Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

Cent. Eur. J. Geosci. • 3(3) • 2011 • 271-286 DOI: 10.2478/s13533-011-0026-2

Central European Journal of Geosciences

Review article

Lorant David1∗, Zoltan Ilyes2, Zoltan Baros3

1 Department of Tourism and Regional Development, Károly Róbert College, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary 2 Department of Cultural and Visual Anthropology, University of Miskolc, 3515 Miskolc-Egyetemvaros, Hungary 3 Institute of Agroinformatics and Rural Development, Károly Róbert College, 3200 Gyöngyös, Hungary

Received 1 July 2011; accepted 7 August 2011

Abstract: Alterations in topography due to the construction of transport infrastructure and industrial development are the results of rather complex processes. The impact of transport constructions upsetting (topographic) equilibrium is manifested in a relatively narrow strip, and, mostly, through producing abnormally steep slopes, in reducing relief stability. The earthworks for transport routes are themselves also landscape-forming factors whereas in the case of industrial developments, planation is usually mentioned. Topographic changes related to the construction of transport infrastructure and industrial development are discussed historically in this chapter. Among the direct impacts of the first are those related to the construction of Roman and Medieval roads, hollow roads in loess, public roads, motorways, railways, canals, tunnels and airports; while of the second are those of early mining and metallurgy, cellars, sludge reservoirs, slag cones and fly-ash reservoirs, cooling ponds, industrial parks, shopping centres and waste disposal sites. Of the indirect ones, an introduction is given to impacts of surface sealing, changes in runoff, the ‘waterfall effect,’ as well as to environmental impacts under permafrost conditions. Keywords: transportation • industry • geology • geomorphology © Versita Sp. z o.o.

1. Transport infrastructure con- pographic) equilibrium is manifested in a relatively narrow struction and industrial development strip, and, mostly, through producing abnormally steep slopes, in reducing relief stability. The earthworks for transport routes are themselves landscape-forming factors and, in addition, indirectly inﬂuence geomorphic and Alterations in topography due to the construction of trans- microclimate-forming processes [1]. In the case of in- port infrastructure and industrial development are the re- dustrial developments, planation is usually mentioned. sults of rather complex processes, and consequently they Changes in the anthropogenic relief related to the con- might be linked to or overlapped with other chapters of struction of transport infrastructure and industrial devel- this book (with water management, urban processes, min- opment are discussed below in a historical order. ing). The impact of transport constructions upsetting (to-

∗E-mail: [email protected]

271 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

2. Transport and industrial infrastructure until the Modern Age

2.1. Transport routes

Among the early transport routes, from the point of view of geomorphology, Roman roads are the most enduring structures. They entailed, before large-scale motorway constructions of the 20th century, the removal of the most significant amount of material. The technique applied for old gravel roads widely used during the 4-5th centuries B.C. was rather simple: the foundation was first tamped then spread over by gravel. Paved roads with concrete surfaces were first built around 400 B.C. The longest and best-known is the Via Appia built from 312. B.C.; it has Figure 1. The structure of Roman roads [3] been the finest example of Roman road construction for (1 – gravel sand or stone pavement, 2 – walnut-sized centuries. In Western Hungary, sections of the Amber stones, 3 – fist-sized boulders, 4 – quarry-stones and binder, 5 – tamped clay, the roadway is ca. 1 m thick) Road have been preserved and are still well-observable. The construction technology of paved roads was complex: first, forests were cleared 60 m wide along the roads, fol- lacking the volcanic rocks required for paving. Road-cuts lowed by drainage ditches dug from a distance of 12-15 were yet applied, minor tributary valleys were bridged by m designating its route. Earth excavated from such fossae embankments, viaducts, depressions were filled and tun- were piled in dykes (aggers) ca. 1 m in height securing nels, even several hundred kilometres in length, were dug. the road. Roman roads of straight alignment formed a network in Roman roads had a layered construction. (The terms the empire just after Christ. Strasse and street are also originated from the Latin via Many morphological relics of transportation have survived strata (layered road).) Onto the tamped clay (5), first from the Middle Ages. The majority of medieval roads, un- 25-60 cm high quarry-stones laid flatwise were placed like Roman roads, lack a concrete surface; at some places, (statumen – 4), followed by a cemented layer of smaller, however, traces of gravel spreading and debris fill can big-clump-sized rocks (rudus, ruderatio – 3). Rudus was still be found. Medieval roads, usually 4-9 m in width, followed by the nucleus (2) that might have contained often followed watersheds on hill and mountain ridges, walnut-sized crushed rocks, gravel, coarse sand and car- averted watercourses and waterlogged areas, marshlands bonate debris. The final layer was the road surface or and those gallery forests of valley floors. In mountain- cover (summa crusta – 1, pavimentum, summum dorsum) ous regions, road-cuts into the bedrock can be identified. consisting of ca. 60×60 cm, 25 cm thick, mostly volcanic Traces of the formation of sunken or hollow roads are also flagstones (Figure 1). Road cover was sloped in order to common along medieval roads. Sunken roads were classi- ensure the runoff of to its edges. From tamped clay or fied in Germany by Dietrich Denecke, and he also devel- sand, sidewalks were also constructed. Along the roads, oped a methodology to study the morphology, formation by Roman miles (ca. 1.48 km) milestones were placed and dating of road tracks [4]. The most important physi- on which the distance of the nearest town was indicated. cal factors of sunken road formation include the angle of When completed, the roads rose as high as 2 m above slope, soil, bedrock and vegetation. Sunken road forma- the surface. In the summa crusta, wheel-tracks are often tion is a type of gully erosion determined by the angle of seen. Freeze-thaw alteration and scuffing of the gravel slope. The mechanics of rocks and soils greatly influence necessitated maintenance: Roman roads were completely the development and preservation of sunken roads. The restored after ca. 100 years of use [2]. incision of wheel tracks can be extremely rapid on loess, In the 1st century A.D., there was a drop in the mili- loamy soils and banked rocks. In the sandy and clayey tary significance of roads, whereas comfort aspects be- floor, sunken roads are less capable of preserving their came more important; thus that time witnessed a recur- shape, and take on a bowl shape. The lack of vegetation, sion to the construction of gravel roads on which coaches on the one hand, contributes to an accelerated deepening could run smoothly. The other reason for this change in of roads as well as to the further rill or gully erosion fol- technology was the fact that most Roman provinces were lowing abandonment. The damage caused by the recent

272 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

Figure 2. Ideal profiles of sunken road types [4] (1 – Recent landform types: 1a – wheel-track, 1b – trapeze-shaped sunken road, 2 – Fossil landform types: 2a – trough-shaped sunken road, 2b –sunken ravine, 2c – wide floored sunken road, 3 – Relict landform types: 3a – sunken road terrace, 3b – sunken road dell, 3c – paved sunken road, A – present-day profile, B – earlier profile, I – removed material, II – eroded loose material, i – stone or gravel cover) Figure 3. A hollow road in loess in China [6, 11] use of roads, wheels and tramping − depending on inten- sity − hinders the formation of grass or tree cover and promotes deepening. Grass and forest vegetation, on the other hand, helps preserve sunken road profiles and the identification of fossil sunken roads [4] Two types of active sunken roads are distinguished by De- necke: wheel-tracks and trapeze-shaped sunken roads. According to him, the fossil type includes sunken roads of rounded profile without sharp edges, V-shaped sunken road traces cut deep into the less resistant material bor- dered by steep slopes and accumulated, planated, wide- floored sunken roads. Relict landforms as terraces and dells evidence abandoned sunken roads. Some of the sunken roads of the Modern age have been paved [4] (Fig- ure 2). Hollow roads in loess deep-cuts are typical erosional Figure 4. A hollow road in loess near the village of Szalánkeme along the River Danube landforms with a U-shaped cross-section [5]. They are dirt-roads, the primary loess structure of which is crushed by vehicles to dust. Their development is closely related to carbonate content, the capillary structure of loess or sandy loess as well as to gully erosion. In wheel-tracks ravines [5]. Thus, further dirt-roads have to be made on rainwater runoff, especially during heavy rainstorms, such cultivated land [6]. It is a typical situation in Hungary entrains a large amount of material and gradually deep- (Figure 4), especially in the counties of Fejér and Tolna ens the roads. After decades, the former roads are gradu- and along the eastern rim of the Mezõföld Plain [7], in ally transformed into hollow roads with (sub)vertical walls. the Solymár, Pilisborosjenõ and Üröm basins and in the Their depth may range from 2 to 10-15 m, in China even southern foregrounds of the Hosszú Hill [8]. The widest to 40 m (Figure 3, [6]). range of loess denudation landforms (among them, hollow Hollow roads in loess, as a consequence of piping and roads) in the country are found in the Szekszárd Hills gully erosion are transformed into steep-walled, V-shaped [9, 10].

273 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

2.2. The early impacts of industry

Roads of greater length were first constructed on embankments, as well as more remarkable road-cuts, created by explosion, were first applied in the Modern Age. From the late 18th century, main, mostly military, roads were again paved. Straight-aligned paved roads chaussées and roads in major principal centres of the Napoleonic times are ex- amples [12]. Early industrial sites are inseparable from mining (e.g. in the Harz and Ore Mountains, near the mining towns of Southern and Upper Hungary). In mining-industrial regions related to ore mining and metallurgy, there are traces of early mining of manual techniques, mine adits, waste heaps of various shape, ore-mills and washeries, Figure 5. Traces of coal burning in a mining-industrial area of Central smelters and foundries, slag piles, traces of coal burning, Germany (A – site of the wood pile) [13] dams of reservoirs and remnants of settlements. The industrial heritage from the era prior to the Industrial Revo- lution can often be studied in archaeological explorations and are less relevant for geomorphology. In addition to mining and metallurgy, many other industries shape the surface. The exchange of products and raw materials called for a dense road network. The settle- ment of smelters was usually determined by the distribution of plants for charcoal production used for metallurgy on a large scale. In areas of higher relief, charcoal and ore transportation roads locally turned into sunken roads. The large-scale production of charcoal used for metallurgy caused typical alterations in the relief: terraces are still identifiable at sites of former wood piles after centuries, (5). Molehills containing charcoal also refer to the places Figure 6. A typical medieval site of metallurgy in the NW part of of wood piles. Early coal burning in pits was replaced by, Hesse Province, in the Dietzhölze Valley with the increase in the demand for charcoal, production (A – charcoal storage, B – slag pile, C – ore crushing, D – ore roasting, E – ore-smelting furnace, F – pit, G – th in wood piles, resulting in larger coal mass from the 14 shelter, H – stream) [13] century. Former metallurgy is evidenced by the remains of stamp mills and ore-smelting furnaces, charcoal storages sites built of tamped clay and their sides were later, to prevent and smaller or larger slag piles containing the by-products erosion, covered by quarry-stones [14]. Following the In- of metallurgy [13]. Slag piles are often hardly visible, veg- dustrial Revolution, with the development of the modern etated and adjusted into the landscape and have heavy- manufacturing industry, unprofitable, sporadic foundries metal tolerant vegetation, visited by mineral collectors (6). were gradually closed down. Their sites are mainly indicated by relief features at the sites of dams and channels, For stamp and grinding mills, foundries and smithies, the and remains of buildings. In Central Europe, the most proximity of water was essential: streams were impounded active temporally, and the highest number of small iron- or water drained from mines was captured by artificial em- foundries (140) operated in Mecenzéf (now: Medzev in bankments in order to increase its kinetic energy. In the Slovakia) before World War II. . 18th century, in Selmecbánya (now: Banska Stiavnica in Slovakia), a system with a water volume capacity of 7 mil- In many countries of Western Europe, during the Middle lion m3, according to the plans of the innovative engineer Ages and the Early Modern Age, in low-lying, often wa- and cartographer, Sámuel Mikoviny, comprised not only terlogged areas, certain industrial objects (primarily wind- water reservoirs, but approximately 60 km of impound- mills) were placed upon artificial mounds (Figure 7). ments and 35 km of drainage ditches. The dams were Anthropogenic geomorphology also studies the morphol-

274 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

Table 1. The types of cellars in Eger according to rock material and ground-plan (after Kleb B. [17])

Rock material 1. tuff cellar 2. sandstone or marl 3. cellars carved 4. “gravel cellar” cellar into travertine Ground plan Hole cellars with pil- Hole cellars with pil- Irregular ground- Hollows of some me- lar strips of parallel lar strips of parallel plan and walls tres finger-like branching finger-like branching Irregular halls

slumping took place when cellars caved in, causing severe damage to buildings and roads in many places.

3. The impacts of transportation on the surface in the Modern Age

3.1. Construction of transport network: direct Figure 7. Some artiﬁcial mounds of windmills in Northern Europe [15, 16] impacts

Historically, four periods of geomorphologic interventions ogy of hollows, cellars and other passages for various are distinguished: primeval, Roman, post-Roman and purposes (defence, storage, underground transportation). modern. Since the Modern age, road construction has In the Province of Cappadocia in Turkey, proper “under- resulted in increasingly more profound changes to the ground towns” were carved in rocks. Various cellar sys- Earth’s surface [19]. The growing demands of passenger tems for winery and other storage purposes are related to and freight transport during the Industrial Revolution also various rock types and are widely used in Hungary. They led to landscape transformation. The rapid economic de- have had to be studied, from the point of view of engi- velopment started with the Great Explorations and coloni- neering geology, in several Hungarian towns (Pécs, Eger, sation resulted in significant advancement both in land Miskolc), because of frequent collapses. Although a com- and inland-water transportation. On land, high-quality prehensive study of landform types (cellar morphology) public roads, tunnels crossing the mountains as well as related to the various types of rocks has not been con- channels and chain bridges were constructed; however, ducted, in many cases such research provided results that this was also the time when the first rail tracks were es- could be generalised. For example, in the case of Eger, tablished. Wooden rail tracks were in use as early as th the stability conditions and ground plans of cellars carved the 16 century in today’s Germany, but cast iron rails into various rocks are well-known (Table 1, Figure 8, [17]). for horse-cars only appeared in England during the sec- th Within the world heritage bid of 2005, Eger planned to ond half of the 18 century. The next important step was use its cellar network for the purposes of tourism. the invention of the steam engine. In the early 1800s, the steam-locomotive appeared, leading to a rapid de- The cellars in the town of Pécs have also caused seri- velopment in rail transportation. The total length of the ous problems. The density of cellars rivals that of surface world’s railway lines, between 1840 and 1880, increased building [18]. These cellars are one-, two- or multi-storied. from 8,000 km to 360,000 km along with rail transportation Also, linkage between cellars of various owners often took commencing on all continents. The extent of the routes of place by emergency corridors to which inhabitants were rail transport and the network of navigable channels are forced by bomb attacks during World War II. The main use, indicated by Figure 10. however, was for wine storage as in other wine-growing The post World War I era saw the beginning of a rapid areas of Hungary (the Tokaj-Hegyalja, Bükkalja and Má- development in road transportation that was due to the traalja regions). spread of vehicles. The increasing traffic by motorcycles, At ‘Farkasmály’ near Gyöngyös, a coherent system of cel- cars and buses, however, required the modernisation of lars with an area of more than 1,000 m2 was developed and the public road network. The first motorways (“highways”) provided shelter to the population of the surrounding area with 2+2 tracks, separated traffic, and without level cross- during World War II (Figure 9). Subsidence, collapse and ings were built in the USA in the 1920s; however, they

275 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

Figure 8. Types of cellars in Eger according to their ground-plans [17]( 1. tuﬀ-cellars, 2. sandstone, marl cellars, 3. cellars carved into travertine)

became apparent in Germany only 10 years later. The first to focus on – except for urban motorway sections – the motorways meeting both the demands of the modern times construction of motorways in concessions since the 1970s. and conforming to the present-day definition were built in Germany, and the country’s network by the early 1940s Public road development in Hungary was rather slow. In exceeded 2100 km. Apart from Germany, motorways were the 1930s, only 10% of the country’s roads had a con- only constructed in the Netherlands before World War II. crete surface [21]. During the 1940s, asphalt paving on Similar but lower-quality roads were also built in Italy macadam roads began. During World War II, along with between the second half of the 1920s and World War II, railways, most of the public roads and bridges were de- with a length of 500 km. stroyed or damaged. More significant developments and asphalt surfacing took place only from the 1960s due to Following World War II to the mid-1970s, 70,000 km of large-scale motorisation. Along with the closing down of motorways were constructed in the USA, financed by the low-traffic railway lines, road constructions and restora- federal government. West Germany, within the framework tions of contemporary roadways of particular low technical of a four-year federal road construction plan launched quality also took place. Motorway constructions in Hun- in 1957, developed its motorway-system, making up one gary, along with decentralisation initiatives, also started fourth of the European network. In France, government then [22]. In the 1970s, roads were paved with asphalt policy preferred, for a long time, railways and only started and main roads were modernized and widened [23]. The

276 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

game crossings and other structures for environmental and nature conservation purposes may lead to significant alterations of the surface. During construction, significant soil erosion may occur. During operation, the oil, tyre and air pollution caused by vehicles, as well as the heavy metals emitted by them, can damage ground and underground waters in both a direct and indirect ways, and may contribute to the degradation of soils. In Hungary, the geomorphic impact of transport network was studied by Erdõsi, F. [1] in the environs of the Mecsek Mountains ( Figures 12, 13). For landscape aesthetics, roads are enduring artificial landscape elements. This is represented by, on the one Figure 9. The row of cellars at Farkasmály near Gyöngyös; the size hand, the ecological effects already discussed and, on the of underground passage is indicated by that of the barrels. other, by their mostly dominant presence in the landscape. A road has to fit in with the basic character of the surrounding landscape in a landscape ecological, functional present programs for road network development affect vast and aesthetic context [25]. The sight of construction works areas in the country (Figure 11). is also important: tunnel and subways are hardly visible, unlike flyovers, bridges and embankments several meters In addition to the benefits detailed above, the dramatic in height which are marked elements of the landscape. impact of motorways on their environment should not be neglected. First of all, they have a vast area demand. Tunnels are organic parts of railway and road transporta- About 67 hectares per km are affected by the local micro- tion networks. Tunnel building is estimated to have begun climate of motorways and the exhaust gases of vehicles, ca. 4160 years ago, when Queen Semiramis, famous for thus agricultural products grown next to motorways do not her terraced gardens, one of the seven wonders of the an- meet strict standards. A 1-2 km strip of the motorways will cient world, had a tunnel 1 km in length and 16 sq km in suffer ecological damage that is already apparent during cross-section built under the River Euphrates to link her the construction works, as vast amounts of material are castle and the Temple of Jupiter. As to our knowledge, transported to the construction site. This means a great the Egyptians also built tunnels. The next remarkable pressure on the already existing road network. construction was one in Jerusalem, that 2700 years ago conducted spring water to the town. The ancestor of road Within the systems of road transportation, at present mo- tunnels crossed a hill between Naples and Pozzuoli 2000 torway constructions are taking place in Hungary with the years ago. Under the reign of Emperor Augustus the tun- highest speed and in the most spectacular way. Motor- nel of 900 m length and 7.5 m width was completed. Dur- ways, both during their construction and operation, have ing Medieval times, achievements of foundation engineer- a rather complex impact on their environment. Studied ing were represented by the ramparts and tunnel systems from the point of view of anthropogenic geomorphology, of fortresses and mine adits. A significant development they demand a rather large area and produce significant in tunnel construction was initiated only in the 17th cen- earth-works, during which both the abiotic and biotic en- tury Europe, especially in France. It was initiated by the vironments can be severely damaged. Motorway construc- engineer Francois Andreossy, who in 1666 first opened a tion is an activity with compulsory environmental impact tunnel by explosion (instead of carving) into rock in the assessment during which landscape scars also have to be Province of Languedoc, Southern France, to the navigation studied in detail. The rate of the proposed interventions canal Canal du Midi, 20 m in width and 240 km in length, and the resulting landforms as well as how the motorway linking the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. is best adjusted to the landscape has to be assessed. With growing trade, timeliness required road network de- The construction of a 1 km motorway section 28 m wide velopment, instead of the extant narrow roads and passes separate, 2+2 tracked (+2 emergency lanes) requires 8 inaccessible for long periods of the year. The construction hectares of lands. During construction, pits and quarries of a tunnel under the English Channel was a dream recur- have to be opened and subsidiary roads built for the ex- ring from the early 19th century. Between 1807 and 1842, ploitation of building materials. Creating noise barriers, the 1100 m long tunnel under the River Thames was built

277 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

Figure 10. The network of rail transportation and navigable channels in Europe from the mid-19th century [20]

in London. The first railway tunnel near the town of St. port, a turning point came on 10th January 1863, when the Etienne in France was constructed for horse-trams later first section of the Metropolitan Line of the London Under- replaced by steam locomotives. The first real mountain ground between Paddington and Farringdon was opened. railway was accomplished in 1854. The 41 km long Sem- The rapidly expanding high-speed special railways and mering railway line peaks at a height of 899 m above sea- undergrounds were challenging from other aspects. Here, level in the 1428 m long Semmering Tunnel. On its route, damage to the built environment, through, e.g. subsidence, the railway passes a further 14 tunnels. In urban trans- also had to be avoided, special attention had to be paid

278 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

Table 2. The world’s longest railway tunnels [27].

Railway tun- County Length (m) Year of nel opening Seikan Japan 53,841 1988 Euro-Tunnel France – United 50,500 1994 Kingdom Shimizu III. Japan 22,300 1982 Simplon II. Italy – Switzerland 19,824 1922 Simplon I Italy – Switzerland 19,799 1906 Shin-Kamnon Japan 18,600 1974 Appennino Italy 18,507 1934 Figure 11. A proposed high-speed road network in Hungary for Rokko Japan 16,214 1972 2015 (Hungarian Public Road Management, Devel- Furka Switzerland 15,442 1982 opment and Information Non-proﬁt Company)[26] St.Gotthard Switzerland 15,003 1881

to poor soil conditions (compared to mountains); neither urban transport nor city life could be disturbed and the environment was of primary importance. Today, several hundreds of kilometres of tunnels are being constructed each year to conduct water, as well as for railways and roads (Table 2), urban communal, and transportation purposes. Undergrounds operate or are being constructed in nearly a hundred cities of the world. Ambitious plans and proposals have been made, among which are: the tunnel under the Strait of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa, and, a railway tunnel between Innsbruck and Italy under the Brenner Pass of 60 km length. The construction technology of underground structures is Figure 12. The relative proportions of the lengths of embankments determined by several factors. Apart from geological and and cuts to the total lengths of road and railway lines (in geomorphologic aspects (soil structure, strength, perme- percentage)[1]. ability, groundwater level, etc.), geometry and location (floor depth, earth cover above the floor, etc.) are also important. Also, a decisive factor is the impact the construction technology selected is expected to have on the built and physical environment. Its impact on the human environment in the densely built-up urban environment should not be neglected either. The appropriate construction technology should be designed to match subsidence hazard and other risks. As a result of air transport ap- pearing from the early 20th century, the number of airports has been increasing, and the associated planation activities affect large areas. It is difficult to estimate the total number of airports and runways in the world. In the United States alone more than 10,000 of them are found, although airfields with no concrete runway have only limited surface sealing impact. Reclaimed land is increas- Figure 13. The spatial distribution of surface modifications through ingly favoured for runway construction. In Hong Kong, a the construction of transport routes, with the relative ex- city of limited extension and mountainous area, the air- tent of earthworks in m3 per km2[1]. port was built on land filled with construction rubble. The establishment of the new airport on the Isle of Chek Lap

279 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

the most important. The Corinthos Canal, opened for ship- ping in 1893, is relatively small: 6.4 km long, 23 m wide and 9 m deep. Crossing hard limestone beds, it has no erosion or landslide hazard. The Suez Canal is located in a rather different environment: it crosses 162 km of sand dunes and saline marshlands. It has an average width of 60 m and a depth of 12 m and during its construction, ca. 110 million m3of material were removed. In the late 1970s, a new programme was launched to widen and deepen the canal. Since its opening 120 years ago, two geomorphologic factors have contributed to the accumulation of sand here: wind action and bank collapses. The latter are caused by waves beyond crossing ships. To achieve a constant floor shape, continuous dredging is required, as evidenced during the Middle East wars when maintenance works were ceased. Of the three channels men- Figure 14. Material removal during the construction of the Chep Lap Kok Airport in Hong Kong [28] tioned above, the Panama Canal had the most remarkable geomorphologic impact. The 64 km-long Panama Canal was built between 1882 and 1914. It crosses a difficult Kok during the 1990s required the removal of one of the terrain and demanded 100 m deep cuts. Steep slopes largest amounts of material in history. During this, on resulted in unstable rock and the hot, humid tropical en- the western side of the granite isle with an area of 302 vironment caused landslides so huge that the works had hectares, 938 hectares of new land was developed, and to be stopped. Some claimed that during a single night, 3 extended the shoreline by approximately 5 km. From the a single mass of 382,000 m of material moved downslope. 3 future area of the airport, about 69 million m3 of silt were The removal of approximately 375 million m of earth was removed from the sea and transported, and from offshore necessary; this is nearly four-fold of the total annual bed areas, approximately 76 million m3 of sand were imported. load of the Mississippi River [29]. Also, the fact this vast Further 40 million m3silt and alluvial material had to be material transport is concentrated in a rather small area moved during the works. 122 million m3of rocks were ex- should not be neglected. Today, large-scale plans are cavated on land (mostly on the island itself), from which proposed for the widening of both the Suez and Panama the 13 km long sea-wall surrounding the airport island Canals. plied granite blocks of 1 to 5 tonnes. Over the levelled surface of the island, 2 m of crushed granite and sand was 3.2. Indirect impacts spread. The amount of the material removed during the construction of the Chek Lap Kok Airport in Hong Kong, Paved roads seal the surface and prevent conventional being approximately 307 million m3, is well-indicated by erosion from acting. However, they induce other geomor- the fact that it is 18-fold of the amount of construction phic processes. The indirect impacts of road constructions gravel and sand extracted in Hungary in 2001, which to- are also extremely important [28]. They are the following: taled about 17 million m3 (Figure 14, [24]). - impacts on the impermeable layer, Regarding water transportation, inland waterways (canals) have been built since the end of the 17th cen- - changes in runoff, tury. During their construction, several thousand million - the “waterfall effect”, m3 of earth were directly removed. Prior to the use of - environmental impacts under permafrost conditions. steam and diesel engines, low-speed vessels were hauled by man- or horse-power. Consequently, they made minor Cutting through impermeable layers damage to canal banks. With the increase of speed, bank erosion has become apparent especially in meanders and Public roads necessitate permanent maintenance in order to prevent In road-cuts the hydrological equilibrium is upset, the cut catastrophic erosion. slope is exposed to landslides, and the likelihood of rock- Canals shortening sea-routes by crossing isthmuses had falls and creep increases. Some landslides of this kind started being built in the last third of the 19th century. occurred along the slopes of the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv mo- Among them, the Corinthos, Suez and Panama Canals are torway, crossing mountains, in the 1960s. The limestone

280 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

triggered by water beneath the train and that formerly retained by the slope [29]. Landslide hazard represents a nearly permanent problem around Abaliget, along the section of the Budapest–Pécs railway line crossing the Mecsek Mountains [29].

Changes in runoﬀ

Roads Paved roads retain 90-95% of runoff and usually release a remarkable amount of water within a short period of time through localized culverts. Erosion caused by flash floods is unavoidable as the available natural river beds are mostly formed by low-energy runoff. As a result, deep channels can appear. To avoid badland formation, a num- Figure 15. The impact of road-cuts on groundwater supply. The risk ber of culverts have to be built to distribute runoff among of landslides is increased along the spring line [28] them [28].

Airfields and airports slopes above the impermeable marl began to slide and It is the vast, extensive, paved surface of large airports that large-scale mitigation works had to be made. In this re- contributes to runoff concentration, whose consequence gion, only slopes with an angle less than 25% remained has been discussed earlier. No damage caused by erosion stable (Figure 15,[28]). or sedimentation is known for major airports: the need for Railways channelization had obviously been recognised and man- aged [28]. From the point of view of earthworks, the main difference between roads and railway tracks is that the latter have a The “waterfall effect” lower potential maximum gradient. Therefore, railway cuts are deeper. In practice, the excavated material is used in Most of the erosion along roads takes place in the bound- railway embankments in the same amounts. On terrains of ary between paved and unpaved surfaces, where a gap more complex topography, tunnels are constructed. Rails soon develops. To the initial energy of runoff from the have a limited impact on erosion as the tracks covered by paved surface, further energy is added by gravity, deriving loose crushed rocks inhibit the concentration of runoff pro- from relief contrast between the two surfaces. Turbulence vided bridges and culverts are built in adequate numbers. triggers a so-called “waterfall effect” leading to the ero- This limited impact is not observed in cuts where erosion sion of the road embankment under the cover. In the case control techniques have yet to be applied. In such cases, where this process unfolds unhindered, the pavement may the impact of accelerated erosion is dangerous – espe- be cut through in its entire width (Figure 16, [28]). cially in semiarid areas. Slides due to railway construc- Pipelines tions are larger in scale than those apparent during road The network of pipelines is growing constantly both in the construction works. As roads overcome steep slopes by developed and developing countries. Compared to other curves and serpentines, local cuts expose bare surfaces; avenues of surface transportation, pipelines are often re- however, the total area of cuts can be remarkable. As garded as a moderate intervention into the environment, railways tracks demand gentler slopes, cuts expose larger and when buried cause no more disturbance. By the align- surfaces, although the number of cuts (per kilometre) may ment of pipelines being designed to be as short as pos- be fewer. As erosion is, among other factors, dependent on sible, regardless of the topography, their impact may be the length of the slope exposed, in the case of impact areas more intense than that of railways. Considerable erosion of the same size the likelihood of erosion is higher for rail- hazard occurs in two types of environment. way lines than for roads. In India, along the 170 km long Assam–Bengal railway line, intense erosion caused such One of them is arid regions where no natural vegetation severe damage in 1915 that renovation works required 2 cover protects the surface against wind erosion or gully years with traffic paused for that period of time. Another formation. The other is arctic regions under permafrost good example is the Folkestone–Dover railway that suf- conditions. Discussion of construction under arctic con- fered severe damage in 1915, due to a landslide jointly ditions is presented with the example of the planning of

281 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

4. Modern industrial development

The suddenly-increased industrial production since the Industrial Revolution also involved signiﬁcant changes in topography. On the one hand, there has been an increase in the extent of areas aﬀected, and, on the other, the in- tensity of such interventions, and consequently their impact, has become higher. The rate of denudation resulting from constructions and mining is 2- to 4-fold higher compared to that of natural processes. Some authors claim the presence of a global geomorphologic change due to the industrial and mining surface transformation and removal of materials [32]. Sludge reservoirs The disposal and neutralization of waste originated during ore processing, i.e. sludge, take place in sludge reser-

Figure 16. The “waterfall effect” in a ditch lined with concrete slabs voirs. In order to insulate the storage area, it is covered to regulate flow (1-initial surface, 2 - impact of slab on by an artificial, multilayered coating. Various methods the frictional energy, 3 -the “waterfall effect”, 4 - the are applied to install surplus capacities to accommodate final stage: incision below the slab )[28] rainstorm water and major surface runoff, to provide watercourses conducted around sludge reservoirs, and to treat seepage from the sludge reservoir prior to release into surface waters. During the reclamation of sludge reser- the Alaska Pipeline. The relatively warm liquid trans- voirs, occasional major geomorphological interventions are ported keeps the surface in a thawed condition continu- designed to prevent the spreading of contaminations re- ously in the environs of the pipeline. Under circumstances leased from them. Occasional major geomorphic inter- in Alaska, thawing penetrates, in 2 years, to a depth of vention aims at impeding the spreading of contaminations 4-6 mm (in 9 years to 9 mm), causing a subsidence to released from them. a degree that would break the pipelines. Therefore, the In Hungary, during the mining of uranium ore for almost pipeline was constructed above-ground on posts at 30 m four decades, two sludge reservoirs with a total area of distance from each other and the base of these posts is 165 ha were established, where ca. 20.3 million tonnes placed in a depth not affected by seasonal thaw. Conse- of solid substance (with an average uranium content of quently, the installed pipeline will not influence the equi- 67.87 g/t) and approximately 32 million m3 of technolog- librium of permafrost [28]. There are other solutions to ical solutes were disposed. These sludge reservoirs are this problem, like applying a special insulation to under- located above two aquifer source areas important for the ground pipelines; here, the surface landform (earth em- drinking water supply of the city of Pécs and partly for the bankment) of accumulation-origin influences geomorphic surrounding settlements. Reclamation is still underway: processes (Figure 17, [30]). following the stabilisation and contouring of the sludge core and its multi-layered covering, re-vegetation efforts take place today [33]. Compared to any other methods of surface transport, Slag cones and fly-ash reservoirs pipelines have another characteristic: they are almost The traces of metallurgy which are “preserved’ by slag entirely independent of topography. These routes are cones similar to the waste heaps of coal mines alter the the shortest possible, cross hills and valleys if technol- topography of disposal sites to a significant degree. The ogy allows and if the transportation of the liquid (i.e. porous material of unreclaimed and unvegetated piles, pressure) can be maintained economically. For this very when affected by rainwater, are rapidly saturated, causing reason, the erosion impact of scars left after laying such mass movement on clays with low stability. Toxic materi- pipelines is more intense than in the case of road and rail- als can spread by these processes. Moderation and min- way construction. Scars formed during the construction of imization can be achieved by biological land reclamation. pipelines crossing relief along a straight line promote wind erosion – especially in arid regions. The accumulation of fly ash generated in waste combus-

282 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

Figure 17. The physical environment and technological solutions for oil pipelines in Alaska (after Bennett, Doyle [30], modiﬁed by Dávid, Baros [31])

Figure 18. Industrial parks in Hungary [35].

tion sites has similar impacts. character. Recently, heat pollution has potentially become The management of these two problems is also important one of the most harmful types of water pollution. (Rela- as the dispersed material (e.g. ignition slag) can contain tively higher water temperature compared to its environ- toxic heavy metals, dioxine compounds and other toxic ma- ment promotes organic matter generation and the prolifer- terials in large quantities. ation of hydrophytes, upsetting the biological equilibrium; irrigation water with high salt and sodium content results Cooling ponds in soil alkalisation, etc.). Most of the water used by industry is cooling water. Un- til the past decades, released hot water and used thermal Power-plants, especially those using nuclear fuels, con- water were not considered to be of deteriorated quality, tinually grow in size, and the cooling of warm waste wa- as the resultant changes are not physical or chemical in ter represents a more and more important problem to be

283 Geological and Geomorphological Problems Caused by Transportation and Industry

Table 3. The quantity of various waste types generated in Hungary, collected and transported in an organised way (in million tonnes).

Waste type 1990 1995 1999 Agriculture and food industry, non- 13.0 4.0 5.0 hazardous Industry and other production, non- 34.6 27.1 23.2 hazardous Solid communal 4.9 4.5 4.5 Communal ﬂuid 11.7 9.6 6.3 Communal sewage sludge 0.3 0.4 0.5 Hazardous 4.5 3.4 3.7 Total 69.0 49.0 43.2

solved. Heat pollution of surface waters has become an acute problem, due to requirements for water recycling and from temperature range modifications due to storage and, as a further consequence of the high cooling water demand of nuclear power-plants planned and operating today, this heat pollution shows a worldwide growing tendency. Emplacement of thermal waters cooled during use rep- Figure 19. Tyre disposal sites [36]. resents a similar problem: it is usually drained to public sewers, lateral ditches, occasionally to lakes or reservoirs. Thermal waters, during their use, usually cool down to This process is unlikely to slow down in the future. In such a temperature that no additional treatment is re- many cases, municipalities are forced, in order to improve quired. In many cases, however, thermal water utilisation their limited financial capabilities and to maintain settle- and drainage systems are constructed by having a cooling ment infrastructure, to ensure that already existing facil- pond interposed, to provide thermal water exploited from ities attract further ones [34]. the well (e.g. at system breakdown) to be cooled under Environmental industrial waste disposal 40 ◦C(http://www.kvvm.hu). Vegetation proliferation resulting from heat pollution will Waste disposal, primarily that of solid communal and in- eventually accelerate the eutrophication of ponds. The dustrial waste, plays an increasing part in the transforma- character of geomorphic processes typical for abandoned tion of topographic conditions. The amount (and composi- cooling ponds is determined by the type of after-use. A tion) of solid waste from settlements is dependent on the typical example is their use as angling –ponds, where, level of urbanisation, economic development, life quality among other effects, erosion caused by trapping is pre- and life-styles; however, differences occur between rural dominant. settlements and cities, or even between urban districts. In Hungary, since 1990, an annual amount of 4-5 million Industrial parks, shopping centres tonnes of solid communal waste has been continuously Industrial parks, logistic centres, shopping centres and generated, with its relative quantity – due to the lowering sometimes residential parks, which appeared following amount of industrial and agricultural waste – increasing. the change of regime and spread ever since in Hungary As this type represented about 7% of all wastes in 1990, (Figure 18), have remarkable impacts on the environ- this rate by 1995 increased to 9%, whereas in 1999 to ment. Construction works (landscaping, deep foundation, more than 10% (Table3). drainage, changing runoff, etc.), remove large amounts of In the late 1990s, Hungary’s approximately 2700 disposal earth. Fulfilling the building material demands of con- sites for solid communal waste (of which about 400-500 struction require intensified mining activities. were operated legally) occupied an area of 75-80 km2. The geomorphologic impacts of access to road networks Waste disposal was, for long decades, typically resolved leading to such objects were discussed under the impacts by landfill in open pits, quarries, waterlogged areas and of transportation. other excavated landforms around settlements. The es-

284 Lorant David, Zoltan Ilyes, Zoltan Baros

Table 4. Landforms due to transportation and industrial activities [31].

LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES Overland Water Air Piped transportation Road Railway Pipe Electric + - + - + - + and - + - + - Emban Sunken Emban Cut Emban Channel Airport Emban Ditch Emban - kment road kment kment kment kment Dam Cut Dam Tunnel Dam Ditch Airport, Mound Ditch Mound - Tunnel Infra- structure LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES + - Planation Mound of windmill Cooling pond Industrial park surface Slag cones and ﬂy- Sludge reservoir Solid waste disposal site ash reservoirs Solid waste disposal Waste disposal basin Industrial area site tablishment of further sites rather involves the shaping zwischen Solling und Harz. Göttingen [Methodolig- of smaller hummocks or positive landforms. Some larger ical surveys connected historical-geographical re- waste disposal sites are of several km2 in area, and their search of roads in the area between Solling and Harz]. ﬁnal relative height following compaction can even reach Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, 1969, 54, 10-20 m [28]. Figure 19 shows the growth of (tyre) dis- (in German) posal sites of solid waste. [5] Gönczy S., Szalay K.,: Geomorfológiai fogalom- gyûjtemény. [An anthology of geomorphology]. Kár- pátaljai Magyar Pedagógusszövetség Tankönyv-és 5. Summary Taneszköztanácsa, Beregszász, 2004, http://mek.oszk. hu/02900/02911/02911.htm (in Hungarian) [6] Borsy Z., Általános természetföldrajz [Physical Geog- The most common positive, negative or levelled landforms raphy]. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1993 (in resultant from transportation or industrial activities are Hungarian) summarized in Table4. [7] Szilágyi M., Gazdálkodás [Farming]. In: Magyar Néprajz nyolc kötetben.[Hungarian ethnography in eight volumes] Hungarian Academy of Sciences Re- search Institute of Ethnography, Budapest, 2001 References http://mek.tlkk.org/02100/02152/html/02/380.html (in Hungarian) [1] Erdõsi F., A társadalom hatása a felszínre, a vizekre [8] Rübl J., A Pilisvörösvári-medence geomorfológiája és az éghajlatra a Mecsek tágabb környezetében [The [Geomorphology of the Pilisvörösvári Basin]. Dok- impact of society on the surface, water and climate in tori disszertáció, University, 1959 (in Hungarian), the broader environment of the Mecsek Mountains]. http://vorosvar.freeweb.hu/Szak/Rubl.htm Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1987 (in Hungarian) [9] Ádám L., A Szekszárdi-dombvidék kialakulása és mor- [2] Klischat S., “Alle Strassen führen nach Rom” - die fológiája [Development and morphology of the Szek- Via Appia und andere Römerstrassen [All roads lead szárd Hills]. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 1964 (in to Rome - the Via Appia and the other Roman Hungarian) roads] 1996, http://www.klischat.net/onlnepub/referate/ [10] Endrédi L., A Tolnai-Sárköz és a Szekszárdi- rom/rom.htm dombság természeti környezeti értékei [Physical en- [3] http://klischat.net/onlnepub/referate/rom/quer.jpg vironmental values of the Tolnai-Sárköz and the [4] Denecke D., Methodische Untersuchungen zur Szekszár Hills]. In: Endrédi L. (Ed.) Szekszárd historisch-geographischen Wegeforschung im Raum vidékének természeti és kulturális környezeti értékei

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