Table of Contents

Foreword (iii)

Preface (v)

1. Introduction 1

Preamble 1 Physiography of the Basin 3 The Himalaya 4 Regional Division of Himalaya 7 Characteristics of the Indus Plains 10 Climate and Rainfall 10 River System 14 The Indus-Main 14 Jhelum 15 Chenab 16 Ravi 17 Beas 17 Sutlej 18 Kabul 18 Kurram 18 River Flows 18 Overview of Irrigation Development in the Indus Basin 21 Nineteenth Century 22 Twentieth Century 24 Structures across the Rivers 27 2. Ancient History of the Indus Basin 33 Gleanings from Archaeological and Early Historical Evidences 33 Pre-Harappan Civilisation (Before 2300 BC) 33 The Indus - Harappan Civilisation (2300 BC to 1500 BC) 34 Phases of Harappan Civilisation 36 Important Sites 36 Prevalent Rainfall Pattern in the Indus Valley 37 Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture, Arts and Crafts 38 Village Settlement Pattern 39 Population 39 Agriculture 39 Irrigation Developments in the Basin 41 Irrigation Works Discovered 42 Gabar Bunds 42 KachBund 42 Water Lifting Devices - 'Reti', 'Shaduf' or 'Dhenkli', 'Charas' or Persian Wheel System 43 Decline of Indus Civilisation 44 Recent Findings and Views 45 History of River Capture 48

Developments from 1500 BC to 1526 AD 53

Aryans (1500 BC) 53 Buddhism - Jainism (600 BC) 54 Rural Committees and Professions 54 Agriculture and Commerce 55 Persian and Greek Invasion (326 BC) 55 Mauryas (321 BC to 185 BC) 56 Guptas (300 to 500) 59 Influence over East Asia 60 Life in the Gupta Age 60 Agriculture 61 Soil Classification and Land Use 61 Agricultural Implements and Accessories 61 Irrigation 61 Crops 63 Renaissance in Art, Literature and Science 63 Advanced Iron Technology and Manufacturing of Agricultural Tools 63 Period from 500 to 712 64 Period from 712 to 1526 64 Arabic Muslim Rulers 64 Tughlak Dynasty 65 Muhammad-bin-Tbghlak 66 Feroz Shah T\ighlak 6 7 Afghan Rule 68 4. Developments from 1526 to 1819 69 Early Record 69 Babur (1526 -1530) and Humayun (1530 -1556) 70 5/?er S/*a/* Sun (1540 -1545) 70 Akbar (1556 -1605) 70 Jahangir (1605 -1627) 72 S/HZ/I /«/ifl» (152* -1658) 72 Aurangzeb (1658 -1707) 73 Inundation Canals in the Indus Basin 7 7 Upper Indus 77 Lower Indus 77 Chenab 11 Beas 11 Sutlej 78 Construction of 'Kuhls' in Hilly Areas 78 5. Developments from 1819 to 1947 79

Old Inundation Canals 79 Improvements in Inundation Canals 8 0 Inundation Canals in Punjab 81 Indus 81 Jhelum 81 Chenab 81 Ravi 82 Upper Sutlej 83 Inundation Canals in North West Frontier Province (NWFP) 83 Inundation Canals in the Sindh Province (The Indus River) 83 Desert Canal 83 Begari Canal 84 Sukkur Canal 84 Garh Canal 84 Western Nara Canal 84 Eastern Nara Canal 85 Jamrao Canal 85 Inundation Canals in the Delta Area 85 Baghar Canal 85 Pinyari Canals 85 Kalari Canals 86 Phuleli Canals 86 Construction of New Canal Systems with Weir Controlled Supplies 86 Projects in Punjab 87 Upper Bari Doab Canal 87 Sirhind Canal 88 Extension of Canal Irrigation to Desert Wastelands 89 Sidhnai Canal 90 Lower Chenab Canal 90 Lower Jhelum Canal 91

The Triple Canals 93 Sutlej Valley 96 Deficiencies of Supplies in Sutlej Valley Canals 99 Haveli Canal 99 Projects in Sindh 101 Sukkur Barrage 101 Kotri and Guddu Barrages 104 Irrigation from Other Sources 104 Research and Development 104 Weirs and Barrage Design 105 Problems relating to the Working of Irrigation Canals 109 Distribution of Irrigation Supplies 112 Outlets 112 Review of Irrigation Development in the Indus Basin upto 1947 115 River Flows 119 Upcoming Plans 119 6. Developments from 1947 to 1960 121 Preamble 121 Developments in Pakistan 122 Warsak Dam - An Irrigation cum Hydropower Project 123 Abbasia Canal Extension 125 Thai Canal Project 125 Thai Canal 125 Taunsa 126 Inter-River Link before the Indus Water Treaty 128 Bombanwala - Ravi - Bedian - Dipalpur Link 128 Balloki - Suleimanki Link 128 Marala - Ravi Link 129 Kotri Barrage (Ghulam Mohammad Barrage) 129 Kalri - Baghar Feeder 130 Pinyari Canal 130 Phuleli Canal 130 Akram-wah Canal 131 Special Scheme for Rehabilitation of Military Families 131 Small Dams 132 Developments in India 132 Harike Barrage 138 Makhu Canal 138 Ferozepur Feeder 138 Need for Storages 139 Bhakra Nangal Project 141 Bhakra Dam and its Power Houses 143 Nangal Project 144 Nangal Hydel Canal and its Power Houses 145 Bist Doab Canal 146 Expansion of the Capacity of the Sirhind Canal 146 Remodelling of the Ropar Headworks 147 Bhakra Canal System 148 Rajasthan Feeder and Rajasthan Canal (IGNP) 150 Madhopur-Beas Link and Remodelling ofMadhopur Headworks 151 Madhopur - Beas Link 151 Madhopur Headworks 152 Beas 152 Review of Developments 152 7. Indus Water Treaty, 1960 and after 157 The Indus Water Treaty 157 Developments in Pakistan 161 Reservoirs 161 New Link Canal Projects 161 Barrage Projects 161 Remodelling of Existing Links, Barrages and Canal Systems 163 Reservoirs 163 New Link Canals 166 Chashma - Jhelum System 168 Taunsa - Panjnad Link 168 Rasul - Qadirabad - Balloki - Suleimanki Link System 168 Trimmu - Sidhnai - Mailsi - Bahawal System 169 Barrages 170 Guddu Barrage 170 New Sidhnai Barrage 171 Mailsi Syphon 171 Marala Barrage 171 Qadirabad Barrage 171 Rasul Barrage 172 Chashma Barrage 172 Remodelling of Existing Systems 173 Balloki - Suleimanki Link II 173 Sukkur Command 173 Danistar Canal, 1972 175 Matli Branch, 1978 -1979 175 Developments in India 176 Bhakra Dam 178 Bhakra Experience 178 Beas 181 Beas - Sutlej Link (BSL) - Unit I 181 Beas Dam-Unit II 182 Ranjit Sagar Dam 185 Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) Project 186 Jammu and Kashmir 191 Groundwater Use for Irrigation 191 Increased Agricultural Production 192 Lift Canals in Haryana 192 Irrigation Schemes in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal 192 Post 1960 Milestones in Irrigation Development in the Indus Basin, India 193

8. Groundwater Use in the Indus Basin 195

Ancient Past 195 Developments during the Period 1000 to 1900 196 Well Irrigation and Use of Persian Wheel 196 Developments of T\ibewells during the Period 1900 to 1947 199 Developments from 1947 Onwards 201 Pakistan 201 Phenomenal Growth of Private Sector T\ibewells 203 Monitoring and Observations of Groundwater 205 Changes in Groundwater Levels before the Introduction of Irrigation Canals 207 Behaviour of Groundwater Levels after the Construction of Canals 207 Sindh Region 208 Areas on the Right Side of the Indus 209 Overall Position of Groundwater Levels in the Indus Plain (Pakistan) 209 Groundwater in Areas that do not have an Irrigation System 209 Irrigation by Infiltration Galleries (Karezs) 211 India 214 Nature of the Aquifer and Hydro-geological Characteristics 214 Hydro-Geological Status 214 Development of Groundwater 219 Strategies of Sustainable Development of Agriculture 223 9. Measures against Waterlogging and Soil Salinity 227 The Twin Problem 227 Nineteenth Century 228 Twentieth Century 230 The Early Period (1900 -1947) 230 Attempts for Reclamation 230 More Studies 233 Waterlogging Board 233 Setting up of the Land Reclamation Board 234 Implementation of Recommendations 234 Land Reclamation Directorate 235 Post Partition Period (After 1947) 236 Measures adopted in Pakistan 236 Promotion of Basic Research 236 Groundwater Development Organisation 237 Creation of Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) 237 Projects for Salinity Control and Reclamation (SCARPs) 237 Water and Power Development Authority's Plans 238 Plans by Other Agencies 239 Accelerated Programme 239 Implementation of SCARP Programme 240 Participation of the Private Sector 242 Reclamation of Areas with Saline Groundwater 243 Research Efforts 244 Existing Drainage Infrastructure and Future Strategy 245 Balochistan 246 Measures adopted in India 246 A Review of Measures Taken in Punjab, the Major State in the Basin 247 Counter-Measures 248 Impact of Measures 251 Rajasthan 254 Intensification of Research Efforts for Salinity Management at National Level 255 Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) 255 Reclamation and Development Corporation 256 Pilot Field Studies 256 Summary 257

10. Flood Management 261

Preamble 261 Causes of Floods 262 Flooding Pattern and Drainage in the Indus Basin 263 Flood Damages 263 Flood Protection Measures before 1947 265 Setting up of Research Institutes 267 Flood Management in Pakistan after 1947 267 The Flood Protection Measures Adopted and Their Effectiveness 271 Structural Approach 271 Non-structural Approach 272 Relief Organisation 274 Flood Management in India after 1947 275 National Level Measures 275 Implementation 276 National Commission on Floods 277 Non-structural Approach 278 Flood Protection Measures in States 278 Punjab 279 Haryana 280 Himachal Pradesh 281 Rajasthan 281 Jammu and Kashmir 281 11. Management and Modernisation of Irrigation Systems 283 Management of Irrigation Systems 283 Legal1 Framework 283 Methodology for Distribution of Water 284 Water Allowance and Delivery 284 Chakbandi: Planning of Irrigation Supply to Command Area Served by One Outlet 285 Outlet 287 Rational Operation of Distributaries 290 Roster of Turns - Warabandi System 294 Procedure followed for Distribution and Regulation of Canal Supplies 290 Pakistan 298 Distribution and Regulation of Canal Supplies between Provinces 298 Internal Regulation within a Canal System 306 Distribution at the Farm Level through Warabandi 307 India 308 Regulation of Canal Systems in Punjab 308 Distribution of Water to the Fields 311 Modernisation of Irrigation Systems 312 Pakistan 312 Inherent Limitations of the Irrigation System 313 Consequences 313 Mona Reclamation Experimental Project 315 Research and Development 315 Command Area Water Management 320 India 322 Punjab 322 Haryana 324 Himachal Pradesh 327 Rajasthan 327 Developments in Jammu and Kashmir 332 12. Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts 335 An Overview 335 Impact of Irrigation 337 Environmental Impact 337 Flora and Fauna 338 Waterlogging and Salinity 340 Effect on the Indus Delta 341 Socio-economic Impacts 341 Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Displaced People from Reservoir Projects 342 Quality of Life and Social Stability 343 Provision of Drinking Water and its Impact on Public Health 344 Tourism and Recreation 346 Pisciculture Development 346 Development in Areas lying on the Fringes of Reservoirs 347 Impact of Flood Management Oriented Works 347 Conclusion 348 13. Epilogue 351 An Overview 351 The Indus Water Treaty and thereafter 352 The Evolving Scenario of Irrigated Agriculture 353 Groundwater Development and Conjunctive Use 356 Present Status of Development of Water Resources 357 Pakistan 357 India 359 Management of Surface and Ground Water for Irrigation 361 Monitoring 362 Role of Farmers 362 Legal Framework 363 Water Pricing 363 Organisational Setup 364 Strengths and Weaknesses 365 Strengths 365 Weaknesses 365 Drainage Needs and Integration with the Infrastructure 366 Pakistan 366 India 370 Socio-economic Status 371 Pakistan 371 Rural Setup 371 India 372 Role of the Indus Basin in the Economy of the Countries 372 Participatory Approach 373 Future Challenges and Approaches 374 Index 377