought, understanding, ideas, conceptions, perceptions, and description of the world. As such, Neo-Kantians of the Marburg School offered their own answers to all the mentioned changes in the image of science and shifts in the general scientific picture of the world. Based on Kant's theoretical legacy, they put forward the thesis of an active constructive role of the human mind in modern scientific inquiry. According to this thesis, the human mind does not reflect the world, but rather creates it, thereby creating consistency and order to the thereto inconsistent and chaotic being. The Baden School of Neo-Kantianism is associated with the names of Wilhelm Windelband and Heinrich Rickert. Wilhelm Windelband (1948-1915) proposed to distinguish sciences by method (way of thinking) rather than by subject as the basis for the classification of sciences. He rejected the division of knowledge as natural sciences and the humanities. He held that the basis for their division should be the "formal characteristic of their theoretical goals", because some sciences search for general laws, while others look for individual facts. Windelband defines the first way of thinking as "nomothetic"(the tendency to generalise in the form of the law). The way of thinking which is opposite to the "nomothetic" way of thinking he defines as the "idiographic" (the tendency to specify the individual). The same object can simultaneously be the object of both nomothetic and idiographic research. He holds that the reason for this possibility is that the distinction between the uniform (general) and the individual is, to a certain extent, relative. For example, the science of organic nature as a taxonomy or a systematic science is a nomothetic science, but as a history of development it is an ideographic science. It is this difference between the nomothetic and idiographic way of thinking, according to Windelband, that determines the difference between natural science and history. In the case of natural science, the nomothetic type of thinking tends to go from establishing the particular to understanding the general relationship and aims to seek more general principles in the reality that has always existed. He believed that the idiographic historical method had long been neglected. According to Windelband, disregard of everything except the general and genetic is a bias of Greek thought, which perpetuated from the Eleatics to Plato, who found not only the real being but also real knowledge only in the general. Of the Modern Age philosophers, he considers Schopenhauer to be a follower of this approach, who refused to see history as a true science on the grounds that it deals only with the particular and individual and never reaches the general. He believes that this view of the idiographic method is an age-old misconception. In contrast to it, Windelband emphasises, every human interest and any evaluation, everything of value to a person is related to the single and the individual. If this is true in relation to the individual human life, then it is all the more applicable to the whole historical process; it has value only if it is single. Therefore, he concludes, in all the data of historical and individual experience, a residuum of incomprehensible brute fact remains, an inexpressible and indefinable phenomenon. Thus the ultimate and most profound nature of personality resists analysis in terms of general categories. From the perspective of our consciousness, the incomprehensible character of the personality emerges as the sense of indeterminacy of our nature – in other words, individual freedom”. This reasoning was further systematically developed in the works of another Neo- Kantian philosopher, Heinrich Rickert (1863-1939). In his book The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science (Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung), he argues that the world of values creates the realm of the transcendental (other-worldly) meaning. He believes that the relationship of values to reality determines the highest task of philosophy. Just like Windelband, Rickert reduces the difference between sciences to the differences in their methods and believes that there are two fundamental methods. The purpose of any scientific concept can be either the knowledge of general, identical, recurring features of the phenomenon under study, or, in contrast, the knowledge of its particular, individual, single and unique features. In the former case, we are dealing with natural science, and with history in the latter case. Natural science concepts are focused on the general and historical concepts are focused on the individual. Rickert defines the method of natural sciences as the "generalising" (summarising) method, and the method of history as the "individualising" method. In both cases, scientific concepts are interpreted as "simplifying" reality and formed through selection based on the teleological principle that guides the researcher separating the essential from the nonessential. While with respect to the logical doctrine of the two types of concepts, Rickert formally recognised the equality of "natural scientific" and "historical" forms of knowledge, with respect to the ontological concept, he acted as a proponent of nominalism, according to which the general does not actually exist in the being and only the particular and individual is real. He used this nominalist concept to limit the competence of the natural sciences and to "denigrate" them in comparison with historical sciences. And since history itself was unfolding only in terms of the existence of culture, the core question for Rickert was the question of value studies. He notes that only thanks to the fact that certain objects are of value to us, while others are not, we either notice or ignore them.

8.3 Philosophy of Life The last third of the 19th century was when a philosophical tradition which is known under the common name of "philosophy of life" was formed in France and Germany. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1869), who was the progenitor of "philosophy of life", equally criticised both Hegel’s rationalism and idealism and Feuerbach’s materialism. He pointed out that his philosophical system was a synthesis of ideas of Kant, Plato and Indian Buddhists. In his book The World as Will and Representation (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung), Schopenhauer attributes ontological character to will and shows that the error of all philosophers was that they saw the foundation of man in intellect, whereas it is only in will. Moreover, will is not only the foundation of man, but also the innate foundation of the world, its essence. According to Schopenhauer, there are two worlds: the “phenomenal” and the “noumenal”; the first world of experience is dominated by the law of causality; in the second world, what is important are not the particular forms of things, or phenomena, but general transcendental entities, which are independent of experience. In everyday life, will has empirical (phenomenal) character, and it is restricted. Man, in his everyday life, is constantly making choices, but this inevitably restricts free will. According to Schopenhauer, "in the noumenal world", will is independent of the law of causality. Here it abstracts from the particular forms of things. Schopenhauer holds that freedom should not be sought in our individual actions, as rational philosophy does it, but in the whole being and in the essence of man himself. In our life, we see many actions, which are caused by reasons and circumstances, as well as by time and space; these are what restricts our freedom. But all these actions are, in essence, of the same nature and that is why they are free from causality. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was an irrationalist philosopher, one of the most brilliant and controversial thinkers of the European philosophy of the 20th century. Nietzsche’s initial interest during the first period of his work was in ancient Greek culture. He sees its life-affirming force in the Greek tragedy. Ancient culture for him is the ideal of the culture of values, which conforms to human nature and inclination. In his interpretation of Schopenhauer's ideas of the world as the world of dreams, Nietzsche distinguishes the Apollonian and the Dionysian principles in art and culture. The first type of art celebrates individual phenomena, while the second glorifies primordial "suffering pleasure", revelry and "hangover". Nietzsche’s second period of work is marked with his search for a solution of the problem of "purification" of man. In his work Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches: Ein Buch für freie Geister), he talks about the people of free spirit who have overcome outdated beliefs and revalued their values. Nietzsche writes that it is necessary to rethink the achievements of science in its knowledge of the world, its ideas about morality, religion, culture, state, family, and man. The commonly recognised scientific achievements and the established ideas about the forms of social consciousness and social institutions are possible because opinions grow from passions and the rigidity of spirit transforms opinions into beliefs which should revalued. The third period of his work was focused at the search for rules for changing beliefs. In his work The Gay Science (or The Joyful Wisdom) (Die fröhliche Wissenschaft), Nietzsche uses the hourglass as an image to express the idea of eternal recurrence, talks about Zarathustra, the superhuman, and the death of God. In this work, he examines the problem of language games which implies penetration and attentive listening to the semantics and combination of words and their impact. The game-related theme of this work has influenced Johan Huizinga, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Gilles Deleuze. In The Mad Man section he put forward his famous thesis that "God is dead! And we have killed him!" Nietzsche notes that the evolution of the modern spirit is so great that "Must we not ourselves become gods simply to be worthy of it? " His idea of change of human guidelines proclaims the "belief in unbelief." Unbelief, that is death and destruction, implies rejection of everything that is externally imposed and rooted in the collective consciousness, and revaluation of values. These problems are covered in the book Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Also sprach Zarathustra), which is thought to be a turning point in Nietzsche’s philosophical career. Nietzsche himself saw it as the most profound of all the books available to humanity. The image of Zarathustra is an image of a man walking the path of becoming a superhuman. Through Zarathustra, Nietzsche describes the three stages of transformation of the human spirit, “Of the three metamorphoses of the spirit I tell you: how the spirit becomes a camel; and the camel, a lion; and the lion, finally, a child”. “There is much that is difficult for the spirit, the strong, reverent spirit that would bear much: but the difficult and the most difficult are what its strength demands”. In this battle, man becomes a lion and “the spirit of the lion says, “I will”. He thus wins the rights to revalue the existing values and to create new values in their place. To become a child means to forget and reject all the established beliefs and rediscover the lost “game of creation”. To play with the world and with oneself, as a child does, means to revive the Dionysian force in oneself. In the book The Will to Power (Der Wille zur Macht), Nietzsche sees will as the main creative force and life-affirming urge. The will to power is the eternal rivalry between many forms of will, and the desire for self-improvement. He dismisses the tenets of the old philosophy thus liberating the basic concept of his teaching by linking it with the concept of freedom, which is the sole purpose of life, where Superhuman appears as the highest ideal of man. The idea of Superhuman is the “primal law” of “eternal recurrence of life”. “The law of eternal recurrence of life" is also a manifestation of liberation and choice, renewal and enhancement of life itself. The thesis of the "death of God" is accompanied by the idea of "the death of that human which restricts the will. Death reaches the old meanings attributed to everyday life and external justifications given to old values. The place of God after his death is now taken by the Superhuman, and with him comes joy and celebrations as good signs of future changes. In the works Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future (Jenseits von Gut und Böse) and On the Genealogy of Morality: A Polemic (Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift) (1887), Nietzsche raises a number of questions: what are the sources and the conditions for the emergence of the concepts of good and evil? What is the value of values themselves? Do moral values help to merely support human existence or do they make humans stronger? He shows that the feeling of guilt stems from the relationship between the creditor and the debtor, when the memory of the debt is created through pain and suffering. Hence the "deification of cruelty." The sovereign individual (Master), who is equal to himself, is above the morality of slaves, constructs himself his own memory. In his book The Antichrist (German: Der Antichrist), the philosopher shows that the moral and religious values are relative. He advocates the establishment of a totally new discipline, "Genealogy", which should study the history of the origin of prejudice. The criterion of values should be self-evidence, rather than the concepts of apriority, logicality, or hypotheticality, which, in traditional philosophy, were used to provide the basis for the right for the existence of moral values. Thus, three problems are indicative of this: ressentiment, guilt and bad conscience, and asceticism. Ressentiment is a reflective reproduction of a negative emotion caused by powerlessness. This makes people feel envy, jealousy, hatred, and vindictiveness. Because of man’s weakness, his dependence on artificial customs, and taboos, these feelings are not realised. This leads to his self-loathing, disguising his wickedness behind the mask of piety and morality. If ressentiment is directed outward, then this is the " slave revolt in morality", and if it is directed inward, this is asceticism. The ideas of revolt and asceticism are the ideas of socialism and Christianity, and the latter, according to Nietzsche, is in essence the main culprit for the corruption of the spirit. Henri Bergson (1859-1941) was a representative of the philosophy of life who developed a theory on the role of intuition for understanding reality. He distinguishes two types of existence: life, that can be grasped only intuitively, on the one hand, and matter or, rather, the inert "something", that intellect sees as matter, on the other hand. Bergson argues that the whole universe is a clash and conflict of two opposite movements: life, that, as a certain wholeness, is a substance and that “climbs upward”, and matter, which "falls downward”. Life is the only great force, it is the huge urge for life, which is given only once, at the beginning of the world; it faces and overcomes the resistance of matter. Bergson complements the doctrine of life with concepts of creative evolution and intuition designed to understand reality; concepts of time, freedom, will and memory, in terms of their relationship with time. According to Bergson, evolution cannot be explained, if we maintain the traditional belief that its main cause is the active contacts with the environment. He believes that evolution has a creative basis akin to a work of an artist. Motivation for action, vague, undetermined desires are inherent, but when the desire is not satisfied, it is impossible to know in advance the nature of what will satisfy this desire. The essential characteristic of intuition, in his opinion, is that it does not divide the world into individual things, as intellect does. Intuition covers multiplicity as a whole, but it is the multiplicity of interpenetrating processes, rather than spatially external bodies. For him, intuition is a tool of life’s self-comprehension. Intellect has a different task. It operates with a variety of material objects, whereas intuition captures the essence of the "living multiplicity" of things and phenomena. In reality, "things do not exist," but there is "a continual flux" of existence. Bergson emphasises that this view of the world seems to be difficult and unnatural for intellect, but it is easy and natural for intuition. The basis of Bergson’s intuitivism and philosophy of life is his concept of space and time, which echoes in many respects Einstein's theory of relativity. In his essay Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience) he notes, that intellect is associated with space, while instinct or intuition is associated with time. For Bergson, space is a characteristic of matter; it originates with the dissection of the continual flux and is inherently illusory: it is useful to some extent in practice, but is extremely misleading in theory. Time, in contrast, is an essential characteristic of life or mind. Duration finds itself in memory, as it is in memory where "the past continues to exist in the present". As such, Bergson was among the first in the 20th century to examine and offer a philosophical basis for the essence of time and its specificity as it is "experienced by man".

8.4 Positivism and its Historical Forms The first historical form of positivism: the proclamation of the cult of science and change of the subject and role of philosophy Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in The Course in Positive Philosophy" (Cours de Philosophie Positive) formulated the basic principles of the philosophy of positivism. This positivism to a certain extent is the successor of the philosophy of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century. Like the Enlightenment polymaths, Comte proclaimed the cult of science (reason) and unrestricted faith in it possibilities, talked about the unlimited subject area to which we the scientific method of thinking (including metaphysics) can be applied. His classification of sciences can, in many respects, be seen as implementation of the legacy of the Enlightenment polymaths. He distributed sciences based on "natural hierarchy": Mathematics -- Astronomy -- Physics -- Chemistry -- Biology -- Sociology. According to him, the term "philosophy" can be reserved for the "general" science which reveals the link between these sciences. However, it should not have anything to do with traditional metaphysics, as their subject and research methods are different. By contrasting philosophy with science, Comte says that science is the source of positive, valid knowledge which is applied in practice. Philosophy, however, as a general system of knowledge, is not required for science. It is a "synthetic" science and it must deal with the generalisation of the achievements of the natural sciences. He argued that "every science is itself a philosophy". Hence, his maxim which was picked up by all the positivist, "Down with metaphysics, long live physics!", as well as his "Law of Three Stages" of evolution of human thought -- religious, metaphysical and scientific. After Comte’s death, the centre of positivist thought moved to England and is primarily associated with the name of the logician John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). In his book A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, he developed methods of inductive logic earlier formulated by the founder of the English empiricism Francis Bacon. This is due to the fact that the basic principle of empiricism -- "all our knowledge derives from sense experience, senses" -- inevitably leads to the question of how the data of our observations is transferred to the form of those propositions, which are called “laws” in science. In his opinion, the is no fundamental difference between the empirical and theoretical propositions. Mill criticised the mechanistic and physicalist interpretation of human behaviour which ignores his freedom and hence a possibility of moral choice. Being a utilitarian, Mill reasons that people derive benefit from everything and, therefore, should act morally, because moral actions are more beneficial than immoral actions. The English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) is the author of several works: First Principles, Principles of Psychology, Principles of Sociology, The Study of Sociology, Principles of Ethics. He came to the idea of evolution in the biological world before Darwin and formulated the principles of natural selection and the struggle for survival in the natural world. Spencer applied the idea of evolution to all phenomena and processes in nature and society without exception -- from outer space, organic and inorganic nature to society. He can be called the founder of two perspectives in sociology: "organicism" and "evolutionism", which allowed scientists to consider social progress as a process of differentiation and integration of social phenomena. Using these approaches, Spencer was among the first to develop a general theory of systems. Structural and functional and evolutionary analysis allowed him to discover a number of important features of the structure and functioning of social systems, such as the cycles of evolution and decay, integration and differentiation processes leading to the emergence of more complex types of society. The second historical form of positivism was Machism and Empiriocriticism (Ernst Mach, Richard Avenarius and others). Empiriocriticism is a philosophical system of "pure experience", or critical empiricism, which seeks to limit philosophy to the presentation of experimental data completely rejecting any metaphysics in order to "develop natural conception of the world". From the perspective of Machism, positivism addresses such problems as the nature of knowledge and experience; the problem of subject and object; the nature of the categories of "thing", "substance"; the nature of the basic "elements" of reality; the relationship of physical and psychical, and so on. The discovery of the electron provided Mach and Avenarius with the basis for stating that “matter has disappeared”. Thus, if the basic philosophical concept turned out to be fiction, with no basis in reality, then all previous metaphysical arguments about the matter were wrong, therefore science should be cleared of empty metaphysical abstractions. From this they inferred that " Empiriocriticism stands above materialism and idealism". From the standpoint of subjective idealism, Mach and Avenarius regard objects and the reality that surrounds us as "complexes of human sensations". The famous French mathematician and physicist Henri Poincare (1854-1912) was on a similar ground with Empiriocriticism on a number of epistemological problems. In his 1905 book The Value of Science (La Valeur de la Science), he wrote that the progress in science challenges even the most established of its principles. For example, the discoveries of Einstein showed that the speed of light is independent of the speed of its source. Newton's Third Law "staggered" under the weight of the fact that the energy emitted by a radio transmitter has a rest mass and that there is no equivalence of action and reaction. It became clear that the Euclidean Geometry is not the only possible geometric system. All these inconsistencies had led to a crisis in physics at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Logical Positivism and Analytical Philosophy as the Third Stage of Positivism Logical Positivism originated in the1920s. Its core centre was The Vienna Circle, whose members proposed a program of "scientific" philosophy. Its members were Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, Herbert Feigl, Otto Neurath, and Ernest Nagel. In England, its active proponents and advocates were A.J. Ayer and Gilbert Ryle. In Poland, its supporters set up the Lwów–Warsaw School of logicians headed by Alfred Tarski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz. The members of the Vienna Circle and its followers rejected the psychologism and biologism of the Machians and adhered to the principle of non-empirical and analytical nature of the propositions of logic and mathematics. The focus of their attention was at the problems of the sense, meaning and meaningfulness of empirical scientific propositions. They reject the conception of philosophy as a theory of knowledge and see it as a type of activity aimed at the analysis of natural and artificial languages. This philosophy should remove from science all discourse and pseudo-problem that have in order to ensure the construction of ideal logical models of meaningful discourse. As an ideal tool for building a model of meaningful reasoning, they use the apparatus of mathematical logic. However, positivism is not merely a substitution for philosophy with specific scientific thinking, nor is it a kind of primitive scientism. It acts as a philosophical doctrine exactly because it is trying to provide a theoretical evaluation for the possibility of solving "marginal" philosophical problems, instead of moving away from these problems and ignoring them. All this is also true for Logical Positivism that is not merely reduced to substituting philosophical analysis of scientific knowledge with its formal logical analysis. Logical Positivism aims to develop a concept of scientific knowledge in general, while neither formal logic, nor any other special scientific discipline studying knowledge make any such claims. But, since the above-mentioned concept of knowledge as a whole is formed on the basis of individual formal logical models, which are related to the study of particular aspects of knowledge, therefore, obviously, philosophical problems of knowledge cannot be solved from this perspective. Notably, however, logical positivists try, in a way, to philosophically canonise this limitation of the methods of individual science applied to the analysis of knowledge, maintaining that it is impossible in principle to find theoretical solutions for relevant philosophical problems. The programme of Logical Positivism has offered a number of principles: the principle of verification; reduction of true theoretical propositions to experimental "data"; division of all meaningful scientific propositions to analytic and synthetic. The principle of verification was developed by members of the Vienna Circle for experimental verification of statements to be true. In other words, a statement is scientifically meaningful, only if it can be reduced to immediate sensory experience of and individual, to "atomic facts", or "protocol statements". The essence of the verification principle is in the identification of the observed and the real (real is what is observable), and truth is understood as the coincidence of statements with the immediate human experience. For Logical Positivism, presuppositions of all knowledge are "events" and "facts", meaning by these sense data, which "exist within the subject’s realm of consciousness". One of the distinctive characteristics of this movement was that it identified the object with the theory of object. This immediately excluded the problem of the existence of the objective world and led to the restriction of the scope of philosophical knowledge to the logical language analysis only. The logical positivists saw the problem of development of the logic of science as the analysis of its language. They believed that its purpose was not only to replace the traditional philosophical ontology, but also the traditional epistemology (theory of knowledge). Logical positivists, obviously, attracted the attention of philosophers and other professionals, who were concerned with the methodology of science, to the issues of logical formalisation and facilitated the introduction into the study of the methodology of science of concepts and methods of modern mathematical logic, thereby seeking to implement their programme of broad logical analysis of the language of science. But they, of course, failed to replace the philosophical analysis of scientific knowledge with the logic of science with is "strictly positive" and "free from all philosophical presuppositions". This is universally accepted in today’s philosophical and methodological literature. We can say that Logical Positivism reached its “end” with the publication in the 1950s of a series of articles by one of the former members of the Vienna Circle Carl Hempel, that described the fundamental difficulties and even ambiguities associated with the very key concept of meaningfulness. These difficulties and ambiguities of the logical positivist concept of meaningfulness are beginning to be seen as part of another variety of Neo-Positivism -- Analytic Philosophy. Analytic Philosophy is not so much a "school" as it is a certain style of philosophical thinking implying the rigor and accuracy of the terminology used along with a careful attitude to broad philosophical generalisations. It is a separate intellectual "movement" within the boundaries of philosophical thought of the 20th century with the status of a specific metaphilosophical discipline. It is extremely diverse. Notably, many of the leading representatives of Analytic Philosophy at different stages of its development opposed Positivism. Representatives of analytic philosophy (George Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, John Wisdom, Gilbert Ryle, and John Austin) proceeded from the assumption that philosophy per se cannot carry any new information and maintained that it has to do only with the explanation of what science or experience tell us. From the standpoint of the subjective idealist theory of knowledge, which is traced back to David Hume, they complemented the methods of logical analysis with Bertrand Russell’s doctrine of "logical atomism" and with the principle of verification. Representatives of Analytic Philosophy offered a basis for their own philosophical doctrine, according to which philosophy is not a theory and can only be considered as a discipline engaged in a "neutral" analytical work based on mathematical logic. " Philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts” (Wittgenstein). Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) in the work The Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus focuses analytic philosophy at the ideals of clarity, unambiguity and logical rigor inherent, in his opinion, in an ideal, logically perfect language. He reasoned that the world is revealed to man through language, therefore language is what philosophers should concern themselves with in the first place. It is a universal key to the solution of scientific problems. Language is capable of forming, on its own terms, views of the world. Being guided by these ideals, analysts studied not only the logical structure of language, but also its usage in ordinary, everyday contexts. They emphasised that everyday contexts of language should be taken into consideration, because the usage of language in specific "extrinsic" meanings (as is customary among philosophers) inevitably implies difficulties that cannot be solved in principle. Representatives of analytic philosophy believed that logical semantic study of the language of science should be limited to the so-called "internal" questions, which it can answer, while remaining within the framework of the rules and tools of this language. But these rules and language tools cannot provide answers to the “external” questions, i.e. questions of whether there is something in the objective world conforming to them. In in the period from1940s to 1950s, the logical methods of analytic philosophy are replaced with linguistic methods, and these, in turn, refuse to use mathematical methods and atomic theory. From that time on, analytic philosophy begins to revert to the traditional philosophical problems and, at the next stage of its evolution, concludes that metaphysics is not nonsense as it sets up a specific vision of the world. Following the criticism, self-criticism and further evolution of Neo-Positivism (i.e. Logical Positivism and Analytic Philosophy), the middle of the 20th century was when the fourth historical form of Positivism -- Postpositivism -- emerged. For its representatives, Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos, Paul Feyerabend, and others, the demarcation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific knowledge is that scientific knowledge can in principle be refuted by empirical data. Therefore, any scientific knowledge is merely hypothetical in nature and is prone to error. This line of philosophy aims to study the development of scientific knowledge, rather than its structure (language, concepts). According to Postpositivism, development of science is not strictly linear, but intermittent and goes through highs and lows, but the general trend is toward growth and improvement of scientific knowledge. The English scientist Karl Popper (1902-1994), who developed the concept of the growth of scientific knowledge, is considered to be one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century. Speaking about the growth of knowledge, he was not referring to the accumulation of observations, but "repeated overthrow of scientific theories and their replacement by better or more satisfactory ones." To prove his concept, he used the ideas of Neo-Darwinism and the principle of emergent (evolutionary) development. As the necessary means of the growth of science he named language, formulation of the problem, the emergence of new problem situations, competing theories, and mutual criticism in the process of discussions. Popper criticises Wittgenstein's concept, according to which only those proposals are scientific which are derived from "true observational propositions" or which may be verified (tested) with their help. Popper disagrees with him in that any theory which claims to being scientific must derive from experience. He believes that any scientific observation as such presupposes a theoretical setting, an initial hypothesis, because one cannot just observe without any preconditions. Accordingly, observation is always selective and targeted as it proceeds from a particular task and observes only what is need to reach it. In the preface to The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Logik der Forschung. Zur Erkenntnistheorie der modernen Naturwissenschaft), Popper says, “All science is cosmology, I believe, and for me the interest of philosophy, no less than of science, lies solely in the contributions which it has made to it”. For Popper, the role of philosophy, not to a lesser extent than the role of science, is solely in the contribution that it makes in its development. His ideal is "open science in open society", that supports freedom of criticism as the essence of scientific activity. And the openness of science also means the participation of scientists in philosophical discussions and in the development of what Popper calls "metaphysical research programs". Science will become an open system, if scientists respect philosophy and common sense. This, of course, does not imply that we should uncritically accept philosophical doctrines and tenets of common sense. He insists on seeing science as a dynamic process defining scientific knowledge as a process of introduction of new bold hypotheses and their subsequent refutation. According to Popper, science and philosophical doctrines must constantly prove their right to exist by participating in competition and undergoing critical scrutiny for courage, clarity and efficiency. Credit for critical rethinking and further development of Popper’s ideas is owed to his follower Imre Lakatos (1922-1974), who remained faithful to the Historicist movement in philosophy of science. He believed that any methodological concept must be also historiographical and that its evaluation may be given in terms of that rational reconstruction of history of science which it offers. At the same time, Lakatos distinguishes the real history of knowledge with its social and psychological context from its logical reconstruction used in the analysis of scientific knowledge, calling it "internal history". He agrees with his teacher that philosophical study of science should focus primarily on the identification of its rational justifications, which determine, in his opinion, the professional activity of the scientist. He presented arguments for this idea in his book Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes. Lakatos believes that only those sciences are real that allow for their examination in terms of certain logical requirements. These may include both empirical and theoretical sciences, but they must comply with a whole set of logical rules and laws, which serve as the main ways for growth of scientific knowledge. At the same time, highlighting the relationship between the problem of scientific rationality with methodology, he acknowledges the uncertainty of rational justifications with regard to Popper's model of science. Moreover, according to Lakatos, attempts to solve the problem of justification of knowledge lead to an infinite regress of justifications: the justifications of any knowledge must have its own justification, etc. In his work History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions, Lakatos distinguishes four types of methodological doctrines (which are also criteria for rationality). He recognises the first three methodologies -- inductivism, conventionalism, and falsificationism – to be ineffective in terms of adequacy of rational reconstruction of science. The search for justifications that would make it possible, from a single perspective, to study and explain the knowledge acquisition activities of scientists, the logic of scientific research and the historical progress of science, leads the philosopher to the fourth doctrine -- the concept of scientific research programmes (SRP), which can help avoid the problems of justification of specific theories. The idea of scientific research programmes focuses philosophy on the understanding of the profound changes in the nature of modern science. Although it should be noted that, in Lakatos’ concept of science, the actual structure of scientific research is replaced with the methodological concept organised according to the rules of the scientific game. He does not give a decisive answer with respect to the rules of this game with reality. The Austrian-born American philosopher Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994) too the most radical among Postpositivists. He developed the concept of "Epistemological Anarchism" consistently defending scientific, philosophical and methodological pluralism. Feyerabend described himself as an "epistemological anarchist" as he had questioned the fundamentals of science (but not science itself). In his main work Against Method: Outline of an Anarchist Theory of Knowledge, Feyerabend put forward three theses: proliferation (increase in the number of ideas and theories), counterinduction (research from the general to the particular) and the emphasis on the language of observation. He posits that the growth of knowledge is a result of proliferation (from Latin proles -- offspring, ferre -- bear), i.e. "reproduction" of theories that are incommensurable, i.e. have a different empirical basis, use different methods, standards and norms, and are not deductively linked with each other. The creation of such alternative theories contributes to their mutual criticism, thereby accelerating the development of science -- it is the so-called period of conflicting alternatives. Thus, Feyerabend rejects the idea of the progressive development of science. He believes that the discoveries in science do not occur on the basis of induction and deduction, but rather on the basis of counterinduction. Significant discoveries in science, according to Feyerabend, although based on previously acquired knowledge, are the result of the harsh opposition to the conclusions that have been previously made. New discoveries carry some negative, destructive, but vital charge. And finally, an adequate methodology should be extremely attentive to the language of observations and should develop within itself methods for solving these problems. Following the Postpositivist tradition of science, Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) does not accept the understanding of the process of scientific development as a cumulative process (from Latin comulatio -- increase), which is effected by continuously adding new knowledge. He believes that the development of science necessarily results in substantial transformation, or "scientific revolutions", when a considerable part of the previously recognised and valid knowledge, as well as the mode of activity of the scientific community undergo a revision. The basis of Kuhn's philosophical legacy is his famous book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which was first published in 1962 and had a bombshell effect on Western philosophy. In this work, he shared Lakatos’ critical attitude to Neopositivist and Popper's conceptions of scientific development. At the centre of his attention is the explanation of the mechanism of transformation and change of leading ideas in science and the direction of scientific knowledge. To describe this process, Kuhn uses, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, the concept of paradigm or "disciplinary matrix" to refer to a set of fundamental theories and methods of research, which defines, for a certain period of time, the model for posing problems and their solutions and which is recognised by the entire scientific community. Kuhn posits that the activities of a scientist within the framework of "normal science" are predictable to the effect that he is studying subjects through that conceptual framework which has been provided to him by professional education. This is why normal science does not predict new kinds of phenomena that do not fit into its conceptual framework. Therefore, the problems of normal science are, in principle, not aimed at major discoveries, be it either discovery of new facts or creation of a new theory. Within its framework, the scientist is so rigidly preprogrammed, that not only he does not seek to discover or create something completely new, but also not even inclined to accept new discoveries. The problems of normal science do not go beyond the boundaries defined by the paradigm and Kuhn describes is as “puzzle-solving”, because there are samples, rules for their solution and the scientist can only test his personal ingenuity in their solution. This explains the appeal of normal science for the scientist, who is left with the nothing more that checking and updating the known facts and with collecting new facts, that have been in principle predicted or produced by theory. Kuhn demonstrated that scientific tradition is a necessary condition for rapid accumulation of knowledge. For example, the value of normal science is that it promotes accuracy, reliability and breadth of methods. Thus, in studying new phenomena within the framework of normal science, scientists rely on the paradigm adopted by the scientific community. It defines the use by scientists of standard methods of analysis or explanation of the phenomena, helps them in understanding and comparing scientific results, forms the activities of the scientific community, and creates conditions for the organisation of the knowledge production "industry" in modern science. Kuhn's views are shared by the Hungarian-born British Postpositivist Michael Polanyi (1891-1976). He believes that the task of the philosophy of science is the study of the human factor. Polanyi rejects Neo-Positivists’ contrasting of the object and the subject of knowledge and insists that it is not an inherently human trait to look for abstract insights into the essence of things in themselves, but that we rather tend to link the reality and the human world. This is because any attempt to remove the human perspective from the view of the world leads not to objectivity, but to absurdity. Scientific progress is based on personal knowledge, the scientist’s insight into the essence of the task of the scientific research. And the condition of the successful functioning of the scientific team is the acquisition by its members of general intellectual skills, which form the basis of their joint work. According to Polanyi, the meaning of scientific research is in the study of objective rationality and the internal structure of reality. Scientific hypotheses cannot be derived directly from observation, and scientific concepts cannot be directly derived from experiments, because it is impossible to build the logic of a scientific discovery as a formal system. His concept is aimed at rejecting both purely empirical and formal logical approaches and is based on the epistemology of "tacit knowledge". In his work The Tacit Dimension, he put forward a number of fundamental ideas, in particular, about the incommensurability of various conceptual systems, the variability of standards of scientific rationality, understanding of the anomalies of scientific development. The offered solutions of these problems determined, to a great extent, the further evolution of Postpositivism. With the concept of tacit knowledge is associated Polanyi’s theory of personal knowledge. He posits that knowledge is obtained by certain individuals, that learning process cannot be formalised and that the quality of knowledge depends on the ingenuity of the scientist. Although Polanyi does not pay sufficient attention to the social aspects of knowledge, the thesis of the personal nature of the process of knowledge leads him, however, like Karl Popper, to the conclusion of the relativity of all knowledge. According to Polanyi , the key factor determining the acceptance by a scientist of a particular scientific theory is not the extent of its critical justification, nor is it its conscious correlation with accepted scientific standards, but only the degree of his personal "involvement" in this theory and his trust in it. For him, the category of faith is central in the interpretation of learning and knowledge. He regards an individual’s involvement in science as an act of personal commitment, akin to commitment to a religious faith.

8.5 Phenomenology The great German mathematician, logician and philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) in his book Logical Investigations outlined his vision of transcendental phenomenology as a philosophical system. His phenomenology was greatly influenced by classical German philosophy, notably the philosophy of Kant and Hegel, from whom he borrowed many approaches and, to a large extent, the conceptual apparatus and terminology. Husserl defined phenomenology as a philosophical method for the study of entities (things, beings) and their introduction into the fabric of everyday experience. His maxim was "Back to things!" when he spoke about any philosophical or scientific subjects. In order to go back to them, Husserl intended to introduce into any philosophical subject, as its integral part, such a reduction, which would assert the existence of the world before the reflection (thinking) begins. He interpreted phenomenology as a method of achieving a living experience which would allow us to track how this experience is taking place in time and space. It was his attempt to directly describe experience as it happens, without stopping to determine its origin and without explaining its causes. Phenomenology is a pre-theoretical description and formulation of all possible types and degrees of meanings contained in words based on their adequate recognition. As such, Husserl's phenomenological method is not a method per se, as phenomenology provides only the semantic picture of the object itself describing it in such a manner which is required by the object itself. Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish theologian, writer and philosopher, presents in his works his dialogue with Descartes, Kant, Leibniz, and Hegel. In his works one can feel the admiration he had for ancient philosophy and especially Socrates. But the main sources of Kierkegaard's inspiration are the Word of God and the Protestant doctrine. The Danish theologian was one of the founders of religious existentialism and the philosophical tradition called "Philosophy of Life", which emerged in the history of philosophy as "the opposition to classical rationalism and reaction to the crisis of mechanistic science". Kierkegaard moved away from Hegel’s ubiquitous classical rationalism to "Abraham and Job". He "dismissed" the absolute priority of the universal, the absolute in the form of the world spirit and pure reason in Hegel’s philosophy in favour of the priority of the single in the form of the soul of a common man, using the biblical character Job as the protagonist. In the preface to his main book "Fear and Trembling", Kierkegaard harshly criticises speculative philosophy and those "speculators" who, starting from school, question everything that has been steadily approached by the human mind in the course of millennia. Starting their "knowledge" with faith, they "in the blink of an eye" leave it behind and move on in their doubt quoting well-known authorities, such as Descartes. This Kierkegaard’s judgment is more than relevant today: he warns us against vanity, unscrupulousness and haste in seeking knowledge, bringing our attention back to the true meaning of being human and to higher causes. Philosophers began to rethink Kierkegaard's legacy only in the 20th century. The ideas of the Danish philosopher influenced the work of Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, Lev Shestov, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and others. He can rightly be called the promoter of the philosophy of life and the “father” of existentialism. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) believes that the task of transcendental phenomenology is to ask the question about the conditions for the existence of being, therefore, it must be transformed from the study of the derivation of meanings into the study of conditions for the possibility for asking the question of the meaning of being. Considering that such a question can be asked only proceeding from a special place in being (and such is human existence), phenomenology should become an ontological inquiry into human existence, i.e. hermeneutics. Proceeding from this, Heidegger sharply criticises the humanism of the Modern Age, which is based on the ideas of rationalism, individualism, and anthropocentrism. According to him, in this modern European humanism, one can see pragmatism and egocentrism toward nature. He criticised the utilitarian approach to nature, which resulted in the dehumanisation of the world and man. As such, his focus was not on the actual, but on personal, being. The presence of man in the world, who, proceeding from and asking about the actual being from his own personal being, includes new entities (things, phenomena) in his circle of questions. By naming them, and imposing this own personal being on them, man considers his own being and phenomenal being through the lens of words and language. Husserl considers Heidegger as his main student and follower. He once said to Gadamer, "Phenomenology, that is I and Heidegger, noone else!" His philosophical outlook had a certain socio-political rationale -- the ideology of National Socialism was largely consonant with his philosophy which had an element of authoritativeness, hidden of ideology, and aggressive anthropocentrism. For example, as the rector of the University of Freiburg, Heidegger insisted that "academic" freedom should be expelled from German universities, as this freedom was inauthentic and was destroying the German spirit. True freedom, according to Heidegger, should include the three constituent parts of "serving your people": labour service, military service, and spiritual service based on knowledge. His views went through an evolutionary change after the defeat of Nazi Germany in the Second World War. Strictly speaking, this was when he started to focus on his creative work and had a number of books and essays published, including Who is Nietzsche’s Zarathustra? (Wer ist Nietzsches Zarathustra?), two volumes of Nietzsche, Paths That Lead Nowhere (Holzwege), What is Called Thinking? (Was heißt Denken?) and other works, which eventually amounted to 100 volumes of his complete works. But the real triumph came to him with the works Being and Time (Sein und Zeit) and The Nothingness, the main purpose of which was the search for the meaning of being and the meaning of human existence. For example, in his work Being and Time, Heidegger is inquiring into the versatility of modern man’s individual being. He notes that at the beginning of the 20th century, just like Socrates and Plato in antiquity, we are faced again with the question of the meaning of being, but it should be solved taking into account today's realities. Heidegger rejects the traditional division of being into "real" and "ideal" and examines it using the existential and phenomenological methods. He reveals the existence through such categories as "time" (temporality), "Dasein" (existence), “authentic” and “inauthentic” existence, and life and death. Considering the meaning of real being through human existence (Dasein), he justifies the principle stating that "To live is to exist". According to Heidegger, the essence of human-being lies in the already existing. And human existence lies in the fact that Dasein is temporal, finite and historical. It is the temporality of human existence (or Dasein) that determines the unity of his everyday existence. For the same reason, Desein (man) is something unfinished, is a project. He is free to choose for himself the authentic or inauthentic "being-in-the-world". Heidegger distinguishes authentic and inauthentic existence in the structure of existential being; and talks about moments (the future, the past, and the present) in the structure of time. Time and temporal characteristics play a key role in Heidegger’s philosophy. For example, the past is not something that no longer exists, it is always there and determines the present and the future. The future he sees as "being-towards-death", and the present as being "encumbered", loaded with things (the material side of life), as the being of objective presence. Within this framework, he determines the authentic and inauthentic human existence. In the "inauthentic existence" the present is brought to foreground: the temporality of man is obscured from him by the world of things. For Heidegger, the "authentic existence" means man's understanding of his temporality, historicity and freedom. And this is possible only in the face of death. Death is part the true being-in-the-world. In a broad sense, it is a phenomenon of life. Death is not to be regarded as the absence of life, but as anticipation. Death is a possibility of being. In his inquiries into the main problems of metaphysics, Dasein, science, technology and language, Heidegger shows the primordial connection between language, being and human existence (Dasein). In the philosophical quest of the later Heidegger, language, which he understands not linguistically but ontologically, becomes the main and the only force, which has a deep existential basis. In essence, Heidegger "merges" language and existence. For him, language is an independent force: it is not man who speak, language itself speaks, arbitrarily, and being itself speaks of itself through our language. Thus, for Heidegger, language is the "house of being" and the house of man himself.

8.6 Existentialism Existentialism, or philosophy of existence (from Late Latin existentia - existence), originated in the early 20th century and became widely accepted and popular in the course of several decades. The Russian philosophers Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev are thought to be the first representatives of existentialism, although the main contributions to the development of this philosophical movement were made after the First World War in the works of the German philosophers Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers and Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre in the 1940s. The existentialists themselves name among their predecessors Pascal, Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and Nietzsche. In terms of philosophy, existentialism was significantly inspired by such movements as the Philosophy of Life and Phenomenology. Existentialists applied artistic and philosophical tool to reflect the ephemeral nature of life and the tragedy of human life in the world, which is preconditioned by the horrors of social revolutions and the two world wars, when life itself was devalued and seemed to have lost its meaning. Existential philosophy considered individual being in its subjective spiritual form. Man achieves his essence by already existing, because he decides for himself what is good and what is bad. When interacting with the outside world, an individual assigns value and meaning to the world. He is responsible for himself, because he "chooses" himself and "makes" himself, including for those around him. The central question for this pessimistic (on the face of it) philosophical movement was how a man should live in the world of acute contradictions and historical catastrophes. Answering this question, existentialists contrast the way of humans’ being-in-the-world and the being-of-things. They turn to the previous philosophical thought and to the study of the current forms of human existence and culture, to the inquiry into the feelings and emotions of the subject and his inner world. The German existentialist Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) concerned himself with the study of man and his role in "history as a dimension of human existence". The position from which he looks at man is not one-sided – whether empirical or rationalist – as it takes into account the “unity” of cognition, perception, and action. The meaning of existence, according to Jaspers, is disclosed to an individual in the midst of turmoil, in the borderline situation between life and death, at the moment of choice between good and evil, when he becomes aware of how much of his life is beyond the limits of what he can control. In his works Philosophy (Philosophie) and Reason and Existenz (Vernunft und Existenz), Jaspers shows that an existential situation is derived from (or determined by) the historical uniqueness of human destiny. And it would be wrong to describe man and his existence through his body or mind, as the rationalist philosophy of the New Age did. "Existenz", as Jaspers understands it, is an individual's own authentic existence, which is not conditioned by anything external, but only by his own individuality; it is, above all, freedom, and therefore it cannot be "found" in the world of objects, at the physical level of being. Since an individual comprehends himself positing freedom, he thereby comprehends his own transcendence and realises that, within this freedom, he becomes a disappearing phenomenon. Transcendence, according to Jaspers, is beyond human existence and the world, it endows them with meaning and value. Nature, mythology, poetry, and philosophy are only ciphers of transcendence to be decoded as a “cipher-script” by man with the help of metaphysics presuming the reality of our existence. The existential philosophy of the French writer, playwright and essayist Jean- Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was formed under the influence of Bergson, Husserl and Heidegger. His philosophy represents one of the modern branches of the of Husserl’s phenomenology, the application of his method to the "living conscience" (the subjective-active side of consciousness) of an individual, "thrown into the world of concrete situations". It should be reminded, however, that the principle of Edmund Husserl’s phenomenological method was in the immediate perception of the essence of an entity, in the process of experiencing this entity, in the comprehension of the essence of the "act of comprehension. Sartre became famous after the publication of the novel Nausea (La Nausée ) (1938) and a collection of short stories entitled The Wall (Le Mur). His philosophical concept presented in the book Being and Nothingness (L'Être et le néant) is based on the absolute opposition between the terms "objectivity" and "subjectivity", "necessity" and "freedom." Sartre understands the modern man as an alienated being and raises this alienation to the metaphysical state of human existence in general. He does not accept the reality and culture of modern society, where individuality is standardised and devoid of existence and man who, being alienated from himself, is doomed to "inauthentic" existence. According to Sartre, in such a society, only the "scum" become well-established and well-connected, while human beings feel “nausea” and “cosmic terror”. Sartre insists on active subjectivity -- true humanity -- and explains his stance in the brief claim of existentialism, “existence precedes essence”. Sartre believes that “every man, without any support or help whatever, is condemned at every instant to invent man”, and therefore “man is condemned to be free”. But then his authentic existence can only be based on the irrational forces of the “the human underground”: intuition, unconscious urges, and irrational decisions. Sartre then concludes that human existence is absurd. He applies his existential concepts not only to individuals, but to all mankind as well: it is in the "borderline situation" and is preoccupied with fear of global catastrophes. Sartre says that “Existentialism is a humanism” and his goal is to help an individual who is inseparable from his relationships with the human species as a whole. But every historical choice is always the responsibility of the individual. The French existentialism also concerns itself with the problem of individual’s existence and "borderline situations”. The Nobel laureate Albert Camus (1913-1960) writes about the loneliness and man’s despair in the "absurd world”. In The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) he asks where to find hope for positive existence in the world where the religious hope has died? Camus defines man’s initial perception of the world as absurd and examines it as a man’s “being-in-the-world”, which is alienated and irrational. The Absurd is the limit of awareness and clarity of understanding existence. Camus further develops this theme in the Rebel (L'Homme révolté), Camus argues that the feeling of absurdity, in his opinion, occurs, above all, from the contradiction between man and the world around him, or, as he defines it, “the divorce between man and his life, the actor and his setting”. Camus proceeds from the proposition that a “world that can be explained even with bad reasons is a familiar world. But, on the other hand, in a universe suddenly divested of illusions and lights, man feels an alien, a stranger”. Man is faced with the question: "Is life worth living?" The Absurd invades human consciousness unexpectedly, when man, at some point, suddenly begins to feel drained and tired of everyday life and no longer understands the meaning and purpose of this routine and humdrum. The chain of habitual acts is broken, and it is exactly at this moment, according to the author, when human consciousness, that had been trapped until then “in the mechanical life”, comes into motion. Another factor of the Absurd is time. A man living in the future suddenly realises that his enemy is time itself. As Camus says, “a revolt of the flesh” against the impact of time begins. Camus says that the Absurd negates all chances of an individual of an illusive eternal freedom, as it is professed in religion, but gives him back the freedom of actions and encourages it. Having realised the absurdity of his being, one understands that there is no greater freedom than the freedom of existence, the only freedom which is the basis for truth. He believes that the realisation of the Absurd quality requires that the quantity of the experience of being should be replaced with its quality. In other words, it is important for an individual not to “live as best as we can”, but to “endure as much as possible” in order to feel his life, his rebellion, his freedom as. The well-known Jewish religious Existentialist philosopher Martin Buber (1878- 1965) published a lot of books in the course of his long life, including I and Thou, Religion and Philosophy, Tales of the Hasidism, The Knowledge of Man, Prophecy, Apocalyptic and the Historical Hour, Paths in Utopia among other works. Buber defines the relationship between “I” and “Thou” as a relationship of mutuality and reciprocity: “My Thou affects me as I affect Thou. This relationship, according to Buber, fills the heavens. He says that, of course, “This does not mean that nothing exists except himself. But all else lives in his light”. Man’s degree of individuality depends on the degree of his awareness of the duality of the “I-Thou” relationship, which allows him to choose and be chosen, to suffer and to act. Sealed in himself, isolated from the others and from God, an individuality is destroyed, because what it rejects is not "I", when it is, for example, running into the sphere of the possession of things, it rather refuses to see everything in "You", it excludes thereby an encounter with God.

8.7 Hermeneutics, Postmodernism and Poststructuralism The word ‘hermeneutics’ is derived from the name of the Greek god Hermes, who explained the will of the gods to people and conveyed the wishes of people to the gods. The traditions of hermeneutics were laid out in the exegesis of the Middle Ages in the interpretation of biblical texts. They contributed to their explanation and formed the basis for the translation of texts from the language of one era into the language of another era. Since the last century, this word indicates the philosophical tradition which studies the prerequisites, possibilities and distinctive features of the process of understanding and comprehension of the meaning ("essence") of the phenomena of non-material culture. Philosophical hermeneutics was formed into a distinctive field of scientific inquiry from the works Friedrich Schleiermacher, Martin Heidegger and, most importantly, Gadamer, who was the most prominent philosophers of hermeneutics in the 20th century. Their studies allowed philosophers to approach the problems of scientific modelling of human behaviour and activities, game-based techniques for organising actions, the construction of a typology of communication links and relationships, and social and cultural reality in general. Hans-Georg Gadamer, one of the founders of hermeneutics, in his views is a follower of Heidegger and proposes that hermeneutics should be considered not as a theory of the methods and mechanisms of understanding, but as the theory of being, as ontology. For him, understanding is the mode of existence of man, who is the learning, acting and evaluating individual, it is the universal method for man’s exploration of the world in the "experience of life", "experience of history", and "experience of art". The main idea of hermeneutics is "to exist is to be understood" (W. Dilthey). Normally, the subject-matter of a study is a text. In his works Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode) and Dialogue and Dialectics, Gadamer further develops this Dilthey’s thesis. He explores the nature, limits and conditions of understanding. The principle idea of his concept can be briefly summarised as follows. Man lives in a world which is depicted in language and is linguistically shaped. In such a world language is an independent substance, therefore, understanding in the human existence is ontological. Considering the understanding and interpretation as integral parts of a single process, he emphasises its "horizontality", openness, and non-closure. Understanding includes and constitutes the application of a text to be understood to the interpreter’s situation. Both understanding and interpretation are by nature pluralistic and historical. They are based on the dialogue between “I” and “Thou”. This dialogue is not limited to the communication between two persons -- the author and the interpreter, it is "built-in" into the relationship between the interpreter and the text. The interpreter approaches the historical and literary text with questions. Working with the text, he not only tries to "understand" it, but also to endow it with “new interpretations”. He should be able to address questions to the historical and literary text, not to its author. For Gadamer, the philosophical significance of hermeneutic experience --"hermeneutic circle" (the circle of understanding) – is that it is where we comprehend the truth which is beyond scientific knowledge. From the perspective of hermeneutics, the world of human communication is the only attainable and valuable world for us. For it is inside this world where the world of culture, values and meanings is created. Gadamer, therefore, considers understanding as a prerequisite for understanding social existence and comprehending cultural meanings and phenomena. The process of understanding, as well as the process of cognition, is infinite. Initially, Gadamer does not deny the established definitions of hermeneutics as a methodology and tries to synthesise Heidegger’s "language" with Hegel’s "idea" ("Logos") and to construct hermeneutics as a philosophy, in which a significant role is reserved for ontology. His approach to hermeneutics is in ontological interpretation of the subject of knowledge. This means, firstly, that, in contrast to the development of methods and techniques for understanding texts in hermeneutics as such, Gadamer seeks to overcome the one-sided epistemological orientation by including into the problems of hermeneutics questions related to the view of the world and the meaning of life; these are the ideal he learned from the fundamental ontology of his teacher Martin Heidegger. Secondly, he considers hermeneutics not as the ability to recover the authentic (original) text, but as an opportunity to continue the real history of the text, as construction by every new interpreter of a new sense and in fact, a new text. Over time, Gadamer becomes increasingly opposed to the interpretation of hermeneutics as a method -- a text interpretation technique. This version of hermeneutics has nothing to do with meaning. He also stands against the understanding of hermeneutics as a method of comprehending the spiritual, (nonmaterial, metaphysical) reality and against the understanding of texts as recognition of meaning, because in such interpretation, too, a hermeneutic text is no longer a text per se in the proper hermeneutical sense of the word; it turns into the object of study similar to the object of natural science knowledge. The establishment in philosophy of the term "hermeneutic experience", which expresses a fundamental openness to the world and the process of derivation of meanings built on it, allowed philosophers to formulate the requirements of methodological pluralism, which acquires a certain cognitive value in the structure of social cognition. The term “postmodernism” (post - after) is used to refer to both the specificity of culture in the second half of the 20th century and to the philosophical thought which is represented by the following philosophers: Jacques Lacan, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault and others. Postmodernists offer a new type of philosophising -- philosophising without a subject. It can be said that postmodernism is a reaction to the change of the role of culture in society: to the shifts taking place in art, religion and morality in post-industrial societies. Postmodernism insists on humanisation and anthropologisation of scientific knowledge. This is manifested in the fact that it is trying to find a new way for solving the questions of truth and justification. Communication, interaction and dialogue serve as such justification. Structuralism and post-structuralism is the common name for a number of movements and branches in contemporary philosophical and humanitarian knowledge related to the search of logical structures that objectively exist behind and beneath the diversity of cultural phenomena. Structuralism emerged in the 1920s. As a new field of scientific knowledge in the humanities, it was subjected to different ideological and philosophical interpretations. Structuralism is the common name of certain fields of socio-cultural knowledge related to the identification of the structure or a complex of relations between the elements of the whole determined by the interaction of all the elements between each other. The roots of structuralism can be traced back to antiquity (the Pythagoreans, the Neo-Platonists), but the modern philosophy borrowed the ideas of structuralism from specialised areas of knowledge (linguistics, literature, and ethnography). Structuralist philosophers have raised a number of fascinating problems: the emergence and evolution of language, mythology, religion, culture and their impact on social structures; the relationship between psychological and social, between personality structure and personal identity. They see its main task in the search for stable logical structures, i.e. stable relationships between objects. Structuralism has made significant progress in identifying the underlying structures of culture. Post- structuralism was a step further from structuralism, but it also was its self-criticism. Post-structuralists recognise the impossibility of reduction of the subject to structures, which largely determined the return to man, an individual as a subject. The main representatives of structuralism are Claude Lévi-Strauss, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan, and Roland Barth. Levi-Strauss believes that the concept of structure facilitates penetration of objective reality into the laws of development, but it may also be subjected to fetishisation and hypostatisation and lead to taking the hidden reality behind it out of context. To do this, it would be enough to separate language from speech in order to exclude from the framework of the analysis the extralinguistic context that decisively determines the language practices (and all other practices for that matter). For example, Michel Foucault in his Words and Things (Mots et choses) makes exactly such a separation. In considering the history of the formation of three sciences -- linguistics, biology, and political economy -- during three periods of history -- the Renaissance, the 17th-18th century Classical Period, and the 19th-20th century Modernity – he chooses as the starting point the state of the meta-language, and traces the development of biology and economics taking into account the evolution of the linguistic science. According to Foucault, it is the state of language during each of the studied periods which is the episteme or set of formal conditions creating possibilities for the development of each of these sciences. According to Foucault, episteme is a set of scientific techniques used within each science and it is realised unconsciously at the level of scientific speech as a universal characteristic of many sciences. Lacan determines the role of language for identity formation based on the works of Levi-Strauss. The grid of the symbolic, in his opinion, permeates the being of an individual and constitutes his trans-subjective reality. Mastering language codes results in language rules that form and structure the unconscious, which is a storage of chaotic drives and desires. Linguistic symbols, in which the unconscious is objectified, surround the interlocutors; speech chains that link the speaker and the listener into their orbit are closed. The literary theorist Roland Barth (1915-1980) applied methods of structural linguistics to the whole realm of culture assuming that each product of culture is mediated by reason and can, therefore, be formalised and subjected to structural analysis. In his works Writing Degree Zero (Le degré zéro de l'écriture), Mythologies, Empire of Signs (L'Empire des Signes), he shows that any cognitive or perceptual acts of knowledge are preceded by language activity. In this case, the structure becomes more objective, "more primary" that the reality produced by culture and knowledge is considered to be objective (true) to the extent that it is able to identify the primary structure from a large body of various social and cultural data.

8.8 Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is the method developed by Sigmund Freud for the study and explanation of unconscious mental processes and phenomena. Its application to a range of the disciplines of the humanities in order to understand culture, society, and man can be explained by the modern age man’s “withdrawal” from the realm of faith. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of this method, investigated the nature and the forms of the unconscious in his works The Interpretation of Dreams (Die Traumdeutung) (1900), Totem and Taboo (Totem und Tabu ) (1913), Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse) (1915-1917), Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Jenseits des Lustprinzips) (1920), The Ego and the Id (Das Ich und das Es) (1923), and An Outline of Psychoanalysis (Abriß der Psychoanalyse ) (1938). Freud maintained that the human psyche consists of two opposing areas -- the conscious and the unconscious, which are separated by the "preconscious". The role of the unconscious in human life is extremely important. It is suppressed by man, but occasionally comes to the surface as dreams, slips, involuntary disruptive movements, and neuroses. The unconscious is irrational and timeless. According to Freud, all “mental processes are in themselves unconscious”. Consciousness is built above the unconscious and, as an imprint of the outside world, acts as an intermediary between this world and the unconscious. Explaining the role of the unconscious and instincts in human life, Freud introduced into psychology the concept of two inherently opposing basic instincts -- "the Libido" (sexual instincts, sexual energy, which "strive for the renewal of life") and "the Mortido" (the innate self-destructive force in man manifested in the striving for death). Freud believed that the libido does not emerge at a particular age, but is inherent in man from birth and manifests itself in various forms, for example, in the "Oedipus complex". At birth, a child is going through a trauma -- a separation from the whole and from his mother; the culprit to be blamed for this is the father and an unconscious desire to "kill the father" occurs (this is also associated with admiration, adoration, and rivalry). The so-called "infantile (or children's) sexuality," as Freud calls it, is expressed in sucking which is typical of infants and the mouth is the child’s primary erogenous zone. The development, or rather, the evolution of sexuality in humans, according to Freud, can be explained by the law of recapitulation, according to which each individual, in his or her individual, ontogenetic development, repeats, as it were, the stages of evolution of the species. The sexual energy, according to Freud, can be manifested indirectly or directly. If this energy is not manifested directly and not sublimated, it causes different nervous and mental diseases. In explaining the nature and the functioning mechanism of the libido, Freud uses the concept of "sublimation" (replacement, transformation) claiming that sexual desire can be converted into more socially valuable creative energy. In his latest works, he applied the concept of "libido" not only to sexual desire, but to human love in general, including friendship and parental love. Freud believes that the same desires cause mental disorders and are involved in the creation of the highest cultural, artistic and social values of the human spirit and their contribution should not be underestimated. In his work Totem and Taboo, Freud expanded the application of the psychoanalytic method to the universal human culture and the earliest forms of religious beliefs. Thus, in the spirit of the traditions of the 19th century sociology and anthropology, he was acting in full accordance with the concept of biologisation of human existence. In the book The Ego and the Id, Freud attempted to bring together psychology and philosophy by providing justification for the model of the psyche: he described its structure and its protective mechanisms. The structure of personality, according to Freud, includes the "Id" (the unconscious), the "Ego" (the preconscious) and the "Super-ego" (the consciousness which manifests itself as the conscience). If there is a "Super-ego", human psyche acts as one whole. Applying this concept, Freud concludes that man is a unique being and, even though the inevitable permanent conflicts with himself, the society and the world of cultural attitudes are his destiny, he can solve them by "harnessing" his subconscious with the help of the "Super-ego and channelling his energy in the creative direction. Freud's discovery is that, apart from the conscious "I" and the "Super-ego", in the depths of the human soul is hidden the unconscious "Id". If philosophy regards the human soul as something ideal, Freud, on the contrary, thinks that human spiritual life is determined by the genetically inherited "Id". Notably, however, Freud never provides a clear and certain explanation of his understanding of the nature of the "Id". The “Id”, which is connected with the sexual energy, must be a biological force in humans. But there are no established facts proving the existence of such a force. And Freud, therefore, talks about the "Id" as of a certain invention, a "speculative construction", which explains the specifics and peculiarities of human behaviour. His theory offers a scientific basis for one of the fundamental phenomena in the culture of the 20th century -- the spiritual crisis of the society. But his explanations are based on using the methods of biologisation. Freud turns everything upside down: culture and nature, norm and pathology. Something that has for centuries been considered a perversion in Freudian theory becomes just a stage in the normal development of the libido, and, conversely, a normal, traditional cultural life becomes the result of "unnatural" application of the sexual energy. This "overturning" will later serve as the foundation for postmodernism, as the spiritual crisis has been provided with a "scientific" justification and the pathological condition of an individual has acquired the status of a norm. The desire to preserve the strengths of Freud’s theory and to overcome his blatant biologism gave rise to the emergence in the 20th century of a number of theories in psychology, including the concept of "collective unconscious" of the Swiss psychologist, psychiatrist and philosopher Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961). He discovered that, in addition to consciousness and the individual unconsciousness, the human psyche contains the collective, racial unconscious which is shared by all mankind. It is a collective memory that binds man to the whole of humanity, with nature, with the cosmos and the Universe. The realm of the collective unconscious is not only turned to the past, but it also "anticipates the future". Jung developed his own method of "reconstruction" of the primary and the most ancient "underlying cause" of the human psyche and distinguished its "archetypes" (prototypes) common for the entire ancestral memory of all mankind. According to Jung, the archetypes determine our psyche (and behaviour) not directly, but indirectly, by means of recurring images and symbols. Archetypes affect humans with this symbols in a numinous, i.e. fascinating manner. The strength and power of the archetype is explained by the fact that it has crystallised the ancient man’s experience of perceptions, emotions, feelings and guidance in the world. Having developed the theory of the archetypes, Jung was unable to clearly explain their origin and nature and just confined himself to stating that the collective unconscious as a "common soul" is a collection of archetypes (the ancestral memory of mankind). Archetypes are universal images, the higher truths, the "encrypted" history of mankind, which we inherit together with the brain structure. Man's task is to "decode" the archetypes, to understand them. Jung later moved away from this interpretation of archetypes and became more aligned with mysticism. In the works of the "mature" Jung, the archetypes are not so much a medium carrying the psychological experience of mankind, but rather the "unknown entity" standing behind this experience. Exploring the archetypes, he refers to the alchemical texts and parapsychological phenomena, Eastern teachings about karma and reincarnation in order to explain the archetype as readiness of the psyche to recover mythological ideas, to create gods and demons and as regulators of the psychic energy people. Religious symbols and dogmas, according to Jung, harmonise the relationship between the human conscious and unconscious. But the history of European civilisation is the path to the destruction of harmony. Jung believed that Europeans and Americans had been consistently destroying traditional forms of life and consciousness throughout the world. The Reformation and the Enlightenment, and later the rapid development of natural science, in his view, formed a vacuum, which turned into the destructive power of “collective madness”. Looking for a new harmony between the conscious and the unconscious, Jung often referred to his doctrine as "Western yoga”, but the official name of Jung's theory is analytical psychology. It greatly influenced the development of philosophy, aesthetics, and the study and interpretation of mythology in the 20th century. Apart from Jung, another outstanding follower of Freud was Erich Fromm (1900- 1980), whose theory is a synthesis of Freudian, Marxist and existentialist ideas. He described his views as "radical humanism", "dialectical humanism", and "humanistic psychoanalysis". The special role of Freud and Marx in shaping the views of Fromm allows us to refer to his approach as Freudo-Marxism. In several of his works, Escape from Freedom, To Have or To Be (Haben oder Sein), Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis (Zen-Buddhismus und Psychoanalyse), Fromm developed a humanistic theory of man. He examines the biological, social and existential aspects of human nature. He argued that man is the result of historical evolution in the synthesis with certain inherent mechanisms and laws, that man is a being endowed with reason and consciousness. Therefore, being aware of the inconsistency of his existence, the gap between reason and nature, freedom and necessity, the individual and the social, he is always faced with a choice -- "to be" or "to have", to lead an active creative life or prefer a "life surrounded by things". Being critical of the modern society, Fromm notes that “All activities are subordinated to economic goals; means have become ends”. Under these conditions, human existence is disharmonious and highly controversial. The separation from nature and the longing for recovery of the lost harmony cause existential contradictions of human existence. These are the "dichotomies" between human life and his mortality; between patriarchy and matriarchy; humanistic and authoritarian consciousness; power and subordination; personal existence and historical existence; human possibilities and limits of their realisation; between "freedom from" and "freedom to" -- negative and positive freedom. To overcome these dichotomies, it is necessary to restore the unity of man with the world and himself. Fromm believes these contradictions can be resolved through nourishment of universal love and radical social and economic changes in society. Man must learn how to love. But apart from love, he also needs faith and hope. Belief in love is not an individual but a societal phenomenon, and in this capacity it meets the real needs of man. In his theory, Fromm presupposes that the social unconscious is not a level or a niche of the human psyche. According to him, the unconscious is a state of the psyche. It is the ideas, mood and emotions of people who are deprived by society of clear awareness through a number of "filters": language, logic, and social taboos. Fromm’s next original idea was the concept of "social character", which he distinguished from a person’s individual character. By using the idea of the "social unconsciousness" and "social character", Fromm attempted to clarify and further develop the Marxist doctrine of the economic basis of society and its political and ideological superstructure. His subsequently published work was characteristically titled Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounter with Marx and Freud. By clarifying these mechanisms, what Fromm was developing was exactly the concept of the "social character" that channels the energy of large masses of people in a certain direction. An individual acquires a social character in the process of so- called "socialisation". Notably, the structure of the social character changes from era to era, which, according to Fromm, ensures an organic link between the economy, politics and ideology of a historical period.

8.9 Russian Philosophy. Russian philosophy is an integral part of world philosophy, but, at the same time, it is different from philosophy in other countries. Pyotr Chaadayev (1794-1856) in his Philosophical Letters book (Философические письма) sharply criticises Russia's past and present and seeks to create a Christian philosophy. The cultural and historical process has a sacred character, because, inspite of the tragic contradictions, the creation of the Kingdom of God is taking place, i.e. historiosophy (or philosophy of history) is based on the foundation of the concept of providentialism. Russian Westernernisers (Vissarion Belinsky, Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Alexander Herzen) sought to put Russia in the context of development of European culture. Nikolay Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) was influenced by Ludwig Feuerbach an August Comte. He presents his materialist views in The Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality (Эстетические отношения искусства к действительности) (1885), The Anthropological Principle in Philosophy (Антропологический принцип в философии) (1860), and The Nature of Human Knowledge (Характер человеческого знания) (1885). He develops a theory of "rational egoism" based on the principle of self-sacrifice as a norm for a man for the achievement of social well- being. In the 1850s Chernyshevsky put forward an idea of democratic transformation of the political power in Russia. He was convinced that there are general laws of social development that open up huge historical perspectives before Europe and Russia alike. According to him, "contraction" of historical time can be explained by the fact that, thanks to the influence of more advanced nations, “backward” social phenomena move from the lower level right to the higher level of development skipping the medium level. Unlike Alexander Herzen, who relied on the idea of cyclical development, the idea of "old" and "young" people, Chernyshevsky solves the problem by referring to the laws of dialectics and the idea of spiral social development. He is convinced that progressive are those social forms and those objective conditions which contribute to the intellectual and moral development of people. However, he puts forward the thesis that voluntary and free activities of people, when everyone acts "in accordance with his own convictions", are the necessary condition for social progress. Slavophile ideas are revived by Nikolay Danilevsky (1822-1885), who in his book Russia and Europe (Россия и Европа) (1869, 1871) criticises Eurocentrism including, in particular, the commonly accepted approach to dividing world history into the periods of Ancient, Medieval and Modern history. However, he admitted that the principle of study of history in terms of the "degree of development" of various forms of social and cultural life was quite legitimate, provided that it helps to define and study the historical multiplicity of types of development. A cultural-historical type of development creates a tribe or family of tribes and peoples characterised by a separate language or group of languages that are quite close to each other, if they possess a spiritual potential making them capable of historical development and have come out of infancy. He distinguishes the following main cultural and historical types of development: the Egyptian, Chinese, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Indian, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Arabian, Peruvian, American, and German-Roman (European). The progress of history lies is in the principal multiplicity of the development of culture. In addition to culture, religion, economics and politics are considered as the basis of human life. In his book Russia and Europe, he also develops the organic theory of cultural- historical types, that are self-contained and, therefore, have split the unity of all mankind for good. The proposition of this theory is that national culture develops immanently and in interaction with other cultures. But at the same time, the development of national culture, according to this theory, should take place on its own basis avoiding strong influence from other cultures or creatively adapting its achievements. According to Danilevsky, if these conditions are satisfied, there is a possibility for creation of a strong cultural tradition which would be unique in its originality. The theory of multiplicity and heterogeneity of cultures implies the rejection of the Eurocentric idea of cultural and historical progress. It excludes substitution of one culture with another. This Danilevsky’s theory shows the danger of imposing so- called "universal values", because values always have a concrete historical character. Here, by the concept of universal values he means the values of Western society. Vladimir Solovyov (1853-1900) was a proponent of Christian unity and the unity of the church and the state. He criticised the positivism of Comte, Mill, and Spencer for ignoring philosophical and religious experience. He saw a solution for the crisis of Western rationalism in the creation of the "new philosophy", which would be a synthesis of science, philosophy, and religion and would connect the logical perfection of the Western form with the wholeness of the Eastern spiritual meditation. The concept of Divine Sophia, the "soul of the world" represents the mystical side of his philosophical theory. Mystical knowledge is an opportunity for immediate communication between the learning subject and God. In his works Lectures on Godmanhood (Чтения о Богочеловеке) (1878-1881), The Philosophical Principles of Integral Knowledge (Философские основы цельного знания) (1877) and The Critique of Abstract Principles (Критика отвлеченных начал) (1880), he develops his conception of man as part of deity, a natural mediator between God and the "material world". In the world, which is separated from God, reigns alienation, evil, and selfishness. However, there is also a longing in the world to overcome all alienation, a craving for unity, the aspiration for and gradual realisation of integrity, which, for the Christian consciousness, is in the divine-human personality of Jesus Christ. In his writings, he follows his proclaimed ideal of Truth, Goodness, and Beauty, and the Christian maxim of dejection being the deadliest sin. The concept of a multilinear scheme of the cultural and historical process is explained in full detail in the book of Sergei Trubetskoy Europe and Humanity (Европа и человечество), where he criticises the concept of one-directional cultural and historical process. The outstanding Russian thinker also revises the traditional idea of progress as a linear progressive onward movement. He opposes this conception with the idea of progress as the realisation of a variety of possibilities inherent in different cultures. Sergei Trubetskoy sees the cultural process as a continuous creation of new values based on the old traditions. The strong reliance on tradition helps to preserve the cultural fund, which is a necessary condition for the further development of society. This development is possible provided that the cultural traditions of others will not intrude into the national culture and undermine its traditions. He rightly believes that the growing expansion of the spiritual values of the Romano-Germanic civilisation poses a great danger for the identity of national cultures. And he has serious grounds for this. A society which is split into various ethnic groups, has significantly fewer opportunities for the emergence of new spiritual values. This is due to the fact that the earlier created connection between the nation and the cultural fund is lost and the new fund is only in beginning to be created. This conflict between the old and new traditions hinders the spiritual development of the nation. Noteworthy is his idea that because of their mentality these people will not become Europeans, and will not develop their own values within the framework of Western civilisation. Their culture is no worse than European culture, it is simply different. This statement stems from his belief that a comparative analysis of different cultures can lead to a conclusion about the equality and qualitative incommensurability of all cultures and peoples. The authenticity of the culture determines the distinctiveness of the historical development of the countries of the Eurasian subcontinent. Trubetskoy is naturally focused on the analysis of the justification of the originality of the historical development of Russia, which eventually results in a certain geopolitical doctrine. Its main idea is that the special geographical, ethnographical, social, economic, political, cultural, and religious ties existing between Russia and Asia makes it inherently impossible for Russia to be part of Europe. The justification of the distinctiveness of the historical development of Russia is given taking into account these special relations. This distinctiveness of the historical process is determined by culture, which is essentially Orthodox. This Orthodox culture of Russia, which is based on the idea of sobornost (i.e. the unity, togetherness that is the church), was contrasted by the Slavophiles to the rationalistic and individualistic European Catholicism What is fundamentally new in the approach of the Eurasians is that they see the development of society as the emergence of social and natural unity, which makes it possible to adequately understand the specific cultural and historical place of every nation. This approach introduces the term “developmental space” for the study of the cultural and historical development of a country. This allows us to consider not only the time component, but also the spatial coordinate as a system-forming factor of the development of society, which is necessary to bear in mind in cultural and historical research. In this regard, Lev Gumilyov rightly observes that the distinctive feature of Eurasianism in general and the ideocratic state in particular is the interrelatedness and interdependence of all theoretical elements. The sum total of peoples, who are acutely aware of the "common cultural and historical traditions", runs its autarkic economy within a particular "developmental place". Eurasians suggest that in terms of their development, these countries should first and foremost rely on their own national foundations. In other words, the idea of the equality of cultures, of cultural and historical types of civilisations, of the decisive impact of sociocultural factors on the direction and nature of the development of social life still have not lost their meaning and significance. Self-check:  Karl Marx and materialist conception of history;  Stages of positivism;  Founders of hermeneutics;  Main schools of nonclassical philosophy;  Russian religious philosophy.

Chapter 9 Kazakh Philosophy 9.1 Philosophical Views, Anthropocentrism and Humanism of the Classics of the 19th Century Kazakh Enlightenment The second half of the 19th century was a turning point in the history of development of the spiritual culture of the Kazakh people. It was during this period when the Enlightenment culture was introduced to the Kazakh land. Its main representatives were Сhokan Valikhanov, Abai Kunanbayev, and Ibrai Altynsarin. Сhokan Valikhanov (1835-1865) was the first Kazakh remarkable scholar, ethnographer, orientalist, geographer, historian, and an outstanding educator and democrat. He wrote a lot of brilliant works on geography and ethnography, history and folklore, religious studies and Oriental studies, philosophy and sociology. After the expedition to the lake Issyk-Kul as an explorer, he published the following historical and ethnographic works: A Diary of the Trip to Issyk-Kul (Дневник поездки на Иссык-куль), Western Province of the Chinese Empire and Kuldzha (Западная провинция Китайской империи и г. Кульджи) Notes on Kirgizs (Записки о киргизах), that received acclaim from the Russian Geographical Society, who elected him its full member in February 1857. The same year Valikhanov makes another trip to the Alatau Kirgizs, where, surrounded by nomad camps, he studied their life and customs, history, ethnography, and folklore., He recorded parts of the Kyrgyz epic of Manas During this trip. Contact with the history of neighbouring peoples helped him to study the ancient and medieval history of the Kazakh people. Following a thorough analysis and comparison of the data collected during the first expeditions, Chokan came to the conclusion that the settled way of life here (in Kyrgyzstan and southern Kazakhstan) greatly extended in the Ili Valley in the Middle Ages. A new stage Chokan Valikhanov’s scholarly work was the confidential (secret) trip to Kashgar in 1858, when, for the first time after Marco Polo and Bento de Góis (1603), he visited this country, which was closed to foreigners, and wrote his famous fundamental work On the State of Altyshar, or Six Eastern Cities of the China Province of Nan Lu (Bukhara Minor) (О состоянии Алтышара, или шести восточных городов Китайской провинции Нан Лу (Малой Бухарии) (1858- 1859.). In the section entitled "The system of government and political state of the province", he writes, "East Turkistan as part of the Chinese Empire is governed by the Western Region, or, the Ili Governor". During this trip Chokan Valikhanov discovered that the main contending parties, the feud between whom remains almost absolutely incurable, were the so-called Black Mountaineers and While Mountaineers. By using their age-long strategy of "divide and rule", the Chinese colonists managed to induce this confrontation by dividing the governed territory into many divisions independent of each other, as well as by artificially dividing of the population into different religious and political parties and encouraging conflict between them. Chokan Valikhanov writes, “With respect to the native government, western cities of Bukhara Minor with settlements constitute divisions which are independent from each other. Six cities: Yarkend, Khotan, Kashgar, Aksu, Yanysar, and Tufan, including the neighbouring villages, form six independent districts. Each city has its own government with the following structure: Khakimbek - Chief District Governor, Ishkaga - his assistant, Shanbegi or Gaznachibek - General Treasurer; these persons are responsible for general government”. According to Chokan, the Chinese, in choosing this model of local government structure, had two motives. The first goal was to make the local government of East Turkestan an obedient tool in the hands of the Chinese colonisers: “The Chinese officials reserved to themselves the appointment, election and approval of native local governors, and they deal with these matters with special care. The higher ranks are given to individuals, who have been tested and have proved their loyalty to the Bogdykhan Governor”. The second motive was the desire of the Chinese colonial administration to turn the distribution of official positions of the native “self- government” into their private property and use it as an additional source of enrichment. “The distribution of official positions is also a source of self-serving benefits and revenues for the Chinese mandarins”. Chokan’s discoveries shed light not only on the true state of affairs during his time, they also serve as a good lesson for our contemporaries. Valikhanov directly participated in the official activities aimed at the reorganisation of local government in the steppe and made a number of practical suggestions and recommendations. He presented his main ideas in a series of "Notes" submitted to the authorities: On Islam in the Steppe (О мусульманстве в степи), On the Kirgiz Nomads (О кочевниках киргизах), A Note on Judicial Reform (Записка о судебной реформе). The prominent orientalist Nikolay Veselovsky in his evaluation of the work of Chokan Valikhanov on behalf of the Russian Geographical Society and Russian scientists wrote, “Chokan Chingisovich Valikhanov flashed as a brilliant meteor over the field of Oriental Studies. Russian Orientalists unanimously recognised him as an outstanding phenomenon and expected from him great and important discoveries about the fate of the Turkic peoples: but this hope has been taken away from us by Chokan’s premature death”. He died of consumption before his 30th birthday. Abai Kunanbayev (1845-1904) was a great poet, writer, educator, public figure, and founder of modern Kazakh written literature. His work and life portrayed a true role of high spirituality. To this day people think of Abai as the conscience of the nation. By the end of his life, he came to the conclusion which is arrived at by many. He says that when a man is exhausted and his soul is worn out, he becomes convinced of the futility of his good intentions, of the vanity and impermanence of life. Abai’s own good intention was his desire to teach a man to be human. Throughout all of his work he was guided by the maxim “Adam bol!” (Be human!). Abai was convinced that man initially has all qualities inherent in God. These qualities are in an embryonic state. By cconsciously developing them, man can and must become like God -- become a perfect Human. The main thing on this path of self-improvement is to hurt no one. This is possible if man is guided by the primary human duty -- the ability to love. Abai believes that, because God created man with love, man must first learn to love God, then to learn to love mankind, and finally to love justice. "In essence, for Abai, God is the moral law, which is above all" (Auezkhan Kodar). In his interpretation of God Abai is nowhere near Islamic orthodoxy and Muslim fatalism. The Sufi-Tengrian understanding of the unity of macro- and microcosm, the world and man are more familiar and understandable to him. In Abai’s idea of Being Human, humanness was equivalent to morality and spirituality and was far enough from "creaturehood", which is indicative of the dual and contradictory human nature. In this understanding of the ideal as a driving force and the material as the transfigurative and united with the ideal Abai is very similar to the Russian religious philosophers Vladimir Solovyov, Pyotr Florensky, and Nikolai Berdyaev. As a representative of not only world culture, but primarily nomadic culture, Abai puts great weight on the spoken word. His poems are permeated with the magical power of “bata” -- the blessing of the word. And this could be the reason why, to this day, his "Words of Wisdom” (which are a kind of the thinker’s “bata”) sound very up- to-date and are understandable and attractive to the people. Abay masterfully combined in them the worship of the word and the worship of the ancestors, the bearers of wisdom underlying the culture of Kazakh people. He added to these two pillars of culture the image of the perfect human -- inquisitive, resilient, moral, someone who sees himself, as any free nomad does, as the centre of the universe and the mediator between Heaven and Earth. He is an epic hero, who is thrown, by the will of fate, to the living conditions of the 19th century and who is guided, according to Abai, by Reason, Heart, and Will, binding together the medium, the upper and lower worlds of the cosmos of Kazakh culture, creating harmony in the micro- and macrocosm (the subject-object relationship). By incorporating these guidelines into his poems, Abai showed how and under what conditions his contemporary can survive and "become human". But along with this, the poet was never tired of telling his people unflattering truths about the patriarchal and tribal remnants, about personal and universal imperfections, servility and laziness, about the greed and carelessness of some and the indifference of others. Castigating these evils, Abai was evoking the ancestral memory of his fellow countrymen and opening their eyes to the culture of the world and called for a dignified existence. None of his works was published during the thinker's life. Five years after the poet's death a collection of his poems published in St. Petersburg while his prose representing a very distinctive genre of literature -- "Gakliya" (Words of Wisdom) or "Kara Soz" (words in prose, "white prose") was published only during the Soviet times. In his poems, Abai taught Kazakhs to distinguish between the Russian people and its democratic culture from the tsarist colonisers their policies. Abai urges Kazakhs to study the Russian language, Russian culture and science in order to be of benefit to his people and become part of world culture. He sees the source of progress, success and achievements in economy and culture in an honest work for the benefit of man, the people and the Homeland. "Intelligence and knowledge are fruits of labour", he wrote in "The Forty-third Word". Abai’s philosophy aims to establish in the society such human values as faith, love and understanding, morality, conscientiousness, responsibility, respect for others, love for people, and the pursuit of knowledge, "which are achieved through a living soul and tender heart". Ibrai Altynsarin (1842-1889) was an outstanding Kazakh educator, poet and democrat. Politically, he was a proponent of the idea of national government, but firmly rejected the idea of socialism. Perhaps because the idea of socialism in his Russian environment and, especially, in the local administration, with whom he, as the Inspector of Public Education, was in constant contact, was absolutely unacceptable and was regarded as something detrimental to the existence of society. According to Ibrai, education of the masses can lay the foundations for the future of the Kazakh people. He insisted on setting up secular schools in the Kazakh steppe and believed that they should provide knowledge about the objects and phenomena existing in the surrounding world. Only secular co-education can ensure economic and moral development of the people. He was truly convinced that "education should be understood as such knowledge, which is entirely based on science". These ideas of the Kazakh educator expressed the point of view of the finest representatives of the progressive thought of the time. Throughout his life Altynsarin, who chose the path of people’s educator, sought, as he himself wrote, "to counteract, wherever possible, the ills that corrode public welfare..." -- in the educational, political and cultural spheres. He raised donations for opening public libraries and Russian-Kazakh free boarding schools (with free meals and accommodation) for girls from poor families. As an extraordinarily well-read man, Altynsarin prepared textbooks on Russian literature for junior school grades, standardised the Kazakh alphabet based on the Cyrillic alphabet. His ill-wishers accused him of many grievous sins ranging from pro-socialist ideas to anti- government actions. To which Ibrai replied, "But let us do the will of God, I will not abandon my fundamental beliefs".

9.2 Socio-Philosophical, Socio-Political and Ethical-Humanistic Views of Writers and Poets of Kazakhstan of the Late 19th Century - First Half of the 20th Century Shakarim Kudaiberdiyev (1858-1931) was an educator, scholar, and writer. In his book Three of truth (Три истины) reveals the human destiny in the world. According to him, the first truth is the truth of faith, which recognises the existence of the Creator and the immortality of the soul. But since this truth was taken for granted and has not received any sufficient scientific evidence, most people remained deaf to it. The second truth is the truth of science, which is based on sensory perception and rational thinking. But, with the further development of life and knowledge, scientific arguments are controversial and subjected to refutation. Therefore, they could not serve as the basis for the formation of the good principles of human soul. And the final, third truth is the truth of the soul, the substantive basis of which is conscience. It is this conscience, as the primary need of the soul, which is the truth that can liberate from moral wretchedness and guide man to the path of righteous living. In his Notes on the Forgotten (Записки забытого), Shakarim notes that the basis for a good life should be honest work, conscientious mind and sincere heart. These three qualities should rule over all things, for, without them, one will never find peace and harmony in life. The philosophy of this original thinker was formed as a fusion of the true faith and science, knowledge and religion. In Soviet times, such views were regarded by the authorities as “rebellious” and could put at risk those who shared them. But this did not stop Shakarim. He wrote not only "for the drawer", but also published his works in newspapers and magazines. His activities can be seen as an act of civil courage in the name of truth and for the benefit of the people. Akhmet Baitursynov (1873-1937) was a well-known Kazakh educator, poet, scholar, Turkologist, translator, teacher, writer and public activist. He often openly exposed the arbitrary rule of local governors and the colonial policy of the tsarist autocracy. Baitursynov realised that only social change can create conditions for enlightenment and education that will bring substantive benefits to the people. The 1905-1907 revolution awakened his hope for social change. He is actively involved in civil unrest, often speaks to demonstrators, organises a group of Kazakh intelligentsia, and together with them writes a petition addressed to the government in St. Petersburg. During the period of reaction, he continues his activities in underground organisations. Baitursynov and his comrades were arrested by the police and, after eight months of investigation, were put in the Semipalatinsk prison in 1909. He was later exiled outside the Kazakh territory and for a long time remained under police surveillance, but did not stop the fight for the freedom of his people. It was the time when he was writing poems and translating Russian classics. A collection of his Forty Fables (Сорок басен) were published in St. Petersburg in 1909. It made him famous as a poet, translator and a person who is deeply anxious about the fate of his people. A collection of poems Mosquito (Комар) was released in Orenburg in two separate editions in 1911 and 1914. Baitursynov dreamed about building a flourishing Kazakh culture by educating people and promoting the achievements of universal human values. 1913-1917 was a remarkable time in Ahmet Baitursynov’s life. He became the editor of the newspaper Kazakh, the only periodical of the time in the Kazakh language published in Orenburg. Here he published many of his articles on education, literature and linguistics introducing readers to the rich cultural heritage of the Kazakh people and calling for the light of knowledge and spiritual self-improvement. During the turbulent years of the February and October revolutions, A. Baitursynov, like many other representatives of the Russian and Kazakh intelligentsia, was not able to immediately make sense of those events. In 1919 he sided with the Soviet power and, with a mandate signed by Lenin, took part in the work of the Revolutionary Committee for the Administration of the Kazakh Territory. After the formation of the Kazakh Soviet Republic, Baitursynov joined the Government as the People’s Commissar of Education. In the Ak Zhol newspaper, the Academic Centre of Kazakhstan under the auspices of the People's Commissariat of Education published a number of his works on linguistics and literary studies. During the years of repression, Baitursynov, and more than 30 other public and cultural figures, was arrested on no grounds, jailed and then exiled to Arkhangelsk. In 1934, thanks to the involvement of Maxim Gorky and his wife, Yekaterina Peshkova, and with the help of the International Red Cross, was released, but his freedom did not last long and Ahmet Baitursynov was arrested again in 1937 and soon sentenced to execution by firing squad. It took another 50 years for justice to be restored and in 1988 he was posthumously acquitted for all charges by a Soviet court. Myrzhakyp Dulatov (1885-1935) was a social and political activist, poet and writer, member of the National Democratic Party Alash. In 1928, he, together with the other members of the Alash Orda provisional government, was sentenced to death, but this sentence was replaced with ten years in a hard labour camp which proved fatal for him. Long before the October Revolution Myrzhakyp Dulatov wrote his first poem Oyan, Kazak! (Wake up, Kazakh!), which made him famous among the intelligentsia and common people. Dulatov in his work paid great attention to the examination of public relations and exploration of human characters, which is clearly reflected in his socio-psychological novel The Unfortunate Jamal (Несчастная Жамал), where he analyses of the inner world of different of socio-psychological types of personalities and their emotional experiences. The outstanding poet and democrat Sultanmakhmut Toraigyrov (1893-1920) believed that in the age of scientific and technological progress due attention should be paid to the problem of man. In his novel Qamar-slu (Камар-слу) he insists on humanisation of social relations, sharply opposes the overestimation of the role of rational thinking. By criticising blind obedience to the achievements of technology and civilisation, he encourages people to employ responsible approach to nature. Zhusypbek Aimauytov (1889-1931) in his works stood for the triumph of morality and does not accept the complacent narrow-mindedness of man. He believes that overcoming human complacency is possible through the elevation of his mind, his search for the truth, which involve doubt and even losses along the way. Magzhan Zhumabayev (1893-1938) in a vivid poetic form exposed the contradictions of the social reality of the early 20th century. He was influenced by the works of Nikolai Berdyaev, Vladimir Solovyov, Pyotr Florensky, Oswald Spengler, Friedrich Nietzsche, and others. Apparently, all this is reflected in his poetry collection Sholpan (“Morning Star”), the book Pedagogy (Педагогика), and his other works of poetry and prose. Elements of symbolism, and existentialism permeate his cycles of poems Turkestan (Туркестан), Spring (Весной), the poem Bayan Batyr (Баян батыр), Korkyt (Коркыт), and the story Sholpan’s Sin (Грех Шолпан). For example, in the poem Batyr Bayan, he is talking not only about love, but also about the meaning of life, about the evolution of nature, society, and about man’s duty and honour. He believes that humanism is man's right to equality and happiness. As such, we can see that, from the late 19th century to early 20th century, the Kazakh land witnessed the emergence (as it usually happens in world history during change of eras) of a cohort of energetic, educated, and goal-oriented people capable of making sense of the changes that were taking place at the time and intending to bring the maximum benefit to their people. During this concrete historical time period, Kazakh passionaries were mostly represented by the intelligentsia of no-noble origin (the raznochintsy). Although they did not make great discoveries in the spheres of public life, they had another task before them -- to awaken and educate their own people, to remind them about the origins of their culture, to help them fit into the global course of history and to find answers to the "painful" problems of their time.

Self-check:  Philosophical concepcts in Kazakh folklore;  Classics of Kazakh Enlightenment;  Philosophical views of Kazakh intelligentsia of the early 20th century;  "Three Truths" of Shakirim Kudaiberdieva: philosophy of being, soul and moral perfection;  Mukhtar Auezov on role of philosophy for man and society.

Chapter 10 Being as the Central Concept of Ontology 10.1 Ontology as a Study of Being and Types of Being Historically, the first form of philosophical knowledge is ontology, which is a study of being, i.e. objective and subjective reality in their entirety. The question “what is being” is the eternal question, it is present, and will be present, getting deeper, in any type of philosophising. As translated from Greek, the term means “study of all that exists”. Aristotle’s "first philosophy" was called ontology, reducing its subject-matter to explanation of existence, its first principles, properties and forms. Initially, different words were used to refer to this concept "the One", "being", “all that exists”, etc. The rationale in classical philosophy of the study of being as reality imperceptible through senses was first proposed by the Eleatics (Parmenides) and Plato, who put forward the concept of true, ideal being (the world of "Eidos"). Along with this, the "pre-Socratics" treated ontology as a study of nature and the first principles of existence, i.e. as natural philosophy. In classical philosophy, ontology is identical by its substance with metaphysics. The need for the term "ontology" emerged in metaphysics due to the need to show that it is a more advanced form than natural philosophy. Philosophy begins with the explanation of how the universe is arranged. We can say that all philosophy is a study of being and thinkingg and of the relationship between them. The term "ontology" as such was introduced into scientific discourse by Rudolph Goclenius in 1613 and was referring to substantive explanation of reality. The need for this fundamental concept, the depth of which is inexhaustible, originated in metaphysical, which was perceived as a form of philosophy more sophisticated than natural philosophy. Any ontology, including universal otology, is a system of past opinions about the reality presented in general as a history of thought on this subject-matter, in which the categories of "matter", "motion", "connection", "reflection", etc. characterise different aspects of being. The category "being" is the primary concept in the philosophical understanding of the world. Philosophy begins with this category. We can say that all philosophy is a study of being and thinking and of the relationship between them. In a broader sense, being is the all-encompassing reality, an ultimately general concept of what exists. Various forms of being, for example, stars, plants, animals, from the point of view of the learner, emerge, as it were, from nonbeing and become existent. But the being of existence, no matter for how long it lasts, sooner or later ends and returns to nonbeing. Therefore, the history of philosophy, in considering the essential characteristics of being, looks at it through nonbeing and emphasises that being, as an objective reality, is eternal and that its individual forms are finite. Being means a combination of the objective and subjective reality, in other words, it is all that exists. The objective reality is the material socionatural world, the world of physical phenomena. The subjective reality is the spiritual world of man, the world of consciousness, the world of mental states or states of mind. With the advent of computers, philosophy began to use notion of "virtual reality" as a kind of subjective being. As such, in the history of philosophy - from antiquity to the present day - the notion of "being" has been interpreted in different ways, it has become deeper and has been filled with new substance. It has also been defined and articulated through other philosophical categories. The category "substance" refers to what forms the foundation of the diverse and whole world. The category "matter" was introduced to describe the objective reality in contrast to the ideal reality. This fundamental philosophical concept was formed in several stages. Initially -- from antiquity to the Modern Age (from Democritus to Holbach and Helvetius) -- matter was thought to be identity to substance and was attributed its properties (length, weight, impermeability, etc.). Since the 20th century, this concept is interpreted as an abstraction reflecting the ultimately general properties of the objective world, which has objective grounds -- the reality exists independently of human will and consciousness. “Motion” refers to one of the states of matter, “connection” indicates the causes for the processes, and "reflection" describes the result or element of the connection. As such, the category of "being" is the primary and fundamental category for philosophical interpretation. In a broad sense, being is the all-encompassing reality, an ultimately general concept of what exists. Various forms of being, for example, stars, plants, animals, from the point of view of the learner, emerge, as it were, from nonbeing and become existent, i.e. the actual being. But the being of existence, no matter for how long it lasts, sooner or later ends and returns to nonbeing. Therefore, the history of philosophy, in considering the essential characteristics of being, looks at it through nonbeing and emphasises that being, as an objective reality, is eternal and that its individual forms are finite. The category “being” means a combination of objective and subjective reality, i.e. all that exists. The objective reality is the material socionatural world, the world of physical phenomena. The subjective reality is the spiritual world of man, the world of consciousness, the world of mental states or states of mind. We distinguish a number of basic forms of being, that are inextricably interlinked: 1) the being of things (bodies), the processes of the "first nature" and the being of things of the "second" nature (of what is created by man); 2) the being of man (human being), which is divided into the being of man as a natural and as a social being; 3) spiritual (ideal) being, which is conventionally subdivided into individual and objectified (i.e., embodied in reality) nonindividual spiritual existence. With the advent of computers, philosophy began to use notion of "virtual reality" as a kind of subjective being. 4) social being (of an individual and society as a whole). As such, in the history of philosophy -- from antiquity to the present day -- the notion of "being" has been interpreted in different ways, it has become deeper and has been filled with new substance. It has also been defined and articulated through other philosophical categories. Different aspects of being are characterised by the categories of "matter", “motion”, "connection", "reflection", and "consciousness", “mind”, etc.

10.2 Concepts of Matter Pre-Marxist philosophy used different concepts of matter: atom (Democritus), ether (Descartes), substance (Holbach). Common to all these concepts was the identification of matter with its concrete types and properties or with the atom as one of the simplest indivisible particles lying at the foundation of the structure matter. In the 19th-20th centuries, the principle of "ontological relativity” was widely used by classical and non-classical European philosophy." For example, the "absolute idea" (Hegel), "will to live" (Schopenhauer), "language" (neopositivism), "existenz" or "Dasein" (Heidegger) were recognised as the defining elements or principles of the existent. These approaches to the problem of being can be divided into three groups: the first group is focused on "ontologisation", the second is focused on "deontologisation", and the third group (the postmodernists) rejects ontology as such. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, in their interpretation of the views of Holbach, by matter mean the objective world as a whole, the totality of its constituent bodies, processes and phenomena. Vladimir Lenin in his Materialism and Empiriocriticism notes that the material world surrounding man represents an infinite number of objects and phenomena possessing a wide range of properties. Despite the differences, they all share two important characteristics: 1) they exist independently of human consciousness; and 2) they are capable of interacting with man and being reflected in our consciousness. The philosophical concept of matter should be distinguished from the natural scientific and social conceptions of its particular forms, structures and properties. Philosophical understanding of matter reflects the objective reality of the world, while the natural scientific and social conceptions reflect its physical, chemical, biological, and social properties. Thus, matter it is an objective world as a whole and not what it is composed of. Some particular types of existence of matter -- such as inanimate, living and socially organised matter, elementary particles, cells, living organisms, and productive relations – are conventionally called structural levels of organisation of matter. They are studied by various natural, social and technical sciences. The universal attributes (innate or inherent properties) and the main ways of existence of matter are motion, space and time. Matter is internally active, it is able to change qualitatively, from which it is inferred that it is in motion. Engels in the Dialectics of Nature sees motion not as accidental, but as an inherent property of matter, which embraces all changes and processing taking place in the universe. Naturalists, up to the 20th century, compared space with emptiness (considering it is always same, constant, unchangeable and motionless); and they saw time as one- dimensional, i.e. "flowing" steadily from the past to the future. They saw time and space as autonomous forms, separating them from one another, as existing independently of matter and motion. Einstein, in his theory of relativity, showed that time and space do not exist by themselves, but are closely interlinked, acting at the same time as sides of a single whole. Their properties depend on the velocity of matter, the gravitational force and a number of other factors.

Self-check:  Material and ideal being;  Concept of "matter".  Space and time as attributes of matter;  Being and consciousness;  Consciousness and language.

Chapter 11 The Principle of Evolution: Dialectics and Synergetics 11.1 Basic Principles, Laws and Categories of Dialectics диалектики The term "dialectics" (from Greek -- the art of conversation, argument) has different shades of meaning. It was first used by Socrates, who was referring to the art of dialogue aimed at attaining the truth by contrasting different opinions. Plato regarded dialectics as a process of division of concepts into types and linking them into more general concepts, or "categories". Hegel expanded the understanding of dialectics, broadening it beyond the scope of movement of thought, saw the collision and unity of opposites in reality itself, in history, and in culture. In Marxist philosophy, dialectics was defined as the doctrine of the universal connection and evolution carried out through the struggle of opposites. In contemporary interpretations of dialectics, there is virtually no understanding of it as a doctrine of evolution. The dominant idea is that dialectics is a way of understanding polarities, opposites that permeate life, consciousness, and history. Various interpretations of dialectics offer various principles of relations between opposites -- from their possible harmonic synthesis to tragically irreconcilable, eternal confrontation. However, almost all models of dialectics aim to connect these opposites or at least point to the need for their connection for man as the main actor of the dialectical collision. Principle is a complex, concentrated form of knowledge, that has accumulated in itself the main direction of the inquiry, its "spirit." These principles normally include: the principle of evolution; the principle of universal connection; the principle of identity (unity) of dialectics, logic, and theory of knowledge; the principle of ascending from the abstract to the concrete; and the principle of unity of the historical and the logical. The principle of evolution directly stems from the recognition of motion as the main property (attribute) of matter. Along with this, from many types of motion, the principle of evolution also distinguishes its main driving form -- development. Motion can be circular (reversible), regressive and progressive (irreversible forms of motion). Evolution accumulates the distinctive properties of all three types of motion; it involves irreversibility (the impossibility of complete return to the starting point), continuity (connection of the old and the new), orientation/direction, and cyclicity. The principle of universal connection is inseparable from the principle of evolution, it reveals the condition for the realisation of the first principle. Origin, emergence, change, or evolution is impossible in an isolated state, it assumes a connection between the internal and the external. Finally, the very unfolding of contradiction as the essence of the principle of evolution is a special form of connection of opposites. The principle of identity (unity) of dialectics, logic and theory of knowledge expresses the unity of the laws of evolution, the totality of the process of evolution covering nature, the human mind and reasoning, and society. The principle of ascending from the abstract to the concrete accumulates the cognitive ability of laws and categories of dialectics, it organises the process of acquiring knowledge. The terms "abstract" and "concrete" have several meanings. Normally, in everyday life, the abstract is understood as a synonym for “conceptual” or “notional”, in contrast to sensuality, imagery, which, respectively, is the concrete. In addition, the abstract means side-tracking a number of non-essential properties and highlighting essential ones. In this sense, knowledge is always abstract, because it generalises, abstracts from the individual using categories, definitions, and terms. The concrete, which is correlated with the so understood abstract, is the objective reality, in which the significant and insignificant are not separated. The principle of unity of the logical and historical helps to understand how the concrete in reality is transformed into the concrete in cognition. The logical is a theoretical reproduction of the patterns of real evolution. Historical is the process of unfolding of reality in time in all diversity of its concrete forms. Any science, no matter what area of the material reality is the subject-matter of its studies, is not only a system of laws, but also of certain categories, that is the most general concepts, which are produced in the course of evolution of each science and are its foundation and its base. Philosophical categories are concepts or notions that reflect the similarities and connections, the aspect and properties of reality. They are primarily categories of matter and consciousness, as well as categories of motion, space, and time. Such categories as contradiction, quantity, quality, shift, leap, denial, the individual and the general, substance and form, essence and phenomenon, cause and effect, necessity and chance, possibility and reality. Examination and study of these categories greatly complements our understanding of global evolution and connections of the material world; of the basic laws of dialectics. Laws and categories of dialectics are interconnected. From studying the basic laws of dialectics, we can see that they are, in in essence, a relationship, connection of categories. The fundamental laws of materialist dialectics are: the law of unity and struggle of opposites; the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes; and the law of negation of the negation. The law of unity and struggle of opposites is the core of dialectics. And there is a good reason for this, because it points to the cause, the source of dialectical change and evolution. According to this law, every object or phenomenon has inherent contradictions. They are in interaction: presuppose each other and oppose each other. It is the struggle of internal opposites that serves as the source of self-motion and self-development of phenomena of the material world, as the driving force of their change. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes shows how the new emerges. Let us begin with the categories of "quality", "quantity" and "measure". Quality is the certainty of an object representing a coherent and relatively stable set of its specific properties, characteristics, and similarities with other objects. Quantity is a characteristic of differences within a given quality or of equal qualities. For example, the planets of the Solar System have uniform properties: mass, volume, density, rotation period around its own axis and around the Sun, etc. However, they have quantitative differences. There is no object in the world with only a qualitative or quantitative aspect. For a complete description of any object, the knowledge of its quantitative or qualitative aspects alone is insufficient. Measure is an interval in which a given quality remains itself. Measure expresses the internal connection of quality and quantity which, in essence, means that quantitative differences within a given quality cannot exceed certain limits. The law of negation of the negation is intrinsically linked with the two previously described laws. Its essence can be expressed as follows: any finite system developing on the basis of unity and struggle of opposites goes through a series of internally connected stages. These stages express the invincibility of the new and the spiral nature of evolution, which manifests itself in a certain repetition at a higher stage of evolution of certain features of the initial stage of the overall cycle. The substance of dialectical negation are two things: destruction, death of the old, the obsolete and at the same time reservation of the positive, capable of evolution, and emerging new. Negation of the negation first and foremost involves: a) recurrence in the process of evolution; b) return to the initial state, but on a new, higher level; c) relative completion of concrete evolution cycles; d) irreducibility of evolution to circular motion. This is the essence of this law. If the laws of dialectics disclose primarily the evolution process, the connection of phenomena and objects of reality is indeed expressed through categories. By coming into contact with objects and phenomena of the world in the process of practical activity, by learning about them, people identified and distinguished what was substantively common in them and recorded the results of such identification in categories and concepts. The categories of cause and effect, substance and form, and other categories formed in the mind as people have billions of times faced in practice the objectively existing causes and effects, substance and form of concrete material bodies and other important aspects of reality. Thus, categories are the result of practical and cognitive activity of man and represent the stages of man's knowledge of the surrounding world. As a result of practice and knowledge, the categories of materialist dialectics are of great importance for practical and cognitive activity. As stages of knowledge, they help people understand the complex network of natural and social phenomena, to reveal their mutual connection and dependence of things, a certain order, patterns of their evolution and, in accordance with this, act successfully in practice. Dialectics, by revealing the essence of the categories and the sources of their emergence, emphasises, in the first place, their objective character. Sources of categories are objects and phenomena, that are beyond man, the most common and essential features of which they reflect. Thus, the categories of cause and effect reflect such objectively existing connection between objects and processes, in which some of them bring to life other objects and processes, and these other objects and processes are their product. One of the most important features of categories in terms of Marxist dialectics is their interconnection, variability, and mobility. These features reflect the unity of the material world itself, the universal connection and interaction of its objects and phenomena. The connection of categories is so strong, that under certain conditions they can transform, turn into each other: the cause becomes the consequence, and the consequence becomes the cause; necessity becomes chance, and chance becomes necessity. But categories are not only interconnected, but also volatile, mobile. Reflecting the constantly developing material world, they themselves are changing. Metaphysics deny the dialectical nature of categories. They usually separate categories from each other, ignore the role of some categories and overemphasise the value of other categories. And this results in a distortion of reality, to reactionary political conclusions. Only from the standpoint of dialectical materialism can we understand the true nature of categories, use them as a tool of scientific knowledge and practice. As we go forward, in considering individual categories, we will try to show their scientific and practical importance. When exploring and learning about the material world, man first and foremost sees countless individual, single objects and phenomena. Then, by comparing and correlating them, man identifies in them the general, similarities and connections. Every object has a number of special, innate, inherent characteristics. Substance is the totality of elements and processes that make up the object or phenomenon. Form is the structure, organisation of substance, and it is not something external in relation to substance, but is inherent in it. "Elementary" particles and processes associated with their motion represent the substance of the atom of a chemical element. The organisation, arrangement of these particles, the order of their placement in the atom make up its form. The concept of essence is akin to the concept of substance. If substance is the totality of all elements and processes that make up the given object, essence is the main, internal, inherent, innate, relatively stable aspect of the object (or the totality of its aspects and relations). Essence defines the nature of the object, from it stem all its other aspects and properties. For example, the essence of a living organism is its inherent metabolism. It lies at the foundation of all vital functions, constitutes the inner nature of every living body. Phenomenon is an external, immediate expression of the essence, a form of its manifestation. In the objective world, we are witnessing constant interaction between phenomena, which results in some of them giving rise to, causing the living of other phenomena, and these, in turn, give rise to the next, and so on. A phenomenon or a group of interacting phenomena preceding the other and causing it is called a cause. The same phenomenon, which is caused by the action of the cause, is called a consequence or an effect. The cause always preceded the consequence, however, a sequence in time is not a sufficient indication of the cause. A phenomenon or event, which, under certain conditions, occurs necessarily, is called necessity. Necessity stems from the essence, the inner nature of the emerging and unfolding phenomenon. It is constant and stable for this phenomenon. Unlike the necessity, chance does not stem from the nature of the given object, it is unstable and temporary. The New, the developing, the unfolding is necessary, but it does not occur immediately. At first, certain preconditions or factors for its occurrence emerge, then these preconditions mature and develop and, by virtue of the objective laws, a new object and phenomenon emerges. These preconditions for the emergence of a new, existing in the existent have been defined as possibilities. Possibilities derive from objective laws, they are generated by them. For example, the law of the unity of the organism and the environment creates a possibility by changing the external conditions for intentional impact on the organism and for creation of new species of plants and animals.

11.2 Interdisciplinarity and Principles of Synergetics In recent years, we have seen a rapid and explosive growth of interest in the interdisciplinary school of thought known as "Synergetics". The founder of Synergetics and is Hermann Haken, a physicist, professor emeritus in theoretical physics at the University of Stuttgart, and Director of the Centre of Synergetics. He is also thought to have coined the term "synergy", which is derived from the Greek word “synergia”, “synergus” meaning “working together”, “co-operation”, "interaction". According to Haken, synergy studies systems consisting of large (very large, "huge") number of parts, components or subsystems, parts, or details, interacting with each other in a complex way. The word "synergy" means literally "joint action", emphasising the consistency of the parts, which is reflected in the behaviour of the system as a whole. Synergetics, which is concerned with the study of self-organisation and emergence, maintenance, sustainability and disintegration of structures of various nature, has not yet formed into an established discipline and has no uniform acknowledged terminology (including a single name for the whole theory). The rapid development of this new field leaves no time for the unification of concepts and organising the entire amount of accumulated facts into a well-structured system. In addition, research and studies in this new field, given its specific features, are conducted in terms of reference and by the means available to many contemporary sciences, each of which has distinctive methods and established and accepted terminology. The overlap and inconsistency in terminology and in the systems of basic concepts are largely caused by the differences in approaches and attitudes of individual movements and schools of thought, as well as by their focus on different aspects of the complex and diverse process of self-organisation. The lack in Synergetics of a single generally accepted scientific language is very symbolic for the science dealing with the phenomena of evolution and qualitative transformation. Of course, a strict definition of Synergetics requires clarification of what should be considered a large number of parts and what interactions fall under the category of complex interactions. It is believed that, for the time being, a strict definition, even if it was possible, is clearly premature. As such, further in this piece (just like in the works of Haken himself, including his followers) we will be talking only about the description of what the concept "Synergetics" includes and about its distinctive characteristics. Systems that are the subject-matter of Synergetics can be of very different nature and can be studied, in terms of substance and specifics, by different sciences, such as physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, neurophysiology, economics, sociology, etc. Each science studies its "own" systems with only its “own” inherent methods and formulates results in its “own” language. With the existing very high level of differentiation of sciences, the result of this is that the achievements of one science often are not accessible by representatives of other sciences and are beyond their understanding. Unlike the traditional fields of science, Synergetics is interested in general patterns of evolution (development in time) of systems of any nature. The rejection of the notion of specific nature of systems allows Synergetics to describe their evolution in an “international” language by establishing a certain isomorphism of two phenomena, that are being studied by specific means of two different sciences, but share a common model, or, more precisely, are being reduced to a common model. The discovery of the unity of the model allows Synergetics to make achievements of one field of science understandable for representatives of a totally different, perhaps very distant, field of science and transfer the results of one science to a seemingly alien soil. It should be emphasised that Synergetics is by no means one of the cross-border sciences such as physical chemistry and mathematical biology, arising across two sciences. Prof Haken’s idea is that Synergetics has to play the role of a meta science detecting and studying the general nature of those patterns and relationships that had been considered “their own” by specialised sciences. For this reason, Synergetics is not emerging across sciences within a more or less broad or narrow border area, but extracts systems that are of interest to it from the very core of the subject area of specialised sciences and studies these systems without referring to their nature and by using its specific tools, which are of general nature with respect to specialised sciences. Physicists, biologists, chemists and mathematicians see the material of their interest, and each of them, by applying the methods of his science, makes a contribution to the general stock of ideas and methods of Synergetics. Synergetics remains entirely in line with traditional dialectics and its laws of evolution -- transition from quantitative to qualitative changes, negation of the negation, etc. The historical process of evolution of any types of systems appears to us as an alternation of "quiet" stages of changes of quantitative properties and "revolutionary" stages of qualitative complexification of the structure, self- organisation, which moves the system up along the complexity axis. Synergetics has come close to the scientific description of such phenomena as the origin of life, еру origin of species, the emergence and evolution of consciousness.

Self-check:  Development as attribute of being;  Principles, laws and concepts of dialectics.  Stages of dialectic philosophy;  Contemporary debate on dialectics;  Dialectics and synergetics.

Chapter 12 Possibilities and Limits of Knowledge 12.1 Levels and Structure of Knowledge Theory of knowledge (epistemology) is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the study of such problems as the nature of knowledge, its possibilities and limits, the relationship of knowledge and reality, subject and object of knowledge, explores the universal preconditions for the cognitive process, the conditions of validity of knowledge, the criteria for true knowledge, the form and levels of knowledge, and a number of other problems. Cognition is a process, conditioned by primarily socio-historical practice, of acquiring and developing knowledge, its constant deepening, expansion and improvement. People acquire knowledge in the course of everyday practical activities and this knowledge includes, among others, extrascientific, nonscientific and scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is reliable, valid and logically consistent knowledge. The most important criterion of the scientific nature of knowledge is the growth of the objectively true substance of knowledge, which expresses the degree of adequacy (relevancy) to reality. This is accomplished by specific means and methods of cognition We can distinguish in the process of scientific knowledge different levels, qualitatively unique stages of knowledge differing in terms of fullness, depth and comprehensive coverage of the object, by the method for achieving the substantive content of the knowledge, by the form of their expression. These include empirical and theoretical knowledge or cognition. Empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are closely interrelated. An empirical study, through discovery of new knowledge by observation and experimentation, gives impetus to theoretical knowledge and sets before it new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, by developing and empirically specifying its own substantive content, opens up new, wider horizons for empirical knowledge, directs and guides it in the search for new facts, contributes to the improvement of methods and tools, and so on. The boundary between these levels is conventional and flexible. At certain points of the development of science, the empirical transforms into the theoretical and vice versa. In the course of development of knowledge from the empirical level to he theoretical level, certain successive steps are distinguished, i.e. forms of scientific knowledge, which fix the depth and degree of completeness of reflection of the objects being studied and simultaneously identify the ways of their further examination. A scientific research or inquiry begins with a statement of the problem. The concept of problem is usually associated with the unknown and it is, therefore, possible, to offer an initial definition of the problem: what has not been learned by man and what needs to be studied and learned. Problems stem from the needs of practical human activity, as a certain desire for new knowledge. Science must be sophisticated enough to have the necessary and sufficient basis for setting a specific problem. Formulation of the problems necessarily includes some preliminary, albeit imperfect, knowledge of ways for its solution. Formulation of the problem requires facts. By fact we mean the phenomenon itself (the thing, the process of objective reality), as well as knowledge which has its own distinctive characteristics. In this case, we are talking about facts in the second sense of the term. Factual knowledge is attained empirically. In addition, solution of a problem requires knowledge the objective truth (accuracy, reliability) of which is has been established. This reliable knowledge constitutes the fact on which the inquiry is based. Accuracy of knowledge is a prerequisite for its transformation into a fact, this is why facts, as "stubborn things", should be acknowledged regardless of whether we like it or not, whether it is convenient to the inquirer or not. All other attributes of fact are derived from its accuracy and reliability. Accumulation of facts is an important part of scientific research, but by itself does not solve problems. Solution of problems requires a system of knowledge describing and explaining the phenomena or processes that are of interest to us. The pillar, the guiding programme of a scientific inquiry is the idea. Its purpose is in the formulation of a generalised theoretical principle explaining the essence of phenomena without intermediate arguments, without the awareness of the totality of all links and relationships that serve as a basis for a conclusion. Principles, on the one hand, reflect the general and essential parameters of the system being studied, and on the other hand, apply its forms and methods to the inquiry and, to a certain extent, inhibit the outcomes of the inquiry. For example, the principle of causality is universal, therefore, a theory that rejects this principle cannot be a genuine scientific theory. It is in this context that the principle of causality acts as an inhibitor for the theoretical system. A scientific idea finds its specific materialisation in a hypothesis. This form of knowledge is problematic and unreliable. It requires verification, validation and justification. The hypothesis organically merges two aspects: the formulation of a certain assumption and its subsequent logical and practical verification and proof. Unlike a simple assumption, a hypothesis has a number of features. These include: conformity to the facts on which and for the verification of which it was created; verifiability; applicability to a possibly wide range of phenomena; and relative simplicity. Hypotheses may emerge on the basis of concepts that represent a particular way of understanding, interpretation of certain events or a system of views on various phenomena. A tested and proven hypothesis transforms into the category of reliable truths and becomes a scientific theory. This is the most advanced form of scientific knowledge which provides a coherent reflection of the regular and substantive relationships of a certain area of reality. Some examples of this form of knowledge are evolutionary theory, cell theory of the structure of living organisms, electromagnetic theory, etc. In the most general sense, a scientific theory is a system of knowledge that allows us to explain the origin, emergence and functioning and to predict the development of objects and phenomena of reality, and these objects and phenomena can be material or ideal. Components of a scientific theory as a coherent system are: - initial empirical basis, the subject of the inquiry; - the language (natural or artificial, or symbolic) used for the study of this empiria; - the means for the transition from the empiria, from the given concrete and sensual reality, to the general, the essential, the consistent, explicable and logical; - a set of rules, principles, in other words, the logic of inference from the laws or axioms of certain theoretical, but mainly practical, consequences, conclusions, recommended tools, that address the same reality for the purpose of its transformation and change. The main element of a theory is an idealised object, an abstract model of the essential properties and relations of the objects of inquiry. The variety of types of idealised objects have their corresponding variety of types of theories: - descriptive mathematised, deductive and inductive; - fundamental and applied; - formal and substantive; - "open" and "closed"; - explaining and describing (phenomenological); - physical, chemical, mental, etc. A theory has a number of functions. It synthesises reliable knowledge into a coherent system. It explains the causal relationships and connections of phenomena and objects and, on this basis, forecasts the prospects for their development. A theory is the basis for formation of diverse tools, methods and techniques of research. But the main function of a theory is its practical implementation, is to be a guide to action. To be implemented, a theory must materialise. People should learn and master it as a programme of action. The materialisation of a theory in practice should not be a one-time act (to eventually fade out), but a process, in which, instead of the already implemented theoretical propositions, new, more substantive and more developed ones emerge. A number of theories, that collectively describe to man the known natural and social world, are synthesised into a single scientific picture of the world. These are the main forms of scientific knowledge. There are more other forms: axioms, postulates, presuppositions, paradoxes, etc. Forms of scientific knowledge are closely interrelated. The scientific method is a perfect example of the unity of all forms of knowledge about the world.

12.2 Truth as the Purpose of Knowledge A successful use of learning outcomes in practice is possible only if the gained knowledge is valid, i.e. true. As such, the question of truth is one of the most important questions in the theory of knowledge. What is truth? By truth we traditionally understand the reality adequately reflected in human thought, and the process of such reflection. In other words, truth is the concordance (identity, equivalence) of our knowledge about an object to the object itself. The longstanding usage treats truth as something that can be searched, can be possessed, etc. In fact, truth (or falsity) is the ability of a statement to have (or not to have) a certain object as its denotation (denotatum), as what is posed in accordance with this statement. Contemporary epistemology accepts three theories of truth: the correspondence theory, the coherence theory, and the communicative-pragmatic theory. Each of them has deep roots in the history of philosophy. The current situation is distinctive in that only today the conditions for their amicable coexistence have formed. This is largely due to the linguistic turn, which has made it possible to apply the principles of linguistic complementarity and linguistic relativity. The correspondence theory (or theory of correspondence) states: knowledge about an object is true when it corresponds to the object itself. The coherence theory (or theory of consistency) defines true knowledge as knowledge included in a consistent system of knowledge as knowledge included in a consistent system of knowledge and coherent (or consistent) with the other elements of this system. Communicative-pragmatic theory holds that true is any knowledge that allows us to explain what is happening, to predict the future and to effectively use the forecasts in our actions. Contemporary materialism approaches the problem of truth in terms of reflection of the objective reality in human consciousness. Truth is the adequate reflection of the object in the mind of the subject, which recreates the object such as it exists independently of the consciousness of the subject. The materialist theory of knowledge makes the traditional concept of truth more specific (concrete) through dialectical relationship of the concepts of "objective truth", "subjective truth", "absolute truth", "relative truth", and "concrete truth". Objective truth is the substance of human knowledge of reality which is independent of the subject, or man, or society. In the process of acquiring knowledge the subjectivity of truth should be taken into account, because true knowledge is always a knowledge of a specific subject, i.e. an individual, social group, or all mankind. Truth as a process is objective in substance, but it is subjective in form. Truth cannot be understood as a ready-made knowledge, immutable and given once and for all. Truth is an infinite process of approximation to the object, which itself is developing or evolving. In this regard, any knowledge fixed at a particular historical level of development of knowledge deals only with relative truth. Relative truth is knowledge that is in principle accurate, but its reflection of reality is incomplete and it does not produce its full and exhaustive image. Absolute truth is a complete, accurate, and comprehensive reflection of the object in the consciousness of the subject; or, broadly speaking, it is the absolute knowledge about the world. In this sense, the absolute truth is the limit, which scientific knowledge is trying, but never manages, to reach. Strictly speaking, absolute truth is the complete and accurate knowledge of certain aspects of reality, and, in this sense, it is an element of the achieved knowledge. It should be noted that there is no, and cannot be, a separate absolute truth and a separate relative truth. There is one truth, which is objective in its meaning and sense, which serves as the dialectical unity of the absolute and the relative, i.e. it is the truth which is absolute, but only within certain limits. The absolute and the relative are two necessary aspects of the objective truth. From the analysis of absolute and relative truth follows the doctrine of the concreteness of truth. Concrete truth is a truth which accurately reflects the essence of certain phenomena and of the specific conditions under which these phenomena develop. If the concept of "objective truth" emphasises its main characteristic as an accurate reflection of reality, and the concept of "relative and absolute truth" emphasises the process of knowledge itself, the concept of "concrete truth" shows the possibility of practical use of the acquired knowledge.

Self-check:  Subject and object of knowledge.  Empirical and theoretical knowledge:  Sensual and rational cognition and their types;  Cognition as knowledge of truth;  Phenomenon of rationality.

Chapter 13 Philosophical Anthropology 13.1 Problems of Man in the History of Philosophy Many sciences study humans by explaining the structure of human body, brain or cognitive abilities or what constitutes human feelings -- passion, love, or hate. But behind all this the man himself disappears, his cohesive image falls apart and the essence becomes elusive. Only philosophy, as the science of the universal, is capable of bringing together the essential human characteristics, to determine the role and place of humans in the world, to explain how civilisational processes change human nature, and to justify the frequency and nature of anthropological crises. Philosophical Anthropology, as a branch of philosophy, roots back to antiquity, but as an independent discipline it emerged only in the 19th century. There are number of objective reasons for this. In antiquity, there was no philosophical concept of "man": philosophers were mainly interested in the problem of the unity of the whole and individual parts, of macro- and microcosm, of man and city-state. Knowledge about man and knowledge about nature, which were very fragmentary, were often identified with each other. Since Socrates’ "anthropological turn", philosophy has focused on man, who acquires virtues through knowledge and self-knowledge. In Christian religious philosophy, man is seen as an image and likeness of God. The soul is a "breath" of God himself. Man is defined not from the standpoint of reason, but from the perspective of faith. Faith helps man to form the great triad – reason, heart and will, as three constituent parts of his inner world. The philosophy of the Renaissance describes man as an individual, as an autonomous being, as a living whole, a microcosm. The unity of body and soul is the main advantage of humans over other beings. His nature is similar to that of a “chameleon” (Pico della Mirandola). And it is up to himself who and what he will be -- "a trembling creature" or the creator of his own fate, spiritually close to God. In the Modern Age, Descartes believe that thinking was the only reliable evidence of human existence: for him, the mind (reason) and the ability to think is the main distinctive characteristic of humans. The mind is more important than the heart, it prevails over passions. Body and soul have nothing in common. The body "extends", "the soul thinks." The pure essence of the soul is consciousness, "the thinking ‘I’", which does not need anything other than itself. Kant also believe that the nature of man is dualistic. He belongs to both the natural world, ruled by natural necessity, and to the world of freedom. Human being is distinct from all other beings in that he is not a passive creation of nature, but a being that has transformed his natural tendencies, and acts as a subject of autonomous behaviour and his own self-improvement. Marxism examines the uniqueness of human life by using the principle of object- practical activity. Man is an ultimately general term used to refer to the subject of historical activity, cognition and communication. The concept of "man" is used to describe general qualities and abilities, that are inherent in all people. By this, Marxist philosophy aims to stress that there is such a distinctive historically evolving community as the human race, which differs from all other natural phenomena by the social way of life, which is inherent only to it, whereby it remains identical to itself at all stages of historical development.

13.2 Concepts of Man in Philosophical Anthropology Philosophical Anthropology uses a number of concepts that regard man not only as a socio-natural being endowed with reason (Marxism), but also points to the dependence of its existence on cosmic factors (Cosmism). Man is also seen from the perspective of Personalism, Phenomenology, Philosophy of Life, neo-Thomism, Psychoanalysis and Existentialism. Philosophical Anthropology, in the narrow sense, is a branch of philosophical knowledge seeking to study comprehensively the problem of man. In addition, the term "Philosophical Anthropology" is also used to refer to a particular philosophical school, the key representatives of which were the German philosophers of the 20th century Max Scheler, Arnold Gehlen, Helmuth Plessner, and others. They put forward a program of philosophical study of man in the entirety of his being, having proposed to combine studies carried out from the perspectives of ontology, natural sciences and humanities of various spheres of human existence with a holistic philosophical understanding. They believed that Philosophical Anthropology is a fundamental science of the essence and the substantive structure of man. But in terms of the justification of their ideas about the essence of man, the views of these philosophers differ significantly. Max Scheler (1874-1928 ) was a German phenomenologist philosopher and sociologist, one of the founders of Philosophical Anthropology. In his The Human’s Place in the Cosmos (Die Stellung des Menschen im Kosmos) (1928), he shows that human nature has two key forces: it is the life impulse, a certain "vital impetus " -- the spirit, derived from God. He does not consider reason as something that constitutes humans. Therefore, humans are drawn to "the highest world of values", to their embodiment in person. Man is a wholeness, a microcosm that has a certain relationship with the larger world of macrocosm. In its "vital impetus ", man is an animal, a living being, but also a rational being possessing the spirit with which God endows him. Scheler says that a human's place in the cosmos is determined by the formation and evolution of his psychic sphere of being (sensory impetus, instinct, associative memory, practical intelligence) and spirit (vital impulse). Scheler emphasises that the human person is open to the world, unlike the animal, man is ''he who knows how to say no, the ascetic of life, the eternal protester against what is nothing but reality'', he is the “eternal Faust”. Man is localised in an animate body, but he is "projected" by the "non-living" spirit, is held by it in the world of values”. The spirit itself (the vital impetus) is powerful only in the world of ideas, whose force is in their purity. But he is not able to actualise or embody these ideas in society. For this reason, it is in dire need of man, whose nature is dual (he is both an embodiment of the spirit and a natural being). Man, "open to the world", tends to reject the reality and always strives for the highest values. He embodies the creation of the spirit -- culture. They mutually need each other. Thus, man is inherently dual (ambivalent), he is always "in the world" and "beyond the world". In this (i.e. duality) lies his secret, which needs constant decoding. And this is the task of philosophy. The agency of spirit is perceived through words, in which the whole culture is expressed. Word is also a symbol, through which man can know God, the mystery of the whole universe, which is hidden in it. Therefore, according to Scheler, philosophical anthropology should be not a branch of philosophy, but rather, all philosophy should be derived from it. Scheler's ideas were further developed by Helmuth Plessner (1892-1985), who in his work The Levels of the Organic and Man. Introduction to philosophical anthropology (Die Stufen des Organischen und der Mensch. Einleitung in die philosophische Anthropologie) looks at man not only as a subject of spiritual creativity and moral responsibility, but also from the biological perspective. In his opinion, in the biological sense, man is an "incomplete" being and is faced with solving the problem of his survival. In order to overcome his imperfection, incompleteness, man must become an active being to be the master of nature in order to support his life. The sense of the principle of "liberation from the burden" put forward by Plessner is that the overall shortcomings of human construction, which in natural, animal conditions constitute a heavy burden for his life, are transformed by man, acting on his own, into the conditions of his existence. The result of this is the emergence of man as a cultural being. " In other words, culture and spirituality determine the essence of man. According to Plessner, "the stages of human development" are based on three laws: - The law of natural artificiality ("being places upon nothing" is compensated by quasi-natural results of his activity); - the law of mediated immediacy ("awareness" of one's consciousness, the vision that the objective is such only for man’s consciousness); - the law of a utopian place (rejecting the absolute, man constantly needs it, for his own "holding" in the world). These laws determine the specific, eccentric nature of man. Thus, the realisation of the "baselessness" of oneself and the world as a whole pushes man towards God and faith. Religion reconciles man with his destiny, brings to order the place of his life and death. However, spirit forces him to move into the future. Arnold Gehlen (1904-l976) sees the task of Philosophical Anthropology in the fundamental comprehension of the human being. Such comprehension requires, in his opinion, answers to questions "what are the conditions for the possibility of human existence," and the indication of the place of man in "being as a whole". His book Man, His nature and Place in the World (Der Mensch: Seine Natur und seine Stellung in der Welt) is an attempt to answer this question. He calls man a "deficient" being, because he is poorly equipped with instincts and cannot lead a "purely natural life”. As an incomplete being, man, according to Gehlen, must fight for the conditions of his existence and take them the world. He believes that a man reveals his essence in the actions for the planned transformation of the available circumstances into something suitable for life, in acts of self- determination, mutual control and management, in the creation of a value orientation in the world. Unlike animals, man lives in a cultural environment, which appears to him as a "field of surprises". Culture, as a world artificially crafted and adapted for humans, compensates for human natural shortcomings. To survive, man, according to Gehlen, must act, create different social institutions, organisations, norms, and models of behaviour. Culture (the state and other social institutions) should ease man’s hostility towards other people. History, society, social institutions, and norms are seen as forms that make up for man’s biological insufficiency and actualise his vital aspirations in an optimal way.

Self-check: Human in thoughout history of philosophy. “Theory of Person” and existential personalistic anthropology; Psychoanalytic anthropology; Crisis of anthropology in Western philosophy; Synthetic anthropology.

14 Social Philosophy 14.1 Society as a System The subject-matter of social philosophy is society taken in the interaction of all its aspects, i.e. as an integral and cohesive social system, as well as the laws of the functioning and development of society. This means that social philosophy considers and explains various social phenomena and processes at the macro level, i.e. at the level of society as a self-developing and self-replicating social system. Social philosophy also studies interactions between different societies. It is also concerned with the study of those phenomena and processes of social life that characterise the development of all mankind. In this case, the subject-matter of social philosophy is the historical process as a whole, the interaction of its objective and subjective aspects, and the laws of its development. Representatives of different branches of social philosophy proceed from the understanding of society as a particular social system ("social organism"). Considering society as a system of human interactions, they differ in understanding its basis. Some see the basis in the spiritual principles of human activities and behaviour (consciousness, spiritual needs, spiritual values, etc.), others see the basis in the material needs and material conditions of social life. But either way, the society involves, above all, living together of many people, actively interacting with each other for the satisfaction of their vital needs. As a result, certain relationships develop between them about the means and ways for meeting their needs based on the existing living conditions. Over time, these relationships become stable and the society itself operates as a totality of social relations. In the process of their practical activities – industrial and economic, moral, spiritual, social and political, and scientific -- people produce the material and spiritual goods necessary for their existence, transform nature, create the necessary spiritual atmosphere and sociocultural environment.

14.2 Contemporary Concepts of Society Contemporary philosophical thought tends to expand the distinguished stages or periods of social development. For example, the approach most often used in Western textbooks is as follows: 1) traditional society (pre-capitalist); 2) capitalist society (includes the early, transitional form of the industrial society, that originated in Western Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, and the industrial society -- since the middle of the 19th century); and 3) post-industrial society (since the 1960s). As such, mankind has passed through three "waves" of civilisation. The traditional society was predominantly agricultural, the industrial industry, as its name suggest, was predominantly industrial, and the post-industrial society is characterised by the prevailing service sector, in which information plays a decisive role. Information in the contemporary society has become a factor affecting its overall development. The term "industrial society" was first used in the philosophical literature by the founders of sociology Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. Walt Rostow, who spent a year at the Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions at the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom), was the author of the widely known "theory of stages of economic growth", which was first published in the 1960 and has since found many supporters. He distinguishes five "stages" in the development of society: 1) traditional society; 2) preconditions for take-off; 3) take-off; 4) drive to maturity; and 5) age of high mass consumption. Rostow explains that, ultimately, the difference between the traditional and modern society, in his opinion, is in whether the level of investment is low in relation to population growth. It is clear from this periodisation of the history of society what traditional society is, but other stages identified by Rostow require clarification. "Preconditions for take-off" is a period when conditions for "take-off" are created, that is conditions necessary for the transition to an industrial civilisation are accumulated. The period (stage) of take-off is the period of the industrial revolution, which was associated with the change in the methods of production. The stage of growth (drive to maturity) is "the period when a society has effectively applied the range of modern technology to the bulk of its resources". The “theory of stages of economic growth” is similar in meaning to the division of world history into the traditional, industrial and post-industrial society. The term "post-industrial society" was coined by the modern American scientist Daniel Bell. The difference between industrial and post-industrial societies, in his opinion, is that the "axial principle" of industrial society is private property, and in post-industrial society it is "creative knowledge". The concept of post-industrial society was first described by him in the book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. He formulated the main characteristics of such society: the creation of a service economy; the growing value of scientific and technical specialists; the central role of theoretical scientific knowledge as a source of innovation and political decisions in society; the possibility of self-sustaining technological growth; and the creation of a new "intellectual" technology. Analysing the new themes in the economy, Bell concluded that there was an emerging transition in the society from the industrial stage of development to the post-industrial stage with a dominating service sector in the economy, rather than the production sector. This understanding was shared by Alvin Toffler, the author of The Third Wave, among many other works. Toffler’s “First Wave” is the “agricultural civilisation”. From China to Benin and Mexico, from Greece to Rome, civilisations emerged and declined, clashing with each other and giving rise to countless mixture of different patterns. However, behind these differences there were also fundamental common features. Everywhere land was the basis of the economy, life, culture, family structure, and politics. Everywhere a simple division of labour was prevailing and there were several clearly defined castes and classes: the nobility, the clergy, soldiers, slaves, or serfs. Everywhere the government was highly authoritarian. Everywhere man’s social background determined his place in life. Everywhere the economy was decentralised and each community produced most of what it needed. Three hundred years ago, give or take half a century, there was an explosion, whose shock waves spread around the whole Earth destroying ancient societies and giving rise to a completely new type of civilisation. It was the industrial revolution. The huge force unleased by it and spreading around the world – the "Second Wave" -- came into contact with the institutions of the past and changed the way of life of millions. By the middle of the 20th century, the forces of the "First Wave" were defeated and the "industrial civilisation" was now ruling the world. However, its absolute power was short-lived, for almost simultaneously with its victory the world began to be taken over by the new, the third (post-industrial) "Wave", which was bringing about new institutions, relations, and values. Toffler notes that, after approximately the mid-1950s, industrial production began to acquire new features. Many areas of technology were now introducing more different types of new equipment, samples of goods, types of services. The specialisation of labour was becoming more and more fragmented. Organisational forms of management were expanding. The volume of publications was increasing. According to Toffler, all this led to an extreme fragmentation of data, which led to the emergence of informatics. He seeks to outline a future society as a return to the pre- industrial civilisation on a new technological basis. Considering history as a succession of rolling waves of change, Toffler analyses the distinctive characteristics of the coming world, whose economic backbone is, in his opinion, electronics and computers, the space industry, the use of the ocean’s depths, and the bio-industry. This is what he calls the "Third Wave", which completes the agrarian and industrial revolution. Toffler examines social changes as a direct result of technological progress. He analyses different aspects of social life considering the transformations in the techno- sphere (which includes the energy base, production and distribution) as the dominating force. Manuel Castells, one of the most prominent representatives of the civilisational concept, presents in his monograph "Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture" the analysis of civilisational processes caused by the development of information technologies. He points out that, in the 20th century, humanity has mainly lived under two dominant modes of production: capitalism and statism (socialism). Castells emphasises capitalism retains its form-building characteristics -- wage labour and competition in the accumulation of capital. In his view, the contemporary form of capitalism is more uncompromising with its goals, but incomparably more flexible with its means compared to that formed in the 1930s-1940s under the influence of Keynesianism and the ideology of the welfare society. He says that, in the new informational mode of development, the source of productivity is in the knowledge generation technologies, processing of information and symbol-based communication. Of course, knowledge and information are important elements for all modes of development, because the production process is always based on a certain level of knowledge and on processing of information. However, the distinctive feature of the informational mode of development is the impact of knowledge on knowledge itself as the main source of productivity. The fundamental difference between the information and technological revolution in comparison with its historical predecessors is, according to Castells, that the previous technological revolutions remained for a long time within a limited territory, whereas new information technologies almost instantly spread throughout the entire planet, which is a critical source of inequality in the contemporary world. Another key feature of the information society, according to Castells, is the network logic of its basic structure. He refers to the social structure of the information age as a "network society" because it is created by networks of production, power and experience that form a culture of virtuality in global flows across time and space. In his view, a new information society emerges when (and if) there is a structural reorganisation in relations of production, relations of power and relations of experience, which leads to equally significant modifications of the social forms of space and time and to the emergence of a new culture. The Canadian sociologist Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) proposed a three-fold model of world history. In his works The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962), Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964), he looks into the socio- historical process from the perspective of the development of mass communication. In his view, the periods of social process can be determined not only in terms of the development of production relations in material production, but also in terms of developing relations, communications (media) in non-material production. Proceeding from this, McLuhan proposes the following periodisation of the socio- historical process: "oral", "handwritten", "book-printing" society, and "electronic age".

Self-check:  Systemic cpcept of society:  Eurasianism and social development of Kazakhstan;  "Magilik El" and Kazakhstan's identity;  Philosophy of the “Information Society”;  Concept of “Network Society”.

CHAPTER 15 Philosophical Understanding of Global Problems 15.1 Main Global Challenges of Our Time Global, or world-wide problems constitute vital problems of mankind. They did not emerge today, but have been accumulating in stages since the end of the 19th century as a by-product and natural result of the contradictory development of the anthropogenic civilisation. Some of these problems -- such as the problems of war and peace, health, etc. -- existed before and remained relevant at all times. Whereas other problems -- environmental, technogenic, etc. -- emerge later in connection with the strong impact of society on the natural environment. Initially, these problems were local and isolated, but, with the globalisation, interdependence and openness of all aspects of social life, have inevitably acquired a global character. In our time, global problems, that are directly related to the development of society and its future, are usually identified as political, economic, social, environmental, demographic, scientific and technological, and cultural. In the 21st century, they have reached the point of utmost urgency. Contemporary capitalism is the driving force for the universal globalisation and the main reason for the intensification of the universal problems of mankind. The reason for this is that, on the one hand, it is at this stage of the development of society that internal contradictions in all spheres of social life become more acute, and on the other hand, capitalism is inherently aimed at implementing the neoliberal and geopolitical program. This is its nature. The global problems brought about by the whole course of the previous development of society and the uneven socio-economic development of contemporary states are inextricably interlinked. Therefore, they can be solved only by joint concerted efforts of all mankind. The qualitative aspect of global problems can be characterised as follows: first, they affect the vital interests of all mankind and each individual alike; second, they acts as an objective factor for further world development, the existence of modern civilisation; third, solving (overcoming) global problems requires efforts of all nations or, at least, of the majority of the world's population; fourth, the insolvable and unresolved global problems can lead in the future to irreparable consequences for the life of all mankind and every individual. All global problems of social development are characterised by mobility: none of these problems remains static, each is changing and becomes less or more intense and, accordingly, significant in a particular historical era. As some of the global problems are solved, they can lose their relevance at the global scale, moving to another, say, local level, or even disappearing altogether (an example of this is the smallpox disease, which, in the past, was indeed a global problem and has virtually disappeared today). All global problems exist in a complex interconnection and interdependence. This means that the solution of one particular problem involves taking into account the impact caused on it by the complex of other problems. Global problems are closely related to each other and have common sources of origin and development, therefore it is important to classify and systematise them in a certain way, to understand the reasons for their emergence and the conditions under which they can be solved by society. Today's global problems significantly change our views on the ongoing evolutionary processes in the world. Evolution transforms humans, but humans, too, influence and affect evolution by changing its nature and manifestation. Moreover, we can now say that humans themselves are to a great extent responsible for the evolution of the world and that the burden of this responsibility seems to be is too heavy to bear. The concept for solving global environmental problems put forward by the Club of Rome, a leading global think tank of famous scientists, cultural figures, entrepreneurs, and statesmen from different countries who share common values, is of particular interest. This organisation was set up in late 1960s and immediately won universal recognition. For several years, it was headed by a prominent Italian entrepreneur and economist Aurelio Peccei (1908-1984). In his book The Human Quality, he identifies the global state of environment that had developed by the early 1970s as a crisis situation. He emphasises that man whose material power has reached its peak turned the planet into his empire, which already spells environmental disaster. Man has an increasingly growing and insatiable appetite for consumption, completely ignoring the consequences of his growing ambitions and needs. The diverse artificial world created by man is taking more and more of nature’s space. Aurelio Peccei concludes that the finite size of our planet necessarily implies limits for human expansion into nature. This conclusion was contrary to the prevailing in the world culture focus on unrestrained growth of production. It became a symbol of a new style of thinking and man's attitude towards nature. A number of projects on major challenges facing mankind have been put forward under the auspices of the Club of Rome, including the following: - World Dynamics by Jay W. Forrester et al (1971); - The Limits to Growth by Donella Meadows et al (1972); - Mankind at the Turning Point by Mihajlo Mesarovic and Eduard Pestel (1974); - Global Constraints and a New Vision for Development, Yoichi Kaya et al (1974); - Food for a Growing World Population by Hans Linneman (1975), - Beyond the Age of Waste by Dennis Gabor (1976); - Goals for Mankind by Ervin Laszlo (1977); - The next 200 years: a scenario for America and the world by Herman Kahn et al (1976); - The Future of the World Economy by Wassily Leontief et al, (1979). The following conclusions can be made from these projects: - there is a need to slow growth and stabilise the world's population; - with the current level of technological development and the limited natural resources, the Earth is not able to feed and meet the normal needs of the rapidly growing population. Today's global problems significantly change our views on the ongoing evolutionary processes in the world. Evolution transforms man, but man, too, influences the course of evolution, changes the character and the way of its manifestation. The responsibility for the evolution of man lies to a large extent with man himself, but people are unable to assume the burden of this responsibility. Without an optimal collective solution of the vital challenges and problems faced by all mankind, it has no future. As such, the philosophy of global problems offers a wide range of analysis of local and universal contradictions of today’s world and ways for their solution.

Self-check:  Global problems of our time;  Club of Rome: establishment and activities;  Ten global challenges of our time;  Features of contemporary global consciousness;  Role and place of Kazakhstan in contemporary global civilization.

ESSENTIAL READING Петрова В.Ф., Хасанов М.Ш. Философия. Учебник. Алматы, «Эверо», 2011 (Petrova, V.F., Khasanov, M.Sh. Philosophy. Almaty, Evero, 2011). Чанышев А. Н. Курс лекций по древней философии. М., 1991 (Chanyshev, A. Lectures on Ancient Philosophy, Moscow, 1991). Богут И.И. История философии в кратком изложении. М., 1991 (Bogut, I.I. Brief History of Philosophy, Moscow, 1991). Реале Д., Антисери Д. Западная философия от истоков до наших дней. В 4 томах. СПб.: 1994 – 1997 (Reale, G., Antiseri, D. Western Philosophy from its Origin to Our Days, 4 Volumes, St.Petersburg, 1994 – 1997). Соколов В. В. Европейская философия XV–XVII вв. М., 1999 (Sokolov, V.V. European Philosophy from the 15th Century to the 17th Century, Moscow, 1999).

ADDITIONAL READING Проблема человека в западной философии. М., 1988 (Anthropology in Western Philosophy, Moscow, 1988). Степин В. С. Философская антропология и философия науки. М., 1992 (Stepin, V.S., Philosophical Anthropology and Philosophy of Science, Moscow, 1992). Castells, M. The rise of the network society: The information age: Economy, society, and culture. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons, 1999 (Кастельс М. Информационная эпоха: экономика, общество и культура./Пер. с англ. под ред. О. Шкаратана. М., 2000). Замалеев А. Ф. Курс истории русской философии. М., 1996 (Zamaleyev, A. A Course in History of Russian Philosophy, Moscow, 1996). Касабек А., Касабек С. Искание истины. Алматы, 1998 (Kasabek, A, Kasabek, S. Pursuit of Truth, Almaty, 1998). Орынбеков М.С. Духовные основы консолидации казахов. Алматы, 2001 (Orynbekov, M.S. Spiritual Foundations for the Consolidations of Kazakhs, Almaty, 2001). Сегизбаев О.А. История казахской философии и социально-политической мысли (От архаичных представлений древних до учений развитых форм Х1Х – первой половины ХХ века), Алматы. 2005 (Segizbayev, O.A. History Social and Political Philosophy of the Kazakhs: From Primitive Philosophy to the Concepts of the 19th—first half of the 20th Century, Almaty, 2005) Каракозова Ж., Хасанов М.Ш. Космос казахской культуры. Алматы, Эверо. 2011 (Karakozova, Zh., Khasanov, M.Sh. The Cosmos of Kazakh Culture, Almaty, Evero, 2011). Bell, D. The Coming of the Post-Industrial Society. A Venture of Social Forecasting // Contemporary Sociology-A Journal of Reviews 3.2 (1974) (Белл Д.. Грядущее постиндустриальное общество. Опыт социального прогнозирования. М.:1999). Toffler, A. The third wave. New York: Morrow (1980): 27-28. (Тоффлер Э. Третья волна. М.: ООО «Фирма «Издательство ACT», 1999). Castells, M. Galaxy Internet. Reflections on the Internet, business and society. Ekaterinburg: Izd Humanities University Publishing House U-Factor 324, 2004 (Кастельс М. Галактика Интернет. Размышления об Интернете, бизнесе и обществе. Екатеринбург, 2004). Кузнецов М.М. Философия Маршалла Маклюэна и коммуникативные стратегии Интернета – М.: Институт философии РАН, http :// www . isn . ru / info / seminar - doc / Mclw .doc (Kuznetsov, M.M. The Philosophy of Marshall McLuhan and Communication Strategies of the Internet, Moscow, RAS Institute of Philosophy, http :// www . isn . ru / info / seminar - doc / Mclw .doc).