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Home , Francis West, George Percy, George Yeardley, Opechancanough, Paspahegh, Samuel Argall

222

The Antecedents of the Massacre of 1622: An Aide-mémoire

Philip L. Barbour Ridgefield, Connecticut

The objective of this aide-mémoire is statistical rather than literary . It is an atternpt to take stock of recorded acts of hostility between the Indians and the colonists in Virginia during the first fifteen years in order to provide a factual basis for future studies of Anglo-Indian relations in the early colonial period. A number of surnrnaries of the record, along with deductions therefrom , have already been published . Let us see if the full record (barring a few possible oversights) will bear out any already published theory.

Prologue Whiternen were not unknown in Virg inia before the arriva! of the first permanent colonists . About 1559-1560 a Spanish reconnaissance expedition entered , and a brother of the local chieftain sornehow "joined" the Spaniards and sailed with them to Mexico (Barbour 1970). After various adventures , this Indian returned and was involved in destroying an atternpted Jesuit settlernent in 1570. The later overlord of that region, , was then about 25 years old. He may have been a party to this (Barbour 1976; Quinn 1955 ) . Then in the 1580's the first English colonial venture in that neighbourhood arrived , was reinforced , survived briefly, and expired . Powhatan hirnself may have struck the final blow. Other whiternen ' s ships prowled these waters between 1590 and 1607, notably one that visited the Rappahannock River not too long before the latter year , and unquestionably troubled Powhatan . By then, his empire was all but complete, and stretched from the hills opposite Washington, D. C. , to the Great Disrnal Swamp on the Virginia-North Carolina boundary. But even as he consolidated his power, sorne "unforeseeable Thing " presaged great ill for Powhatan (Barbour 1970) . The curtain lifts on the tragic drarna.

Calendar of events

First Period . 1607 . April 26: The first colonists arrived at . Unprovoked attack by Chesapeake Indians; 2 whiternen injured (Percy 1969). April 30 : Colonists "welcorned " at Old Point Cornfort . May 8 : Appornatoc chief bids the colonists be gone . May 13 : Jarnestown founded in hunting-grounds . May 14 : Paspahegh spies seen . Alarrn . May 18: Paspahegh chief visited Jarnestown with lOO warriors . Altercation , but no casualties . May 23 : Exploring party entertained at Powhatan village. (Percy 1 608 ; Archer 1607) . May 24 : Party sets up cross, irritating local chief . May 26 : While Parnunkey chief entertains. party, Paspahegh chief attacks Jarnestown; 2 English killed .

Published in : Papers of the 8th Algonquian Conference (1977) 223 May 29: Jamestown again assaulted; no damage. May 31: Colonist Clovell shot; he died June 8. June 1: A score of Indians came shooting; no damage. June 4: Three Indians shot at a colonist; no damage. June 8: Two Indians came crying "wingapo"; sentry fired at them and they fled. June 13: Eight Indians shot Fitch, but he survived. June 14: Two unarmed Indians came with advice. June 16: Two others tried to capture Captain Newport. June 21: , Powhatan's brother, sent a message of peace. June 22: Newport sailed for England with two ships. June 25: Powhatan sent a message of peace. July 3: Opechancanough sent a deer, and asked about the missing ships. July 7 (or 27?): Quiyoughcohannock chief came with words of peace, and asked about ships (Percy 1608; Wingate 1608). July 27: Sickness broke out in Jamestown. August 10: Bruster died of an arrow-wound. August 14: Alicock, the same. September 10: Nearly half the colonists dead. December 8(?)-31: Trading voyages led to 's capture, and presentation to Powhatan; "saves" his life (Smith 1884). Second Period. 1608. January 2: Smith returns safely to Jamestown; Newport arrives with fresh colonists the same evening (Barbour 1969). January 7: Jamestown burned. Powhatan starts sending venison, bread, etc. for trade. End of February and early March: Newport visits Powhatan; beginning of friendly period, while Powhatan considers how to get the colonists to leave his realm. April 10: Newport sailed again for England. About this time trouble developed with Indians bent on acquiring swords, and with unruly colonists. Imprisonments, but no casualties. April 20: Nelson's supply ship arrived; sailed June 2 (Smith 1884). June 2 to September 7: Smith exploring Chesapeake Bay and various rivers. June 16: Beginning of several encounters up , but the colonists "lost not a man;" Indian casualties not known. July 20: Beginning of encounters with Indians north of Potomac River; no casualties to colonists, but "some [Indians] slaine", in "wrangling" with the Toppahannocks, a "peevish nation." September 6(?): Returning to Jamestown, Smith stopped to explore River and was ambushed; a sharp skirmish followed, with no known casualties (Smith 1884). September 7: Smith and his party reached Jamestown (note that there are no Jamestown records, June-September); "many dead" reported, but cause not specified. September 10: Smith elected President of the Council. Late September: Newport arrived with "arm-chair" orders from London Council, more colonists, and inadequate supplies. Powhatan was crowned with unhappy results, a gold- or iron- seeking expedition left 89 (of 200) "lame and sicke," and discontenPublishedt spread in : Papers. Smit of theh 8threplenishe Algonquian Conferenced colony stor(1977)e by force, but without reported casualties on either side. 224 Late December: Newport returned to England (Smith 1884). December 29: Smith takes the pinnace and barge to for a show-down with Powhatan over food and safety; enter­ tained and fed by Indians on the way. 1609. January 12: Smith arrived at Werowocomoco. A day or two later, Powhatan said to him (sighing): "none doth denie to laie at my feet (or do) what I desire, but only you, . . . you will have whatsoever you demand." The sigh and the admission speak volumes. ca. January 14: Powhatan retreated into the forest. A few days later Smith arrived at Opechancanough's residence, a few miles upstream. After lengthy bickering, Smith, incensed over the delay, challenged the chief to a person-to-person encounter. The chief yielded, and barter resumed. After January 22: "Some Salvages" attempted to murder Smith in his sleep, and not long after an attempt was made to poison him--without success. ca. February 8: Smith's expedition returned to Jamestown. Soon thereafter Smith issued an edict, "that he that will not worke shall not eate" (Smith 1884). March: Dutch workmen sent to build a house for Powhatan began stirring up serious trouble. Smith had an encounter with the Paspahegh chief, who was taken prisoner. Further minor troubles with Indians; Smith reported "there died not past 7 or 8" since September 10. Later another, more general, brawl, but "we heard of no hurt" (Smith); and still later an Indian blew himself up along with one or two more, experi­ menting with gunpowder. July 13: arrived on a test voyage by a shorter route, but also brought supplies. By then the Indians obviously became aware of the moral poison that afflicted the colonists (Smith 1884) . August 11: Four of the nine ships that had sailed from England under Sir arrived in , after a -tossed voyage during which Gates and the flagship were wrecked on . Two more arrived shortly, and a third much later (Barbour 1969). Smith's ancient foes immediately set up a counter-government, pending the expiration of Smith's term of office. Gates, the newly appointed Governor, seemed to be lost. August 31: Argall sailed for England, bearing word of the colony's problems. Mutiny against Smith developed so far that he resigned the presidency to Captain John Martin, who gave it back three hours later. ca. September 1-10: , Lord De La Warr's brother, took 120 colonists to settle near Powhatan village, at the Falls, seizing the chieftain. The Indians, finding him weak and nervous, attacked, killed many of his men, freed the chief, and carried 1000 bushels of corn away. Despite rein­ forcements sent by Smith, West started back to Jamestown, but Smith met him and led him back. There Smith paid the chief for the site, and arranged for a permanent English fort. West's mismanagement was such, however, that the Indians attacked him the moment Smith sailed away and killed many. PublishedSmith returnedin : Papers, of attemptethe 8th Algonquiand to Conferenceput matters straight(1977) , and once more sailed for Jamestown. On his way he was accidentally burned by gunpowder, and incapacitated (Smith 1884) . 225 ca. September 10: Smith relinquished the presidency at Jamestown, and planned to return to England, but was accused of misconduct and brought to some sort of trial. October 4: Captain Sicklemore, alias Ratcliffe, wrote to Lord Salisbury that Smith was being sent home and that was elected President. Smith reached London before or on November 30. Third Period. ca. October 18: Percy sent some colonists to Old Point Comfort (Percy 1922) to try to live off fish, and Captain John Martin, the original colonist, gave up an attempt to start a colony on the Nansemond River. Mutiny promptly broke out in the latter, and Indians attacked, 17 men vanished forever into the forest, and the rest were killed. October-December: The fort at Powhatan village was abandoned. Percy decided that the colony would starve before supplies could arrive from London, and sent Sicklemore/Ratcliffe to Powhatan to bargain. Due to lack of discipline, the Indians were able to wipe out the expedition (some 30 men) except for one boy. Sicklemore/Ratcliffe was tortured to death. Percy then dispatched Francis West to the Potomac to trade, but West sailed straight back to England as soon as he had got enough food for the voyage. 1610. January-May: The "" in Jamestown. As Percy wrote, "Of five hundred men we had only left about sixty, the rest being either starved through famine, or cut off by the savages." May 21: Sir Thomas Gates, Sir , Captain , and all the wrecked colonists arrived off Old Point Comfort in a pinnace and a bark built in Bermuda. Two days later, they reached Jamestown (Strachey 1905) finding nothing but "desolation and misery." Not long before this, the Indians had cut off a large boat, "and divers of our men killed." May 25-26: Two colonists killed. June 7: Gates ordered abandonment of Jamestown. June 8: The colonists encounter Lord De La Warr bringing supplies and colonists, and all return to Jamestown. June 10-12: De La Warr sums up situation, finding gross mismanage­ ment of the colony, including destruction of 500-600 swine, all the poultry and the horses and mares eaten, and determines to send Somers back to Bermuda for food. July 6: Nansemond Indians capture and "sacrifice" Humphrey Blunt, one of Gates' men. July 9: Gates took Kecoughtan, but all the Indians had fled. Soon thereafter, De La Warr sent an "embassy" to Powhatan, remonstrating for the death of four men recently at the block­ house near Jamestown, and other matters, and demanded that such practices should cease, or he would retaliate. Also, he demanded return of prisoners, etc. Powhatan's answer was that the English "should depart his country or confine our­ selves to Jamestown only," otherwise "he would give a command to his people to kill us," and to send no more messengers "unless they brought him a coach and three horses" such as the great werowances in England rode in. July 9-15: Published"Diver ins : Paperstime sof thean d8th daily Algonquian" Powhata Conferencen sent (1977)two or three to Jamestown to spy, and they killed many colonists. 226

July 15: Kainta, son of the werowance of Warraskoyack, captured but escaped. July 19: Somers and Argall sailed for Bermuda for supplies. August 9: De La Warr sent 70 men under Percy (Percy 1922) to take revenge on the Paspaheghans and Chickahominies for Powhatan's behaviour, falling upon a town without warning and putting "some fiftene or sixtene to the Sworde and Almoste all the reste to Flyghte." Having captured the "queen" and her children and one Indian, Percy had the Indian's head cut off, and the children thrown into the river, where they were gunned to death. Then he ordered everything, includ­ ing food, destroyed, and sailed back to Jamestown. De La Warr ordered the "queen" burned alive, but Percy allowed his deputy to murder her in the forest. August 15(?): Argall sent on a like mission to Warraskoyack, but since the Indians all ran away, he merely destroyed their crops and houses. Later, an Indian had his hands cut off on suspicion of spying. Then the leader of a band that tried to run away was executed, and shortly after a party sailing up to the Falls went ashore and were given a feast by the Indians. This cost the lives of all but one. Next, another party had many encounters and skirmishes with Indians in the neighbourhood, but no casualties reported. Still later, towards winter, "Lawares" fort built at the Falls (Barbour 1970)... Winter, 1610-1611: Encounters with Indians both at the Falls and at Jamestown, with losses on both sides. 1611. March 28: De La Warr left Jamestown for good. March 29: 500-600 Indians assaulted the blockhouse at Jamestown and killed many colonists; no mention of Indian dead. May 12: Marshal Sir arrived, determined to bring law and order. May 22: Dale promulgated a new code of laws, with the death penalty for the slightest misdeed. Soon thereafter he attacked the ; many Indians killed and wounded. June: Skirmishes with Indians. September: Dale set out to found Henrico, 60-odd miles above Jamestown; several skirmishes on the way, but no casualties reported. At the site, modern Farrar's Island, many skirmishes caused deaths and casualties among whites. Desertions followed, but deserters who were caught were hanged, burned, broken on the wheel, impaled, or shot to death. Others who merely robbed the store were bound to trees and left to starve. Later, in Jamestown, Gates put to death many Indians who came to trade. Following this, there are few if any specific references to fights, casualties, or even contacts, for many months. 1612. April 22: George Percy sailed back to England, after almost five years in Virginia. September 12: Argall returned to Virginia (Barbour 1970). From then till: November 1: Argall and Dale "pursued" the Indians for corn. Dale came near to being killed; indicating that the pursuit was none too peaceful. December 1: Argall sailed for the Potomac to trade. He had made friends there, and so obtained "good store of corne. " 1613. February 1: Argall returned to Jamestown with 1,100 bushels.Published Immediatel in : Papersy ofthereafte the 8th Algonquianr starte Conferenced building (1977)a frigate. March 19: Leaving this half-finished, Argall sailed up the Rappahannock, where found some bison and interesting minerals. 227

There he learned that Pocahontas was visiting the "great King Patowomeck," so he went back to the Potomac, where he succeeded in kidnapping her. This done, he sent word to Powhatan with terms for her release. April 13: Argall left Potomac for Jamestown. April to May 12: Argall trading with friendly Indians in Rappahannock, etc., and finishing frigate. June: Argall sailed north, leaving Pocahontas in Jamestown. June 22: Argall located the French colony in , and set about removing it. This matter occupied his attention until almost the end of the year. 1614. ca. March 1: Dale took over Argall's frigate, put 150 men in it, along with Pocahontas, and paid an apocalyptic visitation on Powhatan's tribe, up the River. There was a major fight, with many Indian casualties, and destruction and robbery by the English. At last Pocahontas herself intervened, and peace was achieved. This lasted, with little or no violation, until after her death in March 1617, and Powhatan's in April 1618. Fourth Period. (Barbour 1970) . 161.8. May 1: Because of "Indian problems," Argall, interim Governor in De La Warr's absence, issued proclamations to the colonists against: private bartering with the Indians, teaching Indians to use fire arms, shooting except in self- defense, striking up any familiarity with the Indians that might reveal the colony's weakness, etc., under pain of death or other suitable punishment. October 5: London heard of De La Warr's death at sea. October 21: was appointed Governor in his place. November 18: Yeardley received a commission to set up a General Assembly in Virginia, and was knighted by King James six days later. Yeardley spent a fortune on fine clothes and took off. Ridiculed in London, Yeardley was snubbed by Opechancanough, Powhatan's successor. Some colonists began to wonder if the peace would continue in Virginia. 1619. July 30: The General Assembly met in Jamestown, with 22 burgesses representing 11 "cities, suburbs, hundreds, and plantations" along the James, inhabited by ca. 1,000 colonists. Not long after, "Robert the Pole" began stirring up more trouble with the Indians along the Potomac. By December, 1,000 more colonists arrived. Also by then, Robert approached Opechancanough, got rid of a capable English interpreter by perjury, and connived with Yeardley to sell guns to the Indians. , Pocahontas' husband now remarried, protested to London, to little avail. 16 20: About New Year a pestilence raged in the colony, taking several hundred lives. London prepared a new governor, Sir , and sent him over. And meanwhile one George Thorpe, of distinguished kin, was seeking to accomplish that very familiarity with the Indians that Argall deplored. In fact, Thorpe built a house for Opechancanough, but there were troubles, and the colonists suffered from various maladies and died. 1621. June 22: Thorpe wrote to London that he was going to visit Opechancanough, which the Council in due time commeried, while thePublishedy warne in d: Papers Governo of ther 8th Wyat Algonquiant not Conference to be "entrapped(1977) " by any of the Indians. 228

November 18: Wyatt was officially installed as Governor. Meanwhile, John Pory, Secretary of the local Council, and others were exploring the Potomac, where they got informa­ tion from some werowance that led them to believe that they could find a "good passage" to the Pacific Ocean not more than 150 miles above the James River Falls (at Richmond). 1622. February: Pory went exploring in North Carolina, along the Chowan River, and found "silk-grass" and great pine forests. ca. March 6: A ubiquitous Indian called "Jack of the Feathers" because of his bodily adornment visited a colonist named Morgan and invited him to go trading in the Pamunkey country 20-25 miles north. A few days later, Morgan's two young servants saw the Indian again, this time wearing Morgan's cap. They drew a gun on him, and the upshot was that Jack was killed. Opechancanough raised an uproar over this, but Wyatt stood firm, and all seemed calm. March 20: A small party of colonists got lost and were guided home by the Indians, and the same day and the next, Indians pleasantly borrowed boats to cross the James. March 22: Indians came to the various plantations to trade as usual, or to work in the fields. Then, as if at a precon­ certed signal, they turned on the colonists and slew a reported 347 of them. More would have been killed had not a loyal Indian given one plantation warning. The die was cast. Relentless war began as King James' subjects began the extermination of the people who once owned the land. Epilogue Though the colony at Plymouth had been founded a year and a half before, no similar problem arose for many years for the simple reason that the tribes who had occupied that part of Massachusetts had been wiped out by some contagious European disease in 1617 or so. Before that time, in 1614, John Smith had had skirmishes with unfriendly Indians, although he was generally well treated. Perhaps, in closing, it should be repeated that the Europeans were not wanted, and their aggressiveness was met (though unsuccessfully) by every countermeasure the Indians could take. Brief Recapitulation First period, April 26, 1607, to January 2, 1608: Arrival of the colonists. Immediate Anglo-Indian tension. John Smith emerges as a diplomatic trader, but is captured and brought before Powhatan. Powhatan sees in Smith an English "werowance" (chief) and "adopts" him as a potential friend and ally. Second period, January 2, 1608, to ca. October 4, 1609: Despite some casualties, relations improve until the London Council decides to crown Powhatan as a tributary monarch under James I. Powhatan receives the crown, but refuses to be a subject of anybody. Con­ fusion in orders, the shipwreck of the new Governor, and an accident to Smith end 21 months of relative peace and cooperation. Third period, ca. October 4, 1609, to April 1618: Violence flares up due to English mismanagement and lack of discipline, and the "starving time" begins. When reinforcements arrive for the colony, Smith's policies are reversed and mutual Anglo-Indian murder becomePublisheds a wain :y Papersof life of the. 8thA Algonquiant length Conference another practica(1977) l captain 229 arrives in the person of Samuel Argall, who, by the simple expedient of capturing Pocahontas as a hostage, and later by edicts against unofficial trading, brings about cessation of hostilities. Fourth period, May 1, 1618, to March 22, 1622: The combined deaths of Pocahontas and Powhatan weaken what amicable ties exist, and misguided behaviour among the colonists tries the patience of Powhatan's successor. After months of planning, evidently, an attempt is made to root out the colony. The massacre ended Indian independence, not English colonialism.

Published in : Papers of the 8th Algonquian Conference (1977)