Bringing Andean Tuber Crops to the Pacific Northwest by Michelle Reers a THESIS Submitted to Oregon S

Old Crops in a New World: Bringing Andean Tuber Crops to the Pacific Northwest

by Michelle Reers

A THESIS

submitted to

Oregon State University

University Honors College

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Botany (Honors Associate)

Honors Baccalaureate of Arts in International Studies (Honors Associate)

Presented November 14, 2016 Commencement December 2016

AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF

Michelle Reers for the degree of Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Botany and Honors Baccalaureate of Arts in International Studies presented on November 14, 2016. Title: Old Crops in a New World: Bringing Andean Tuber Crops to the Pacific Northwest .

Abstract approved: ______James Myers

Though currently relatively unknown outside Latin America, Andean root and tuber crops are rapidly gaining interest elsewhere. Tubers are a major food and important sources of nutrition in South America and have potential in countries outside their center of origin. We conducted a two-part study on oca (Oxalis tuberosa), mashua

(Tropaeolum tuberosum), ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus), and mauka (Mirabilis expansa) planting and harvesting over a two-year period to study the feasibility of cultivation and use in the Pacific Northwest (PNW). We also observed crops and interviewed key informants in Peru and Ecuador, and in the PNW concerning cultivation, loss of genetic variation and preservation efforts, and usage and perceptions. In the PNW, we also investigated commercial potential and general public knowledge and interest.

Our findings suggest that these plant species will grow and produce tubers in the

PNW and can also produce viable seed, which is extremely important for breeding varieties better adapted to the PNW and other similar growing regions. The loss of genetic diversity of oca, mashua, and mauka observed in Peru and Ecuador could potentially be counteracted by their cultivation and genetic improvement in the PNW, where there is an increase in cultivation, sales, and interest.

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Key Words: oca; mashua; ulluco; mauka; Oregon

Corresponding e-mail address: [email protected]

©Copyright by Michelle Reers December 2, 2016

Old Crops in a New World: Bringing Andean Tuber Crops to the Pacific Northwest

by Michelle Reers

A THESIS

submitted to

Oregon State University

University Honors College

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Botany (Honors Associate)

Honors Baccalaureate of Arts in International Studies (Honors Associate)

Presented November 14, 2016 Commencement December 2016

Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Botany and Honors Baccalaureate of Arts in International Studies project of Michelle Reers presented on November 14, 2016.

APPROVED:

James Myers, Mentor, representing Department of Horticulture

Kelly Thomas, Committee Member, representing International Degree Program

Joan Gross, Committee Member, representing Department of Anthropology

Toni Doolen, Dean, University Honors College

I understand that my project will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State University, University Honors College. My signature below authorizes release of my project to any reader upon request.

Michelle Reers, Author

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Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 1

Literature Review...... 2

History: Lost Crop of the Incas ...... 2 Inca/Pre-Columbian: ...... 2 Post-colonization ...... 4 Plant Structure and Biology...... 5 Nutritional Information ...... 13 Usage and Current Cultivation ...... 16

Relevance ...... 23

Material and Methods ...... 24

Materials ...... 24 Procedure ...... 25 Year One: ...... 25 Year Two: ...... 27 Definitions ...... 28 Perú/Ecuador: Interviews and Surveys ...... 28 Pacific Northwest: Interview ...... 29 Subjects / Participants ...... 29 Statistical Procedures ...... 30

Results ...... 31

Cultivation and Growth ...... 31 Year One: 2014 ...... 31 Year Two: 2015 ...... 41 Ethnobotany and Economic Botany ...... 54 Peru and Ecuador...... 54 Pacific Northwest ...... 58

Discussion ...... 61

Corvallis cultivation results: ...... 61 Ethnobotany and economic botany: ...... 64 Peru and Ecuador –...... 64

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Pacific Northwest ...... 65 Limitations and Future Research ...... 66

References ...... 67

Appendix ...... 71

Appendix A: Tuber Nutrition Labels...... 72 Appendix B: List of Common Names Worldwide ...... 74 Appendix C: List of Cultivation Method Abbreviations ...... 77 Appendix D: Tuber Measurement Complete Data Sets ...... 78 Appendix E: Mauka Seed Measurements ...... 84 Appendix F: Tuber Survey ...... 85

List of Figures

Figure 1: Fasciation of yellow oca plant stems 10/27/2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm ...... 35

Figure 2: Tuber set of oca as of 10/27/2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm; a. red GHT and b. yellow GHC...... 35

Figure 3: Tuber set as of 10/27/2014 for oca grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm for a. Moonshine, b. Sunset, c. Rosy Gems, d. Hopin, e. Bolivian Red and f. Mexican Red ...... 36

Figure 4: Comparisons between harvest 1 and harvest 2 2014, grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm, of tuber weights for a. Moonshine, b. Rosy Gems, and c. Bolivian Red tuber; and d. counts for all three varieties...... 37

Figure 5: Comparison Harvest 1 versus Harvest 2 2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm of individual matched oca varieties for a. Tuber count, b. Average weight per tuber and c. Total tuber weight of plant, and d. Combined comparison for all matched plants. 37

Figure 6: Mashua at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm 10/2014 a-b. Flea beetles and leaf damage. c-d. Flowers ...... 38

Figure 7: Comparison of tuber weights of identically propagated mashua plants between harvest 1 and harvest 2, 2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm a. GHT and b. LFS 38 viii

Figure 8: Comparison of Harvest 1 to Harvest 2, 2014 grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm. Tuber count, average individual tuber and tuber weight per plant for all mashua plants combined...... 39

Figure 9: Mauka grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2014 a. October root sampling; b. Harvest 1...... 39

Figure 10: Harvest 1 Comparison of Mauka varieties grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm by a. Tuber weights, b. Total tuber count and average individual tuber weights (axis one), and total combined tuber weight per plant (axis two)...... 40

Figure 11: Cucumber beetle destruction of ulluco at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm August 2014...... 40

Figure 12: Stem fasciation on a. Moonshine at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm; b. “Yellow” oca in OSU greenhouse pulled from field for replant 5/6/2015...... 42

Figure 13: Oca in the OUS greenhouse February 2016, examples of a-c. Aerial tuber; d. Subterranean tubers growing in pots...... 43

Figure 14: Oca in the OSU greenhouse with adventitious root growth...... 44

Figure 15: a) Early germination of oca in petri dish 2016, the seed coat still in place; b) Oca seedling with cotyledons still intact in the OSU greenhouse 2015...... 44

Figure 16: Oca flower from a) Rosy Gems, only cultivar with red sepals with possible pollinators, b. honey bee, c. hover fly, and d. cucumber beetle at OSU Vegetable Research Farm October 2015...... 45

Figure 17: Matched comparison of individual tuber weight from plants grown under and not under row tunnels at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015...... 47

Figure 18: Matched comparison of tuber weight per plant for plants grown in and out of tunnels grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015 for a) Bolivian Red, and b) Hopin...... 48

Figure 19: Matched comparison of count, average individual tuber weight and overall tuber weight per plant from plants grown under and not under row tunnels at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015...... 48

Figure 20: Oca seed approx. measurements using millimeter marked ruler (magnification not noted) ...... 49

Figure 21: Oca seed obtained from Cultivariable, endosperm of a. group #1: b. group #2...... 49

Figure 22: Matched comparison of mashua between years one and two grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015 for a) Tuber Counts, b) average individual tuber weight, and c) total tubers weight per plant...... 51

Figure 23: Matched comparison of mauka between years one and two for a) Tuber Counts, b) average individual tuber weight, and c) total tubers weight per plant grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015...... 52

Figure 24: Photo of a. Mauka flower b. and c. with approx. measurements using millimeter marked ruler; taken at OSU greenhouse February 2016...... 53

Figure 25: a.Mauka seed grown from plants at OSU greenhouse 2016 with b. Approximate measurements using millimeter marked ruler (magnification not noted); c. Endosperm ...... 53

Figure 26: Chart of Andean tuber sales through July 31, 2016. (“Units are not consistent and include multiple packet sizes (for example, a 3, 5, and 10 packs are all included as a single unit of oca))” Chart provided courtesy of Bill Whitson, Cultivarible WA...... 60

Figure 27: Nutrition label created by Cultivariable for a. Oca and b. Mashua...... 72

Figure 28: Nutrition label created by Cultivariable for a. Ulluco and b. Mauka...... 73

List of Tables

Table 1: List and count of mauka seedlings planted in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm ... 30

Table 2; List of oca and mashua planted in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm ...... 30

Table 3: List of Overwintered Tubers from Field #1 in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm ... 31

Table 4: List of flowering oca plants and type of tri-styly observed at the OSU Vegetable

Research Farm...... 42

Table 5: Overall performance comparison: oca grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm

2014-2015 ...... 46

Table 6: Overall performance comparison: mashua grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2014-

2015 ...... 51

Table 7: Overall performance comparison: mauka grown at OSU Vegetable Research

Farm 2015...... 52

Table 8: Common names from around the world for oca...... 74

Table 9: Common names from around the world for mashua ...... 75

Table 10: Common names from around the world for ulluco ...... 76

Table 11: Common names from around the world for mauka ...... 76

Table 12: Table of abbreviations for cultivation methods for all tubers...... 77

Table 13: Yield Data Harvest #1, 11/25/2014, for oca, mashua, and mauka grown at OSU

Vegetable Farm ...... 78

Table 14: Yield Data Harvest #2 12/19/2014 for oca and mashua grown at OSU

Vegetable Farm ...... 79

Table 15: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered oca grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015 . 80

Table 16: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered mashua grown at OSU Vegetable Farm

2015...... 81

Table 17: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered mauka grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015

...... 82

Table 18: Yield Data Field #2 spring-planted oca grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015

...... 83

Table 19: Table Measurements of Mirabilis expansa var. 'L' seed from packet labeled

2016 sent by Michelle Rears to Miriam Kritzer Van Zant at Southern Illinois University,

2016...... 84

Old Crops in a New World: Bringing Andean Tuber Crops to the Pacific Northwest

Introduction

Though currently relatively unknown outside Latin America, Andean root and tuber crops (ARTCs) are rapidly gaining interest elsewhere. Tubers are a major food source in South America and are important sources of nutrition for the poorer population in Bolivia, Peru, and several other countries. There are “nine native Andean root and tuber crops [that] hold economic and nutritional importance for subsistence farmers in the

Andes” as listed by the International Potato Center (CIP) website: achira, ahipa, arracacha, maca, mashua, mauka, oca, ulluco, yacon. We are studying four of these oca

(Oxalis tuberosa Mol.), mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz and Pavón), ulluco

(Ullucus tuberosus Caldas), and mauka (Mirabilis expansa (Ruiz & Pav.) Standl.) which all have an ecological niche similar to the potato (Solanum tuberosum), a large amount of phenotypic diversity (D. A. Fuccillo, Sears, & Stapleton, 1997), and a varied array of secondary compounds. These crops are very hardy and grow in the poor soils of the high

Andes, are drought tolerant, and can overwinter in the ground.

An important tuber in Andean civilization for centuries, its production was second only to the potato. Its nutritional value and ability to grow in marginal conditions are prompting a renewed international interest in the ancient crop. Ulluco which is quickly becoming a favorite in South America is sold in commercial grocery stores and canned for export. Mashua, often grown simultaneously with oca and ulluco, is a less favored tuber due to its intense flavor and its connection with poverty, but is highly valued for its

medicinal properties. Mauka is rare in current usage but shows great potential as a nutritionally rich tuber crop.

Literature Review

The following information is a compilation of scientific information from several disciplines and from literature both in English and Spanish.

History: Lost Crop of the Incas

Inca/Pre-Columbian:

Oca –Emshwiller (2009), thought at one point that O. piccheasis was the ancestor to O. tuberosa Molina. It is most likely one or both of two candidates, an unnamed wild, tuber-bearing Oxalis found in Bolivia and/or O. chicligastensis in NW Argentina, are the progenitors. Native to the Andes, “one of eight centers of diversity of cultivated plants described by Vavilov (1951),” (Sperling & King, 1990) archaeological finds of starch grains and other remnants of oca use date to ~4100 BP, and images have been found on

Incan ceremonial vessels and urns dated to 950 BP (S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987;

Sperling & King, 1990) including urns almost a meter tall created by the Wari culture in

Ayachucho Peru dated 600-1100 AD. Some studies point to the domestication of oca as early as 5500 B.C. (S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987). Dried remains of tubers dated 1200-

1500 AD were discovered in 1948 in the Inca ruins of Pachacamac near Lima. Thought to be domesticated between central Peru (10°S) and central Bolivia (20°S), by the time of

Spanish conquest the crop spread north to Venezuela (8°N) and south to Chile (25°S)

(Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992).

Mashua – The exact ancestor of mashua is unknown. Although little is known about mashua crop history and dispersal, it is thought to have been a popular Inca ornamental and medicinal for over 8000 years, possibly originating in the Titicaca basin in Peru and Bolivia. The first archaeological evidence of use dating to 700-1400 years ago was discovered in the Huachumachay cave sediments, located in the Jauja valley,

Peru, and depictions are present in Nazca pottery at Pacheco. Dated to 1000 AD this suggests it was grown not only in the highlands but also as a coastal crop

(“Cultivariable,” n.d.; Grau et al, 2003; Popenoe, King, Leon, & Kalinowski, 1989).

Ulluco – The wild ancestor of cultivated ulluco has been shown to be U. tuberosus subsp. Aborigineus (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). The timeline and domestication of ulluco is thought to be similar to that of oca, being more than 4000 years ago between central Peru and central Bolivia. Also like oca, large ceremonial vessels of the Wari culture, these in the Robles Moqo style, were found and dated 600-

1100 AD. In 1976, Martins identified remains in Ancón-Chillón, Peru dated 4050-4250

BP (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). Morphological and molecular data shows that

Colombian ulluco may have been introduced at different times from two different the central Andes source, once semi-domesticated sources from the other completely domesticated (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Parra-Quijano, Panda, Rodríguez, & Torres, 2012).

Mauka – very little is known of this crop. According to Van Zant, Bolivian scientist Julio Rea pinpointed the center of distribution to the Cajamarca region of Peru.

It was thought to spread to Bolivia and Ecuador via human migration during the Inca empire (Van Zant & Zant, 2016).

Post-colonization Oca –Though introduced to Europe during the last century and grown as an ornamental in Great Britain and pig fodder in France, the tubers were not used for food. It is thought that oca moved northwards to Mexico in the mid to late 1700s. It has been cultivated in New Zealand since 1860, but has only gained popularity in the last 20 years

(Anonymous, n.d.-a; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Popenoe et al., 1989).

Mashua – Chronicled for the first time by Garicilaso and the Jesuit Bernabe Cobo

(1956 [1639]), for its anti-aphrodisiacal properties and its use on Inca military to keep soldiers sexually subdued (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997), mashua was introduced to Europe as an ornamental around 1827 (Anonymous, n.d.-a). The first valid botanical description was made by Ruíz and Pavón (1802) (Grau et al., 2003).

Ulluco – No chronicles were made by the Spanish (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). It was originally introduced into New Zealand in the 1970s with little success.

Mauka – It was noted that plants were sent to Europe from Peru in 1525, though officially recorded in early 1960 as being discovered, by Julio Rea, as an important food of the Maukallajta Indians in the high valleys of La Paz Bolivia. In the 1970s he also found it to be in cultivation in a few areas of cold, dry uplands of Ecuador, where it is called “miso.” In 1987, J. Seminario found mauka was growing in several locations of

Cajamarca, Peru. It is not generally known in any other locations in South America

(Popenoe et al., 1989). This disjunctive dispersal may be due to the Inca practice of dislocating potentially resistant populations (Anonymous, n.d.-a).

Plant Structure and Biology

Oca: Oxalis tuberosa Molina, aka (Oxalis crenata Jacq.) Family: Oxalidaceae

In the Central Andes, oca is cultivated at elevations of 2800m to 4100m (

Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997; Emshwiller & Doyle,

1998; Flores, Walker, Guimaraes, Bais, & Vivanco, 2003) in cool temperatures around

5°C, a precipitation range of 570-2500mm and marginal soils with a pH ranging from

5.3-7.8 (Flores et al., 2003). The cultivated oca is of the variety O. tuberosa Molina, and is an octaploid, (2n=8x=64), or sometimes tetraploid (Anonymous, n.d.-a). Studies based on inheritance of tristyly show that oca may be and auto-allopolyploid (Trognitz &

Hermann, 2001).

This annual herbaceous bush reaching an average of 20-30cm in height/diameter is erect in early stages, becoming prostrate in later stages, with trifoliate, shamrock or clover-shaped, leaves that tend to show various amounts of trichomes and purple coloration, and grow from petioles varying in length from 2 to 9cm (Hernandez Bermejo

& Leon, 1992). The succulent stems are cylindrical and colored green, yellow, pink, red, and purple-red and are also pubescent (Barrera, Tapia, & (eds.)., 2004; Flores et al.,

2003; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). The foliage is killed by freezing temperatures, zero

Celsius or below and growth can be arrested at temperatures above 28°C (V. V. E.

Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997).

The flowers, when present, are small, have a corolla of five purple-striped yellow petals grow from axils of higher leaves on inflorescences with four to five hermaphroditic flowers (Barrera et al., 2004; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992). Pentamerous flowers, express tristyly, made up of ten stamens in two groups of five, the three phenotypical

expressions, or tiers, are ‘long’ ‘mid’ and ‘short’, where ‘long’ is a configuration of long styles with mid- and short-level stamens/anthers, ‘mid’ is mid-length styles with long and short-level stamens/anthers situated above and below the styles, and ‘short’ is short styles with long- and mid-level stamens/anthers. This trimorphic variation is known to be correlated with self-incompatibility (Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Trognitz &

Hermann, 2001). Different crosses between the three types of styles produce different quantities of seed production, where a ‘pollinator/pollinated’ combination of ‘short/short’ and ‘long/long’ crosses produces no seed, and ‘mid/mid’ and’ long/mid’ produces high quantities (Anonymous, n.d.-a). The style of one flower is fertilized by the pollen from the corresponding tier of a different flower, but Trognitz and Hermann experiments reinforced an observation of its similarity with Lythrum salicaria as made by Darwin, that the mid tristyly arrangement is prone to self-pollination more so than the other two.

In addition to crossing limitation due to style arrangement, flowering in a population can take place over a time period of up to five months, with most plants flowering for less than one month of this period. This is most likely why in earlier observations it was said that spontaneous seed set was rare and noted as occurring only when several species are grown together in the same plot (Trognitz & Hermann, 2001). The ovary is pentacarpellar with separate free carpels, the fruit of which is dehiscent, explosively releasing capsule, consisting of five locules with membranous walls, enclosed in a persistent calyx, with each locule possessing one to three seeds approximately 1mm long (Barrera et al., 2004).

The main form of reproduction for cultivation is vegetative, by setting tubers.

During short day periods, 11-13.5 hrs of sunlight, above ground stolons become subterranean and start to form tubers, thickening into rhizomic tubers ranging in size

from 3-20 cm (Popenoe et al., 1989; Sperling & King, 1990). Oca tubers come in a variety of textures and colors including white, yellow, pink, red, purple, and black (Flores et al., 2003).

Recognized oca viruses in the South America, as reported by FAO in 2007, are

Arracacha virus B, papaya mosaic virus, potato virus T, and potato black ringspot virus.

In North America, there are no viruses common to oca and potato. The most common problem in warmer climates of North America is stem rot. Oca has few pests issues

(Anonymous, n.d.-a), though it is known to be susceptible to weevils (Hernandez

Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Flores et al., 2003),

Mashua: Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruíz& Pavón, Family: Tropaeolaceae

In the Andes, this relative of nasturtium is cultivated at altitudes ranging from

2400 to 4300 m, at temperatures between 8–11°C. It is frost tolerant up to –1°C, but not below –4°C, and heat tolerant to 30°C, at least for short periods. The precipitation ranges is 700 and 1600 mm and soil pH tolerance is from 5.3 to 7.5 (Flores et al., 2003; Grau et al., 2003; Popenoe et al., 1989). Originally there are few chromosome studies of mashua and those that exist show a variety of results, with papers showing the basic number

“should be 7” (Sugiura, 1936), appearing to have a total of 42 chromosomes,” (D. A.

Fuccillo et al., 1997), all the way to a set of studies showing 2n=18, 27, 36, 43, 48, 51,

52, or 64 from Gibbs et al., Johns and Towers, and Román and García. As explained by

Ruíz & Pav., this discrepancy may be due to, “the presence of two subspecies, high ploidy levels, hybridization, and sexual and asexual reproduction (Grau et al., 2003). The most recent studies show x=13 where 2n=4x=52 as noted by Cárdenas and Hawkes, 1948

(Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Schlegel, 2009), Mashua collections show between

50 and 400 cultivated varietals and/or morphotypes (Flores et al., 2003; Hernandez

Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Popenoe et al., 1989).

The bush starts erect but the plant soon adopts a semi-prostrate or prostrate habit, producing a very dense soil cover (Barrera et al., 2004; Grau et al., 2003; Hernandez

Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Popenoe et al., 1989). Stems arise from sprouting tubers which are often reddish, glabrous and along with petioles are twining about to climb any available support to approximately 2 meters in height. The leaves are alternate and peltate

(mostly circular with a stem attached to the underside), usually having 3 to 5 lobes measuring approximately 5 cm in length and 6 cm across, with a dark green upper surface and lighter green underside (Barrera et al., 2004; Grau et al., 2003).

The hypogynous flowers, mostly orange to bright red, are bi-sexual and grow singularly on long peduncles (Grau et al., 2003; V. Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 2012). The calyx has 5 sepals, 5-lobed, the sepals are fused at the base to form spur which contains nectar. There are five free petals, 8 stamens and a syncarpic superior ovary with 3 carpels, 3 locules and a three-lobed, simple, stigmata. Each locule contains one ovule in axilar position. The schizocarpic fruit divides into 3 separate mericarps, each with one seed (Grau et al., 2003; Popenoe et al., 1989). “Unlike oca and ulluco, mashua flowers profusely and sets seed easily (Grau et al., 2003; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992).

Like oca, and ulluco, mashua is propagated for production purposes in traditional

Andean agriculture exclusively via the tubers. Tubers, usually 5–15 cm long and 3–6 cm broad in their distal part, vary considerably in color and shape, with skin of white or yellow, sometimes purple/black, often with red or purple mottled or striped especially

below eyes, all with yellow flesh (Flores et al., 2003; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992;

Popenoe et al., 1989; V. Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 2012) . Also a short-day plant, optimally it needs 9 hours day length for tuber setting. Like the potato mashua tuber is modified stem that has “‘eyes’ from which it produces aerial stems and adventitious roots” (Grau et al., 2003).

Known viruses of mashua in Latin America include papaya mosaic virus, potato leaf roll virus (Popenoe et al., 1989), potato virus T, Sowbane mosaic virus and

Tropaeolum 1 potyvirus and Tropaeolum 2 potyvirus. In the U.S., it is also attacked by

Spongospora suberranea, a cercozoan responsible for “powdery scab” (Anonymous, n.d.- a). Opportunistic species of the fungal genera Mucor, Rhizopus, Cylindrosporium,

Penicillium and also bacteria such as Erwinia and Pseudomonas have been found in mashua including: Acroconidiella tropaeoli, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, an unidentified species of hytophthora, Ascochyta pinodes, Rhizoctonia spp. and Phytium, Fusarium spp., Verticillium spp., Acrocylindrium spp., Cylindrophora, Arthrobrotis, Graphium,

Epiccocum, Pyronema, Alternaria, Ovularia, Heterosporium, Stemphylium,

Eriocercospora, Mycosphaerella and Ulocladium. Harmful nematodes include:

Criconemoides, Paraphelenchus, Discocriconemella, Drylaimus, Aphelenchus,

Neocriconema and Heiciclophora. Like garden nasturtium, aphids, Myzus persicae, are highly attracted to mashua. Additionally, in the Pacific Northwest, the larvae of cabbage white butterflies and flea beetles can be a problem, in greenhouses, and field mice or voles outdoors. Pests in Latin America include Copitarsia turbata (‘gusano cortador’) and the leaf miner (Philionorycter sp.), the Andean weevil Premnotrypes vorax,

Copitarsia turbata, Phyllonoryeter spp., and Thysanoptera spp.

Ulluco: Ullucus tuberosu Caldas, Family: Basellaceae

Altitude grown ranges varies from a mid- to high-altitude crop in the Andes,

3000-3800 m, to sea level in Canada, Finland and England, where cultivation trials and research are being conducted. It grows well in moist cool environments, and is frost resistant, but does not tolerate high temperatures. The precipitation range is between 700-

800 mm in soil with a pH of 5.5-6.5. The basic chromosome count for cultivated ulluco is n=12 occurring in both diploid (2n=2x=24) and triploid (2n=3x=36), with triploid being sterile. There is one report of a tetraploid (2n=4x=48) from Peru. Based on the plant tubers, there are between 50 and 70 varieties/morphotypes (Flores et al., 2003; D. A.

Fuccillo et al., 1997; Popenoe et al., 1989).

Ulluco is an herbaceous plant, with all of its parts mucilaginous. Cultivated varietals can vary not only in bush form (erect, compact, or semi-climbing vine) reaching up to 50 cm in height/length, but also in leaf color. It has glabrous, ridged stems of green to red-pinkish and leaves of all varieties are succulent, heart shaped and alternate. (D. A.

Fuccillo et al., 1997; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Popenoe et al., 1989)

The bisexual flowers are small, green-yellow to reddish in color, and grow in clusters on axillary racemes at branch junctures. The perianth is reduced to a starry, yellow, calyx with acute sepals, stamens and an ovoid pistil (Barrera et al., 2004;

Popenoe et al., 1989). Though it has been indicated that fruit formation and seed set is very rare, one study shows this may be due to limitation in pollinators (Pietilä, 1995). The seed looks like an “inverted pyramid, with very prominent angles and a corrugated surface” (Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992).

The tubers form on long stolons during short-day periods of 10-13.5 hours. The range of tuber shapes, sizes and colors is extremely diverse. They have an interior of either yellow or white, with a thin skin in white, pink, yellow, orange, light green, magenta or magenta spots on a yellow back ground and may be spherical or elongate, straight or curved (Flores et al., 2003; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; S. R. S. King,

1987; Popenoe et al., 1989).

Diseases known in the Andes are "rust" (Puccinia spp.) and "dust" (Oidium spp.).

In low altitudes Verticillium wilt is problematic. It has also been noted that viruses can jump from potato to ulluco. Andean pests affecting ulluco are "cutzo" (Barotheus spp.) and the cutter worm (Copitarsia turbata), with slugs and field mice being most notable in the Pacific Northwest (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Barrera et al., 2004).

Mauka: Mirabilis expansa, Ruiz & Pavón Family: Nyctaginaceae

Reportedly, this rare tuber is grown between 2200 and 3500 meters where it has been found cultivated, in three small regions of the central Andes of Peru, Ecuador and

Bolivia. Mauka grows in temperatures between 4° and 29° C (Barrera et al., 2004; Flores et al., 2003; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997), exact precipitation needs are unknown, but it has been noted growing in areas with amounts between 600 -1000 mm per year (D. A.

Fuccillo et al., 1997; Popenoe et al., 1989). It is noted as preferring “deep soils of medium texture, and with good proportion of organic matter” (Barrera et al., 2004), but otherwise, there is limited information known about this plant, including its soil tolerance. It is believed that it is a diploid with a chromosome number of 58

(Anonymous, n.d.-a; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997).

The herbaceous, prostate plant is sprawling, up to 1.8 m diameter and 1 m tall, with foliage developing from branching basal shoots. Oppositely arranged coriaceous

(leathery textured) leaves are between 3 cm and 8 cm long by 2 cm wide, dark green with reddish edges, ovoid in shape, and grow from swollen nodes on cylindrical stems

(Anonymous, n.d.-a; Barrera et al., 2004; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Popenoe et al.,

1989). Two forms are noted as white mauka, displaying green foliage and red mauka which has red stems and red edges to foliage.

The flower color also varies with these varieties having Ecuadorian genotypes ranging from purple, white mauka (introduced to Ecuador) to white, red mauka (native to

Ecuador) in color, while Bolivian genotypes tend to be all purple. Flowers grow in inflorescences at the top of thin terminal racemes 3 cm to 6cm long, covered with viscid hairs. There are three or four stamens and a single pistil, with a spherical ovary. The flowers are day-length sensitive and flower with increasingly short days and may continue for six months (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Barrera et al., 2004; Popenoe et al., 1989).

Though grown/harvested as an annual, M. expansa is a perennial that produces up to 10 enlarged, fusiform, stems and roots, approximately 6cm in width by more than

50cm in length. The fleshy, flattened-sphere/forearm shaped, roots which are not day- length sensitive, can be found in white (white mauka), salmon or yellow color (red mauka) (Barrera et al., 2004; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Klásková & Fernandéz, 2011;

Popenoe et al., 1989). Containing calcium oxalate raphides (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Van

Zant & Zant, 2016), the tubers tend to be astringent, with it being noted that, while tubers from the Bolivian tend to be astringent, Ecuadorian types are not (Klásková & Fernandéz,

2011; Popenoe et al., 1989). 12

Pathogens known to affect mauka are Fusarium sp., Mirabilis potyvirus 1 (Mir-1). Major pests of the plant include butterflies and moths in the Cosmoplerigidae, Lepidoptera and

Siphingidae families (Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Zant & Zant, 2016). Additional pests include slugs, thrips, rootworm, and aphids (which transmit Mir-1)(Anonymous, n.d.-a;

Van Zant & Zant, 2016).

Nutritional Information All sources refer to the high variability the nutritional values between varieties of the ARTCs. Protein values are a good example. In a nutritional evaluation by King and

Gershoff 1987, it was noted that the minimum and maximum values of two cultigens of mashua were different by 120% and that the protein values between the three different

RTC species had a minimum to maximum difference of more than 300% (S. R. King &

Gershoff, 1987). An average value was used to create nutrition labels for some key components of the four tubers for easy comparison (see appendix A).

Oca tubers are 70%-80% percent moisture, 11%-22% percent carbohydrates which are easily digestible - rich in sugar, and 1% percent each fat, fiber and ash. Protein content is up to 9% dry weight. This is half as much protein and 20% less calories

(estimated 40-80/ 100 grams) per serving than potato, but similar in carbohydrate, and fiber content, 4.0%-5.1%, (Flores et al., 2003; S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987; Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Wyk, 2005). It must be noted that the nutritional study done by King and

Gershoff in 1987 showed a carbohydrate range of 83.0% -88.8%. They also found fat content to be 0.5%-0.6%, ash 1.9-3.5, and Calories/100g 368.7-374.0. The sugar content of freshly harvested tubers is approximately 50% sucrose, 25% glucose, and 25% fructose (Anonymous, n.d.-a), as recorded from Hermann, 2000. There is a good balance amino acids, with valine and tryptophan being the only limiting acids (S. R. King & 13

Gershoff, 1987; Van Wyk, 2005). In some varieties, as well as in mashua and ulluco, lysine values can be as high or higher as that of milk, beef, and fish (Roca, Ynouye,

Manrique, & Arbizu, 2007).

Oca is high in vitamins C, calcium and iron content, though the iron content may be dependent in part on soil type. It also contains anthocyanins, carotenoids, and fructooligosaccharides; the “varieties with dark colored flesh are presumably more valuable sources of these pigments” (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Van Wyk, 2005). The oxalic acid content range for tubers is 80-200mg/100g, similar to garlic, carrots, Brussels sprouts, and snap beans, with leaves containing higher portions (Anonymous, n.d.-a).

Sour/bitter tubers have up to 500ppm oxalic acid, while sweet as low as 79ppm (1/20 of that of standard potato) (Popenoe, King, Leon, & Kalinowski, 1989; Wyk, 2005). Other studies noted the oxalic acid content at 1.2 to 51.3 mg/100 gram fresh material, putting it less than that of spinach, at 356 to 780mg/100 g fresh weight (Sperling& King, 1990).

Mashua is comprised of approximately 20% solids (78.3%-92.4% moisture), 10% carbohydrate, with protein ranging from 1%-2% (Van Wyk, 2005) to as high as 16% of dry matter (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987; Popenoe et al.,

1989). King and Gershoff note carbohydrates at 69.7%-79.5%, as well as fat at 0.1%-

0.4%, ash 4.0%-6.5%, fiber 7.8%-8.6%, and Calories/100g 342-350 (S. R. King &

Gershoff, 1987). It is high in amino acids isoleucine, lysine, and valine and is low in fat overall, but is shown to have a healthy balance of linoleic and α-linolenic essential fatty acids (Zamora, 2004).

It is in high vitamin C (as high as 120mg/100g), twice as much as an orange/equal to kale (Anonymous, n.d.-a) and potato, and contains higher levels of calcium, iron, and 14

riboflavin than a potato (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). It also contains high glucosinolates

(mustard oils) and isothiocyanates (Anonymous, n.d.-a). Other secondary compounds include: pro-anthocyanins and other phenolics including, phenolic acids, flavan 3-ols monomers, flavonols and anthocyanins, which contribute to antioxidant capacity

(Chirinos et al., 2008, 2009), with studies indicating that the highest ‘total antioxidant capacity’ can be found in the black colored tubers (Salluca, Peñarrieta, Alvarado, &

Bergenståhl, 2008). In some varieties anthocyanins and hydrophilic antioxidant values,

0.5-2.1/955-9800, were found to be comparable to blueberries, 1.4-3.9/6900-9572

(Campos et al., 2006; S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987; Roca et al., 2007).

Ulluco , measured fresh is 85% moisture, 12-14% starches and sugars, 1-2% protein (leaves contain 12% protein on a dry weight basis), no fat, no fiber, protein as high as 15% dry weight (leaves 12% protein dry weight) (Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Wyk,

2005). King and Gershoff noted the protein at 10.8%-15.7%, carbohydrates 73.5%-

81.%1, fat 0.1-1.4, ash 2.8-4.2, fiber 3.6-5.0, moisture 86-86.2, and Calories/100g at

370.0-381.0 (S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987). A good source of carbohydrate, with about

20% less calories per serving than potato, (Popenoe et al., 1989).

The tuber have almost twice as much vitamin C than potatoes, which contain

23mg/100g fresh weight, and yield about 370 kcal/100g (Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Wyk,

2005). The red/purple color of many ulluco varieties is caused by betalains, a class of pigments also common in beets, which serve as antioxidants (Anonymous, n.d.-a).

Leaves and tubers contain 32 different betalains: 20 identified yellow betaxanthins including histidine-betaxanthin up to 50 in yellow tubers 70µg/g fresh weight, arginine- betaxanthin (rarely found occurring naturally, in yellow tubers only), and glutamine-

betaxanthin and, in red tubers, 12 betacyanins, up to 70µg/g fresh weight (Svenson,

Smallfield, Joyce, Sansom, & Perry, 2008).

Mauka consists of 87% carbohydrates, 4%- 7% protein by dry-weight (17% in leaves), little fiber and 134 and 162 calories per 100 grams. It richer than other Andean tubers in phosphorus (117 mg/g), and potassium and has higher levels of fat than other

ARTCs other than maca, calcium (157-461 mg/100g dry weight), though this amount may include calcium locked-up in the calcium oxalate. Calcium oxalate has been found in all parts of the plant and is why it may irritate people or cause them to find it bitter or astringent. It is low in iron and sodium (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Flores et al., 2003; D. A.

Fuccillo et al., 1997; Klásková & Fernandéz, 2011; Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Zant &

Zant, 2016). Additionally, though in small quantities, mauka contains many amino acids, including all the essential ones (Van Zant & Zant, 2016).

Usage and Current Cultivation Oca – All parts of the plant are edible and throughout South America it is eaten many different ways including: raw (in salads), boiled, steamed, baked, parboiled, roasted

(in a hole in the ground along with meat, called pachamanca), fried, added to stews and soups or preserved in vinegar. Bitter or sour tubers are usually sun dried, which nearly doubles the sugar, then are can be candied and served as a sweet or frozen and dried for flour called “chuño de oca,” also known as kaya, khaya, cavi, or caya (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Martin, Savage, Deo, Halloy, & Fletcher,

2005; Popenoe et al., 1989; V. V. E. Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997; Van Wyk, 2005) or washed to whiter flour called okhaya. They may also be smoked or “steamed and served with milk” to make porridges (mazamorras) and desserts (S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987), and made into a fermented beverage called “chicha de oca” (Martin, Savage, et al., 2005). 16

Leaves and young shoots are eaten in salads or cooked as vegetables (V. V. E. Rubatzky

& Yamaguchi, 1997).

Potential uses include the production of starch, flour, and alcohol, and as fodder

(Popenoe et al., 1989; Samaniego, Romero, Icaza Samaniego, & Zambrano Romero,

2014). Medicinally, oca in the form of kaya, is given to women after childbirth to help speed recovery. The process for making kaya creates antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin, ampicillin and nystatin) (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997).

Due to association with the less tasty mashua tuber, which was usually only grown by the poor peasants, oca also then had become “associated with poverty and rusticity” or “’indio’ food” (Iniciativa Biocmercio Sostenible, 2004). As such, it became mostly for subsistence and/or household farming. In the Andes it was second only to the potato in amount of acreage planted, but cultivation and usage have been continuing to decline. This is in part because potatoes can be grown in four months; whereas, oca takes seven to eight (Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992) and have a higher market price and demand. Oca has become overtaken by other improved crop varieties as well as other forms of food stuff now imported (S. R. King & Gershoff, 1987). Today most oca in

Latin America is grown in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, but can also be found in Chile,

Argentina, Colombia, and Venezuela (Flores et al., 2003). The stigma around oca as a poverty food is slowly changing with production in a few areas of Peru and Ecuador recently increasing, partly due to the efforts institutions such as The International Potato

Center (CIP), which has implemented a program under its ALTAGRO project to help

“smallholders produce oca marmalades in a variety of colors” (CIP, 2014).Currently, there are many studies in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia with extensive germplasm

collections (Sperling & King, 1990; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992) that are focused on researching current diversity, ensuring preservation, breeding, and more.

Oca has only really gained widespread popularity in the last 20 years (Hernandez

Bermejo and Leon, 1992). Worldwide it has been commercialized for either food or ornamental use. In New Zealand where it is served as a side with the national dish of roast lamb (Martin, Savage, et al., 2005; Popenoe et al., 1989), it is known as the “New

Zealand yam”. In sensory evaluations, of raw tubers consumers in New Zealand visually preferred the more intensely colored red colored oca over the yellow ones; whereas studies in Asia have shown reverse preferences. Steamed or baked tuber preference was for yellow skins, sweet tastes, and slightly mealy textured, with an aversion to varieties that turn grey or flesh-colored (Martin, Savage, et al., 2005). It grows in the region of the

Transverse Neovolcanic Axis of Mexico, where it is known as papa roja, or papa extranjera. (See appendix B for a complete list of common names around the world for all four tubers.). It is also cultivated in Great Britain, as an ornamental, and is currently being imported into the United States from New Zealand (Flores et al., 2003; Van Wyk,

2005).

Recently in New Zealand, long-day cultivars have been developed, these are thought to possibly be from cultivars originating from Central Chile (Arbizu, Huamán, &

Golmirzaie, 1997) and long-day or day-neutral clones were developed in Nepal for growing in the Himalayan mountains (Sperling & King, 1990), making it easier to grow in regions where the short-day light period occurs are beyond in the growing season. As of 1996, consumers in New Zealand bought approximately $2 million of oca per year

(Martin, Savage, et al., 2005). Other temperate areas in Europe, Japan and North

America are conducting cultivation research.

Current challenges to oca production as a generalized crop include poor knowledge of recipes and ugly appearance (Iniciativa Biocmercio Sostenible, 2004) It has to compete with other vegetable crops for ground space, the limitation of which is demonstrated by cultivation of potatoes today. Genetic diversity is shrinking due to continued propagation through vegetative means and selection for “improved” crops (S.

R. King & Gershoff, 1987).

Mashua – Though all parts can be eaten, the tubers are the most commonly consumed part (Popenoe et al., 1989). They can be eaten raw, but not usually preferred due to their glucosinolate content and derived isothiocyanates, which produces a strong flavor reminiscent of turnip or radish that is often considered unsavory to many people.

Cooking mellows the flavor (Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992). They can be boiled, baked, fried, soaked in molasses and eaten as a sweet (near La Paz). In the Puno region of the high north Andes it is made into a popsicle type treat called “thayacha” by putting boiled tubers outside in the freezing temperatures and eating it with sugar-cane syrup

(Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992). The tubers can be pickled and in Great Britain they are used as a garnish for hors d’oeuvres and cold meats. They can also replace potatoes in any Indian dish, or be roasted in a slow-cooker with meat. The leaves can be boiled as vegetable or used like a grape leaf, as wraps (Anonymous, n.d.-a; Van Wyk, 2005).

Flowers are sometimes served raw in salads in restaurants in U.S (Popenoe et al., 1989).

Due to its purported anti-aphrodisiac effect on for males, Andeans more often prepare it for women and children, except for medicinal purposes, where it is used as an infusion for urinary and prostate problems in men. Scientific investigations show both the anti-aphrodisiac and prostate protection qualities may have some basis, as well as possibly creating an increase in fertility for females (Cárdenas‐Valencia & Nieto, 2008;

Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Leiva-Revilla et al., 2012).

Boiled mashua tubers are used to feed weaning pigs and yearling calves where they are valued for enhancing weight gain due to high protein content. Due to the presence of isothiocyanates, it makes a good repellent for pests. Medicinally it has been used to cure kidney ailments, kidney stones, skin ulcers, as a diuretic, and kill parasites.

In cattle it has been used to treat rumen problems (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Ortega,

Kliebenstein, & Arbizu, 2006).

Cultivated from the Andes of Venezuela to northwestern Argentina, the greatest diversity of the crop and its uses is found from the central Peruvian Andes to central

Bolivia (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). Elsewhere in the world, the plant can be observed being used as a flowering ornamental in Great Britain and sometimes in U.S. As far as crop tuber production, in 1987 it was noted as producing good yields in Pacific NW and

New Zealand (Popenoe et al., 1989).

Ulluco - Like oca, all parts of the plant can be eaten. Tubers are boiled – sliced, shredded, grated, mashed, or whole – or roasted. It can be served cold in/as a salad or pickled or mixed with hot sauce, or served hot, as in mellocos soup (Ecuador), in

‘olluquito con charqui’ (ulluco with meat) in Peru, ‘ají de papalisas’ (ulluco pepper) and

“chupe” de ulluco (ulluco, meat, egg and cheese stew) in Bolivia and Peru. It is also used as a thickener for soups and stew. The tubers can also be freeze-dried into a chuño-type product, or ground down to flour for a longer lived product called “lingli.” The leaves are eaten in salads or as a vegetable, boiled like soup or used like spinach (Busch et al., 2000;

D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Popenoe et al., 1989; Van

Wyk, 2005). In Peruvian Highlands ulluco is used for problems during childbirth. Mumps and traumatic injuries are treated with slices of frozen ulluco, and ground ulluco is used to treat kidney pain (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997).

In the Andes, demand for this tuber has increased. It is more widely known now then 100 years ago, with production doubling between approximately 1969 and 1989. It is sold in modern grocery markets in larger cities of South America such as Lima, Quito, and Cali, at prices usually higher than potatoes (Popenoe et al., 1989; Roca et al., 2007).

The preference in Peru, Bolivia and Argentina is for yellow colored tubers, while in

Colombia yellow with magenta spots is popular (Busch et al., 2000). Peru exports canned ulluco to U.S. Latino markets (Busch et al., 2000; Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Wyk, 2005).

It was originally introduced into New Zealand in the 1970s as a potential crop, but with little success. Newer varieties have been brought in more recently and are being evaluated in planting trials (Martin, Scheffer, & B. Deo, 2005). Sensory evaluations determined that New Zealand consumers visually preferred red tubers to yellow or spotted/multicolored ones and liked or did not dislike the taste and texture (Busch et al.,

2000).

Mauka – The edible parts are the crowns, upper root/ lower stem and leaves. The large roots can be used as a substitute for cassava, arracacha and sweet potato, boiled or fried, served as a vegetable or used as an ingredient in soups and stews. In Bolivia sun drying the tubers removes astringency, then the sweetened tubers can then be used in, puddings, and desserts (accompanied by molasses or sugarcane juice, or chopped and boiled, then mixed with honey or brown sugar and toasted grain. The leftover cooking water is used for flavorful drink. The leaves are used in salads and chili sauces. Mauka possible great for low sodium and could make a good supplemental food for unbalanced diets low in protein, calcium and phosphorus, such as those of people living in highland mountain areas of the Andes (Klásková & Fernandéz, 2011). In addition to human consumption, mauka is used as Guinea Pig food and fodder for pigs (D. A. Fuccillo et al.,

1997; Klásková & Fernandéz, 2011; Popenoe et al., 1989).

The exact area under cultivation is unknown, but in Andean gene banks there are

119 accessions (D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997). In the Andes it is losing its importance. But, interest is spreading worldwide, as demonstrating by its introduction into Sri Lanka

(Busch et al., 2000; Popenoe et al., 1989; Van Wyk, 2005), the Czech Republic, and

Belgium with the purpose of cultivation trials (Klásková & Fernandéz, 2011).

Relevance There has been a large increase in research on food plants over the last decade, especially those that can grow under diverse conditions and are high in nutrition motivated in part by the organic farming movement, questions around climate change, and ongoing malnutrition and hunger. ARTCs are very hardy, can grow in the poor soils, tolerate drought, and overwinter in the ground or dry storage, making them great candidates for organic farming and climate change adaptation. The many varieties of these that have high nutritional values make them important foods to consider in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, research shows that genetic diversity is being lost at their source in the Andes. Cultivation in temperate climates is possible and an option in helping to preserve genetic variation. In order to help determine the viability and best practices for growing these tubers in the Pacific Northwest and marketability of the tubers, we grew several varieties of the four tubers using different cultivation methods. Additionally, we conducted the ethno- and economic botanical research to determine source material availability and existing knowledge of best growing practices, challenges and usage information, and to better understand developing trends and customer preferences, which affect the ability to market and sell the tubers.

Material and Methods Materials Original overwintered tubers – oca “yellow” and “red”, and mashua were originally obtained from Peace Seedlings (Anonymous, n.d.-c). The mauka varieties L and T were provided by Miriam Van Zant Ph.D. candidate at the University of Illinois,

Champaign-Urbana under a material transfer agreement. Mauka seeds used in year one were sourced from 5 different plants grown in an OSU field by Jim Myers, harvested on two different dates. Ulluco tubers for year one and oca seed for year two, (group#1, group#2, and bonus packs, OC-14-2x7x5 and OC-14-2x8x9) were acquired from

Cultivariable Nursery in Moclips, WA, Bill Whitson grower. It had been noted by

Cultivariable that Group #1 was a ‘known performer’ while Group #2 was ‘randomly selected.’ Oca tubers Mexican Red, Moonshine, Rosy Gems, Twilight, Bolivian Red,

Hopin, Sunset, and Amarillo were from Log House Plants originally sourced from Peace

Seedling, in Corvallis, OR, Dr. Alan Kapular grower.

For all potting, standard garden-grade black plastic pots were used with (SunGro

Horticulture, Metro-Mix 840) potting soil and approximately 1.25 to 2.5 grams of

Osmocote granulated fertilizer, adjusted for pot size.

Tunnel-row covers were created using 1.9cm (3/4”) #40 outdoor plastic conduit and 12mil clear plastic sheeting.

Pesticides used were: Surround WP, at 1.3 kg/acre solution, for ulluco, and pyganic pyrethrin, at 0.132 ml/L, for mashua.

For mauka, root clumps were first weighed as a whole then tubers were broken-up or combined as best possible into complete individual root sections for weighing.

Procedure

In order to collect cultivation and yield data to help determine best growing practices in Pacific Northwest, for the selected four Andean tubers, several sets of each were grown over a two year period on the Oregon State University vegetable research farm in Corvallis, OR. Several repetitions of plants sets were used of differing varieties, cultivars and/or germination type. The soil in the field, which is

Chehalis silt loam, underwent the following treatments; tilling, the addition time- release fertilizer when rows were created, mulch, and irrigation by overhead sprinkler. The field was weeded periodically during growing season.

Additional research was conducted via phone interview in the Pacific Northwest during the course of the research, and in-person during July and August of year two in Perú and

Ecuador, pertaining to current usage, cultivation, perceptions, sales, availability, and consumer knowledge and interest.

Year One: In April 2014, over-wintered oca and mashua tubers were collected from the perennial field and transplanted into pots in the greenhouse. Mauka plants, and additional oca and mashua plants, were started from cuttings off of existing greenhouse plants. All cuttings were treated with Dip ‘N’ Grow solution root promoter containing as active ingredients auxins Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), diluted at a 1/20 ratio. They were then covered with a plastic bag, for moisture retention.

Mauka seeds were also planted. Seedlings were allowed to grow for approximately 14 days before being transplanted into larger pots. In early May, additional over-wintered

oca tubers found in the field were moved from another area for grouping. All plant starts were transferred from the greenhouse to the field between May 19 and May 29 (Table 1 and Table 2). Plants were spaced approximately 30.5 cm and rows 76 cm apart that.

Rows were mulched after planting.

In August, Surround WP (Novasource) was sprayed on the ulluco due to spotted cucumber beetles (Diabrotica undecimpunctata) and the mashua due to flea beetles (any of several species of the family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Galerucinae, tribe Alticini).

The first harvest (harvest #1) was done on November 26. Measurements recorded were the total tuber count per plant, individual tuber weights, and total weight tubers per plant combined. Tuber weight, up to the nearest tenth of a gram for oca and mashua were weighed to the nearest tenth of a gram using an Ohaus CL 201 Portable Scale 1/10g scale. Mauka was weighed to the nearest gram on OXO Softworks 5lb (2.267kg) Food

Scale. A second harvest (harvest #2) was done on December 19, where all remaining oca and mashua plants were pulled. No additional mauka plants were harvested during harvest #2. For all plants, all but very tiny tubers of approximately less than 0.1 grams in weight, as determined visually, were photographed, counted and weighed. Oca and mashua weights were recorded to nearest tenth of a gram and mauka to the nearest gram.

The largest, most healthy looking tubers where selected to replant in the greenhouse for replant next season.

Year Two:

Corvallis: Cultivation On February 2, 2015 the Cultivariable oca seed was planted: ninety seeds each were from group #1 (good performers) and group #2 variable, and eighteen seeds each of two special trial packs. One-half from each group was scarified.

Between April 29, 2015 and May 15, 2014 all seedlings from each group reaching approximately 5 cm or more in height, were labeled by group number, sub-group designation “S” (scarified) or “N” (non-scarified), and were sequentially numbered. Total acquisition numbers were: 1S 01-11, 1N 01-28, 2S 01-12, and 2N 01-26, for a total of 78 seedlings.

All tubers, seedlings and cuttings from the greenhouse , along with tubers that were found left drying on racks over the winter, were transplanted to farm perennial field, in a different plot space than used the year before between June 24th and 25th. From last years’ oca replants, five plants each variety were planted in a randomly distribution in each of five rows in ‘field #2’. The seedlings were together on the outer edge of ‘field

#2’. Remaining mauka plants from 2014 were left in place in ’field 1’ as well as several over-wintered mashua. Overwintered oca tubers, found scattered in the two rows of ‘field

#1’, were moved together into one of the rows. Rows were 45.5cm apart with 76 cm spacing between plants.

White row cover material was laid over all oca plants, to try to protect from sustained high temperatures, from July 1st to July 6th. Oca plants were checked for signs of tuberization, by digging in toward the roots, on September 24th, with recheck on

October 9th. Day length was noted through October 13th. Plants were monitored and

measured for growth, and notes of color and form were taken for all plant in between tuber checks.

High tunnels were created by draping sheet plastic over conduit tubing on

November 13th, with the majority of oca plants moved under tunnels, leaving one of each duplicated variety outside of tunnel as possible, remaining until all plants were harvested on December 9, 2015. Plants were photographed, measured and recorded the following two days, with tuber samples in a walk-in cooler overnight to maintain moisture/freshness. Mauka seeds collected from the greenhouse in January of 2016 and sent to Miriam Van Zant were measured by her to the nearest millimeter, using a Bausch

& Lomb hand held jeweler's eyepiece, with a screw-on scale attachment lens.

Definitions “Matched plants” are two plants are of the same cultivar type, propagation type, and grown in the same part of field and plot. All plant cultivation designations used for naming can be found in Appendix C.

Peru/Ecuador: Interviews and Surveys Interviews and surveys were conducted in the areas of Quivilla and Lima, Peru, and Quito and Imbabura, Ecuador with local citizen, farmers, government officials, and members of local institutions relating to the cultivation, perception, usage and programs surrounding the four Andean tubers. These regions were selected because of its designation as one of seven major centers for genetic diversity and a focus of preservation programs for these tubers (Anonymous, 2015; Westmoreland, 1999). Fields

and soils were photographed, tubers were found in retail markets, and the prices were noted and compared to that of the potato.

Pacific Northwest: Interview Interviews in the Pacific Northwest were conducted with growers and nursery owners involved in the production and/or sales of one or more of the Andean tubers of interest. Questions for interviews were on customer’s perception of the tubers, sales, favorites, and particular successes or failure, in addition to an open relevant comment question.

Subjects / Participants Questions for participant survey were taken from “Descriptores de Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Mol.)” part 1, Pasaporte; section 2, Descriptores de recolección; subsection 2.18

“Datos etnobotánicos, pages 8-12 (IPGRI/CIP, 2001), which includes questions and cultivation, consumption, and perceptions of the four Andean tuber. The original survey was modified to leave out collection information, as no collection was done. The original,

Spanish language, copy was translated into English for institutional review board (IRB) approval. Bilingual information and consent forms were also created according to IRB procedures for surveys. (See appendix F full survey, in English)

For the survey, three volunteers were interviewed. In Peru participants were from the district of Quivilla, Huánuco and participant was from Ecuador, the Quito region. All surveys were given and completed orally, in Spanish. The answers were marked on the survey during interview and later transcribed into word computer.

All interviews were semi-structured and conducted with industry professionals who agreed to be interviewed for the thesis project.

Statistical Procedures Excel was used to make tables, graphs, and data calculations including: generating averages, plant/tuber counts, overall tuber weight per plant, statistical ranges

(minimum, maximum, first quartile, third quartile, median, standard deviation) and T- tests to determine significance.

Tuber individual tuber weights Table 1: List and count of mauka seedlings were used to determine significance on planted in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm. Seedling name Count “matched plant” and “overall” 1-7 10 comparisons. Significance was 1-14 7 2-7 10 determined using a two-tailed T-test 2-14 2 3-7 5 with two-samples assuming unequal 3-14 3 4-7 2 variances at a 95% confidence level. 5-14 3

Table 2; List of oca and mashua planted in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm. (See Appendix C for list of cultivation designations) Name* Number Planted oca red LFS (from 5/6) 5 oca red GHT 4 oca red GHC 3 oca yellow LFS (from 5/6) 5 oca yellow GHTF 5 oca yellow GHC 4 oca yellow ESF 1 mirabilis ‘L’ ESF 1 mirabilis ‘L’ GHC 5 mirabilis TOC GHC 5 mashua GHT 5 mashua LFGH 5 mashua LFS (from 5/6) 5 oca red LFS (from 5/6) 5 oca red GHT 4 oca red GHC 3 oca yellow LFS (from 5/6) 5 30

Table 3: List of Overwintered Tubers from Field #1 in 2014 at OSU Vegetable Farm. (See Appendix C for list of cultivation designations) Name Number of tubers Oca red GHT 3-5 Oca yellow LFS 3 Oca yellow GHTF 3 Oca yellow ESF 1 Oca Amarillo/Bolivian red/Hopin (tagged moved)? 1-2 Oca Mexican red 2 Oca Moonshine 3 Oca Rosy gems 1 Oca Twilight 2 Mashua GHT 4 Mashua LFGH 8 Mashua LFS Clump

Results Cultivation and Growth

Year One: 2014 Oca -

We observed on 10/27/2014 that three oca plants produced racemes with several flower buds each. Open blooms were observed: one each on yellow GHTF and yellow

ESF and two on yellow LFS. All flowers were accidentally destroyed during sample harvesting of tubers. Oca stem fasciation was observed on one of the “yellow oca” plants, with the main stem measuring approximately 25cm across and at least one lateral stem coming off of it also fasciated (Figure 1). The exact re-plant type was not noted, but because it was on a plant with a photographed flower it can be narrowed to yellow

GHTF, LFS, or EFS.

Beginning tuber production was first noted on 10/27/2014. Samples of yellow

GHC and red GHT had very small or barely formed tubers (Fig. 2). Whereas; samples of

Moonshine, Rosy Gems, Bolivian Red Sunset, Mexican Red, and Hopin, all had larger

well-formed tubers (Fig. 3). In a comparison of oca plants pulled during Harvest #1 on

November 26th versus oca tubers left in the ground until Harvest #2 on December 19th, we found that the top three performing varieties were Moonshine, Rosy Gems, and

Bolivian Red. This was based on a combination of measurements: 1) the number of tubers per plant, 2) average individual tuber weight, and 3) total tuber weight (Fig. 4)

(See appendix D for full data set)

When comparing data for all tubers between harvest #1 and harvest #2 using the three measurement criteria above a general trend of the average weight of individual tubers increased significantly over time was observed (Fig. 5). The average individual tuber size increased 45% and the total tuber weight per plant 42%. These increases were both considered significant when a two-tailed T-test analysis was done. Of the top three performers, two followed this trend, Moonshine, which also showed a significant increase in individual average tuber weights, and Bolivian red, which had an increase in all three measures, while Rosy gems showed a decrease in all three. (See appendix D for full data set)

Mashua -

In late July to early August flea beetles began attacking the mashua plants causing severe leaf damage (Fig. 6a-c). Plants were sprayed with Pyganic which successfully killed the beetles, allowing for full recovery by mid-September. Flower formation was first observed on the mashua plants starting 10/10/2014 (Fig. 6d-e). Many flowers developed but none matured to seed. Though nearby crops of rutabaga (Brassica napus),

turnips (Brassica rapa var. rapa L.) and radish (Raphanus sativus L.) had damage due to the cabbage maggot (Delia radicum), none was observed on mashua samples.

We found that mashua tuberization did not follow the same trend as the oca, l but instead had an increase in the number of tubers produced, while the average individual tuber weight stayed relatively stable. Though, looking at a comparisons of individual plants it can be seen that LFS actual had a significant decrease in individual average tuber weight (Figs. 7 and 8). (See appendix D for full data set)

Mauka -

On the October 26th sampling mauka tubers were well formed and measured approximately 30 cm long and 2.5 – 3 cm thick (Fig. 9a). For the first harvest were pulled one each seed 2-7, cultigen T GHC, seed 5-14, and cultigen L GHC. Root size was on average the same as in the October sampling varying in length and width by approximately three centimeters (Fig. 10). The L cultigen produced on average 26 tubers per each plant, while the T cultigen plant only produced three. The average tuber weight was nearly the same for all four plants at about 70 grams. The weights of tubers are extremely subjective as sections of the crowns can break off very differently. What is actually a full tuber is dependent on how it breaks. A second harvest was not taken for the mauka, so there are no comparisons for 2014 yield. All remaining plants were left to overwinter. (See appendix D for full data set)

Ulluco -

Plants we established by mid-May were attacked by cucumber beetles starting in late-June, early (Fig. 11). Though treated in July with Surround, all plants were destroyed well before the November harvest, producing no tubers for 2014 nor replant material for the 2015 trials.

Figure 1: Fasciation of yellow oca plant stems 10/27/2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm

a b

Figure 2: Tuber set of oca as of 10/27/2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm; a. red GHT and b. yellow GHC.

a b

c d

e f

Figure 3: Tuber set as of 10/27/2014 for oca grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm for a. Moonshine, b. Sunset, c. Rosy Gems, d. Hopin, e. Bolivian Red and f. Mexican Red

a b

c d

a b

c d

a b

c d

Figure 6: Mashua at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm 10/2014 a-b. Flea beetles and leaf damage. c-d. Flowers

a b

Figure 7: Comparison of tuber weights of identically propagated mashua plants between harvest 1 and harvest 2, 2014 at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm a. GHT and b. LFS

Figure 8: Comparison of Harvest 1 to Harvest 2, 2014 grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm. Tuber count, average individual tuber and tuber weight per plant for all mashua plants combined.

Figure 9: Mauka grown at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2014 a. October root sampling; b. Harvest 1.

a b

Figure 11: Cucumber beetle destruction of ulluco at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm August 2014.

Year Two: 2015 Oca -

In year two, we found two oca plants with fasciated stems, one in the field,

Moonshine (Fig. 12a), and one in the greenhouse, “yellow” (Fig. 12b), that had been pulled from the field on 5/6/2014. Two plants, 1S-09 and 1N-19, had one or more leaves that were penta-foliate. Additionally, on oca plants growing in the greenhouse many plants formed aerial tubers which were produced mostly at stem apices though some did form tubers at lateral axes running down the stem and/or at the apex (fig. 13a-c). Several potted oca plants in the greenhouse formed subterranean tubers as well, though smaller and less developed than the aerial tubers produced (fig. 13d). Also noted in the greenhouse was the formation of adventitious roots forming on stems that dipped down and touch soil (fig. 14). It was also observed of seed grown plants that oca undergoes epigeal germination (fig.15).

Flowers were first observed on 10/9/2015, seventeen days earlier than the 2014 observed date. The day length was 11 hours and 16 minutes. First to flower were overwintered moonshine and Amarillo, and new seed plants 1N-04 and 1N-13. At this time, eight other new seed plants had buds. In total 24 plants flowered, 15 of them were new seed varieties (See appendix D for full data set). Only mid and short type styles were observed among the plants (Table 4). An interesting note is that of all flowering on red- stemmed oca plants only one, Rosy Gems, produced red sepals (Fig. 16a). Potential pollinators observed on oca flowers included: Western Spotted Cucumber Beetles –

(Diabrotica undecimpunctata), hoverflies (Syrphidae), and honey bees (Apis mellifera)

(Fig. 16b-d).

Table 1: List of flowering oca plants and type of tri-styly observed at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm.

a b

Figure 12: Stem fasciation on a. Moonshine at the OSU Vegetable Research Farm; b. “Yellow” oca in OSU greenhouse pulled from field for replant 5/6/2015.

a b

c d

Figure 13: Oca in the OUS greenhouse February 2016, examples of a-c. Aerial tuber; d. Subterranean tubers growing in pots.

Figure 14: Oca in the OSU greenhouse with adventitious root growth.

a b

Figure 15: a) Early germination of oca in petri dish 2016, the seed coat still in place; b) Oca seedling with cotyledons still intact in the OSU greenhouse 2015.

b a

c d

Figure 16: Oca flower from a) Rosy Gems, only cultivar with red sepals with possible pollinators, b. honey bee, c. hover fly, and d. cucumber beetle at OSU Vegetable Research Farm October 2015

In mid-November, very early pod formation was seen on several flowers from different plants. Due to heavy wind and rain, the cover tunnels using conduit and clear plastic sheeting to protect the plants from a predicted early frost, stayed up only twenty days. With the destruction of the row-cover tunnels frost killed all flowers/plants well before any viable seed could be produced though the twenty days in the covers did act to lengthen the growing season.

On December 9, total of 57 oca plants (35 clone/vegetative growth plants, 22 new seed produced plants) harvested and photographed, measured and recorded December 10-

11th. Much like with extending the growing time for the oca, the second year of growth tends to show an increase in individual tuber weights (sizes), while demonstrating a

decrease in the number of tubers produced per plant (Table 5). This can be seen once again by looking at the top performers for 2014, which were the same for 2015 where both Moonshine and Bolivian Red had significant increases in individual tuber weights

(Fig. 17). A comparison between matched plant types grown under and outside of the tunnels indicates the tunnels increased the overall yield similar to that between early and late harvest in year 1, especially as the difference in time between the 2014 harvest 1 and harvest 2 was twenty-four days, compared to an additional 20 with the tunnels. There was a significant increase in tuber size for the Hopin variety. (Figs. 18-19).

In early 2016 several of the unused oca seeds from Cultivariable were examined under a microscope. The seeds measured approximately millimeter or less in length and width (Fig. 20). Visual observation revealed a visible difference in the condition of the two different sets sent, group #1 and group #2. Group #1 looked very healthy and had full endosperm; whereas, many seeds in group #2 appeared shriveled and partially decayed

(Fig. 21).

Table 2: Overall performance comparison: oca grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2014-2015

Year 1 Harvest 1 Year 1 HarvestYear 2 2 Yearr 2 Oca Oca Oca ow Oca spring replants only 12.0 8.0 19.0 14.0 304.0 142.0 565.0 140.0 1447.1 959.1 5202.6 1248.2 Ave # tuber/plant 25.3 17.8 29.7 10.0 Avg. Individual Tuber wt. 4.8 6.8 9.2 8.9 Avg. Tuber wt/ plant 120.6 119.9 273.8 89.2

a b

c d *

* e f

Figure 17: Matched comparison of individual tuber weight from plants grown under and not under row tunnels at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015.

a b

Figure 18: Matched comparison of tuber weight per plant for plants grown in and out of tunnels grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015 for a) Bolivian Red, and b) Hopin.

a b

Figure 19: Matched comparison of count, average individual tuber weight and overall tuber weight per plant from plants grown under and not under row tunnels at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015.

Figure 20: Oca seed approx. measurements using millimeter marked ruler (magnification not noted)

Figure 21: Oca seed obtained from Cultivariable, endosperm of a. group #1: b. group #2.

Mashua -

In year two, flower formation was noted to be fourteen days later than in 2014.

From the harvest data we found that, like oca, when comparing the performance between

GHT year one and year two, there was a decrease in tuber counts and a significant increase in tuber size between the first and second year, there was an increase of across the board for the LFGH plant, which created and overall increase in counts and individual tubers weights, but put the tuber weight per plant between harvest 1 and harvest 2 (Table

6) (Fig. 22). (See appendix D for full data set)

Mauka -

For mauka, (which did not have a second harvest of in 2014 to do a count and weight comparison), we found that second year measurements also follow the pattern of oca with the number of tubers decreasing, while the average individual tuber weight and tuber weight per plant increasing significantly. (Table 7) (Fig. 23) (See appendix D for full data set)

In late December, and early January we noticed that the L mauka cultigens, in a pot in the greenhouse, was flowering on racemes over 10 cm long (Fig. 24). By February the white, five-petalled, 3.5 – 4 mm size flowers had set seed. A total of eight apparently viable seeds, measuring ~2mm wide x 3 mm long (Fig. 25c), were sent on to Miriam Van

Zant at the University of Illinois for her research, along with rhizome/plant sections for both L and T cultigens. The more accurate measurements for each seed as well as median and mean, as taking by Miriam Van Zant, are listed in Appendix E. Viability was

determined by choosing plump seeds, a sample of which, under microscopic examination showed good endosperm content (Fig. 25a-b).

Table 3: Overall performance comparison: mashua grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2014-2015

a b

Table 4: Overall performance comparison: mauka grown at OSU Vegetable Research Farm 2015.

Yr 1 Yr 2 (2014) (2015) Mauka Mauka Number of plants 4.0 19.0 Tuber count 82.0 146.0 Total Tuber wt/plant 5645.4 71882.0 Ave # tuber/plant 20.5 7.7 Avg. Individual Tuber wt. 68.8 492.3 Avg. Tuber wt/ plant 1411.3 3783.3

a b

Figure 23: Matched comparison of mauka between years one and two for a) Tuber Counts, b) average individual tuber weight, and c) total tubers weight per plant grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015.

a b

Figure 24: Photo of a. Mauka flower b. and c. with approx. measurements using millimeter marked ruler; taken at OSU greenhouse February 2016.

a b

Figure 25: a.Mauka seed grown from plants at OSU greenhouse 2016 with b. Approximate measurements using millimeter marked ruler (magnification not noted); c. Endosperm

Ethnobotany and Economic Botany

For the purpose of this paper ethnobotany and economic botany are defined as stated in “Ethnobotany and Economic Botany: Subjects in Search of Definitions.” Here ethnobotany is simple described as defined by “Cox 1996”, ‘the study of the interactions of plants and people, including the influence of plants on human cultures” and humans on plants. And the definition of economic botany, as fist described by C. Earle Smith, as a subdivision of that study with the primary focus on financial incentive (Bennett, 2002).

For the international portion of this study, I traveled to Peru and Ecuador for a five week period between mid-July and mid-August to get more information pertaining to the current cultivation and genetic preservation efforts, perceptions, and uses of the four tuber plants included in field studies in Oregon. I interviewed/surveyed local growers/consumers, government officials, and other professionals and organizations. For the domestic portion of the study, I interviewed seed companies and nurseries in the

Pacific Northwest who are involved in sales and/or growing the tubers/plants. In particular, to determine what the particular successes/challenges were, in terms of growing the plants and producing tubers. In terms sales, what the interest trends are, who the customer base is, and what customer perceptions are.

Peru and Ecuador The major finding was that, for the most part, peasant farmers are growing fewer of these tuber crops despite preservation efforts by regional institutions and organizations. This was discovered by interviews with representatives of The

International Potato Center, Peruvian Society for Environmental Law (SPDA), OxFam

and the editor of Leisa magazine and backed by answers to the survey responses. In general, these foods are used mainly as backup food by poor elderly peasant farmers, with relatively few people in other demographics aware of and using them.

Some areas are doing better in preservation than others, as highlighted by Dr.

Fabia Parra. According to the SPDA report, “Plan de acción estratégica 2015-2021,” of the seven regions of interest in Perú only Huancavelic is in positive or level state of conservation, three others are shown to be in decline and three in severe decline, including Huánuco, the area of our study. Potential reasons for a decline in production and usage include a preference for the shorter growing time of potatoes and an affinity for introduced crops, such as wheat, which fall under the heading of changes in cultural preferences. Additionally, socioeconomic factors were noted. Often major markets are financially of physically preventative of large-scale crop production. Markets can be many hours drive away on roads that are not well maintained. Also, introduced crops fetch a higher price at market and the prices produce-buyers and chefs are willing to pay versus what is needed to make a profit do not make the minor tuber crops competitive.

For the most part, the minor tuber crops are found in smaller farmer’s markets in the

Andes of Peru and Ecuador but not in major stores or exported outside of the region of production. Even in the local markets, the minor tubers are only offered on stalls outside the main market by poorer peasant farmers, whereas inside large quantities and varieties of potatoes and introduced crops are sold by more well-off vendors. Another factor of consideration is climate change. I found evidence of this as the oca and mashua crops for this year had been severely diminished by fungus which was created by wetter weather conditions than normal. The pressures of climate change as noted in articles in the Peru

based agroecology magazine Leisa, are being felt in more than one location and with more than one crop and are threatening the preservation of many of the native crops of the Andes (Rivera, 2014; Rojas, Pinto, Flores, & Padulosi, 2014). The last factor considered by SPDA, transition to more mechanized agriculture, was found both by them and by my observations the least of the downward pressures on the production and preservation of the tubers species.

Genetic preservation programs in Ecuador were having a stronger positive effect on the production of the tubers. But general use of both oca and mashua was again very limited. There are exceptions to the generalization of lack of sales and limited interest.

While consumption of oca and mashua tubers is becoming more and more restricted to older peasant farmers, newer generations are becoming more receptive to ulluco. Ulluco is becoming popular as a designer item, being sold in both in regular grocery stores and in high-end markets in the cities of Huánuco and Lima. Both ulluco and oca are more popular and prevalent in the local markets in Quito region Ecuador than in the Huánuco region of Perú.

Local efforts to increase awareness in both Peru and Ecuador include additions of coffee-table books of recipes featuring traditional fare, such as “Recetas de la Cocina

Peruana,” “La Flor Morada de los Andes,” and “Comidas del Ecuador,” which could be found in upscale bookstores or on-line, and also in recipe books providing newer style recipes utilizing traditional ingredients and nutritional information such as “Un Mundo de comida con los Ingredientes del Ecuador,” by nutritionist and author Michele O. Fried.

Additionally at least one high-end restaurant, URKO, in Quito featured a desert using oca made by Chef Juan Sebastian Perez. Fabio Scotto of OxFam said that the Hotel Mirage,

in town of Cotacachi, used flour made from oca for coating meat and fish. As far as encountering mauka, none were found in cultivation, growing wild or for sale. There is very little to no general knowledge of the plant by farmers or consumers in both countries. Introduction of the tubers into the marketplace is not always successful. As noted by Teresa Gianella-Estrems, editor of Leisa, chefs are often not willing to pay the higher prices asked by the produce sellers for the minor tubers, when the potato price is much lower. This combined with the fact that the supply of the tubers is not reliably available has greatly diminished the effects of any such programs in Lima.

Oca, mashua and ulluco were all found to still be used for both medicinal and consumption uses in both countries. For example, “tocosh” de oca, as fermented oca was referred to in Huanuco, is still used as a nutritious porridge but to mostly to help fight off general illness. Ulluco, especially the fermented form (tocosh de ulluco), is still used to help women recover from childbirth. According to the local herbalist mashua is also often used for this purpose. And peasant men of a certain older age are known to eat mashua tubers regularly to protect against prostate cancer. According to one of the residence, companies from China have been showing an interest in mashua for its prostate cancer protection qualities, especially black mashua. This is because it is believed to be the strongest in its protection medicinal properties. Fabio of OxFam mentioned that the local children’s hospital had introduced the tubers as part of the children’s diets. But he also noted that in Ecuador most people will reject any black foods as they are equated to evil or bad omens in as much that they have even only just recently started eating black beans.

Despite the decline in cultivation and genetic preservation at the at the local farmer level, in general, the genetic diversity of oca, mashua and ulluco are well

represented in regional and international germplasm preservation centers. All materials are protected through indigenous rights with government backing, this actually often causes roadblocks to research and preservation of gene material. This is true of even the international centers such as CIP where germplasm exchange is almost impossible. It was noted during an interview that mauka genetic preservation is threatened; with CIP collecting only 5 acquisitions on their last study and no known seed based reproduction efforts are underway. Additionally, members CIP noted that efforts to grow oca as a crop in Africa had been undertaken but did not go as planned. Although they grew well, the people preferred them as an ornamental over a consumable.

Additional notes gathered through interview and observations include: The tuber crops are mostly grown at high altitudes in order to produce bigger tubers. “Black soil” nearer the top of mountains is more productive than the red soil with high clay content found at lower elevations. And, the cooler temperatures of the higher elevations help protect against herbivory while not harming plants.

Pacific Northwest Domestically, growers have been acquiring varieties and growing them for more than 35 years. Consumer interest is gaining, but knowledge of the tubers is low. Overall customers’ perception toward the plants and tubers has been positive. Rosemarie McGee of Nichol’s Nursery notes that, much like studies in New Zealand revealed, customers here tend to prefer the red varieties of oca over the yellow. Dr. Alan Kapuler of Peace

Seedlings commented that American tastes tend to lean toward the sweeter varieties of the tubers. Factors helping to promote sales and interest of these tubers include recent cook books, “Roots: The Definitive Compendium with more than 225 Recipes” by Diane 58

Morgan and “Gran Cocina Latina: the Food of Latin America” by Maricel E.Presilla, that include recipes for tuber dishes. Additionally ex-Executive chef Thomas Dunklin of

Portland restaurant, Three Degrees, offered dishes incorporating oca tubers as which he sourced from a local farmer (Adams, n.d.).

Across the board interviewees said they had seen sales increase over the last few years. Dr. Kapuler credit this with the recent popularity of the two other ARTCs, yacon

(Smallanthus sonchifolius, syn.: Polymnia edulis, P. sonchifolia) and maca (Lepidium meyenii). Bill Whiteson of Cultivariable notes that “at the current rate of sales we will see more than 50% year on year growth in yacon, oca, ulluco, and mashua in 2016” (Fig. 26) and notes that sales to larger scale operations have increased. The major successes have been establishing, breeding and adapting the plants in the PNW, disproving observations that some of the plants were sterile. According to Bill Whitson a, these are the first seed production experiments since the 1980s and they will go a long way toward producing crops that will grow well in this specific climate range.

Bill believes there is no threat of invasiveness on part of the mauka as it grows vegetatively only from the caudices and winter conditions in the PNW, other than maybe certain areas of California, are too cold for seed natural production.

Discussion

Corvallis cultivation results: Oca –

The main limitation to growing oca at higher latitudes is the requirement for short days to initiate tuberization. Initiation appears to happen in early September, when the normal growing season is ending. In continental climates in the U.S., subfreezing temperatures and frost in the ground would abruptly terminate the growing season.

However, mild temperatures in Oregon’s fall and winter allow continued development, albeit more slowly. The increase in average size of individual oca tubers, between the

November and December harvest dates, indicates that with the time frame of the growing season for the Pacific Northwest, it is possible to grow the tubers, but most likely not to their full potential. Any increase in grow time would significantly increase yields. Second year trials with oca reinforce this conclusion.

The second year trials also showed a general trend of an increase in average individual tuber weights and total tuber weight per plant over the 2014 measurements.

Tubers planted into the plot at the same time as plants grown from tubers planted in the greenhouse withstood heat better and did not produce significant amounts of foliage until after the heat had passed, but did not in general have as many or as large tubers. In creating tunnels to extend the season in 2015 for specific plants, we again saw an increase in tuber weights between those planted in the tunnel and those left outside. The use of high tunnel in the short term can allow for greater yield in areas with short growing seasons. For higher yields without having to create tunnels, breeding efforts become key to developing day-length neutral plants.

The ability of the oca to flower and set seed is extremely important to breeding efforts. The genetic variation available through sexual reproduction significantly increases the ability for the plants to proliferate in temperate climates as breeders could use genetic recombination develop a day-neutral tuberizing variety of oca. Polyploidy of the plants will make this difficult as multiple alleles may need to be fixed to achieve day length insensitivity. Also limiting success, certain crosses would be difficult to obtain due to tristyly incompatibilities. An additional note to breeding efforts if the discovery that oca undergoes epigeal germination. This is of interest as epigeal germination allows for an early start for photosynthesis, but can be a drawback because it also makes it susceptible to predation and weather extremes early in life.

On the observation of fasciation of oca plant stems, according to the Cultivariable website, these plants tend to be lower yielding. They also noted that fasciation may be a result of a disease, as it rarely occurs in fresh plant material derived from tissue cultures and Henri Hus of the Missouri Botanical Garden found that the fasciation tendency in O. crenata, a synonym for O. tuberosa, was passed genetically through vegetative propagation via tubers (Botanical, Press, Botanical, & Annual, 2016; Hus, 1906). We did find that fasciation was in a “yellow” oca variety both years. The second year it was found on a plant grown from a tuber from the same field as the discovered the year before. Though fasciation appears to be random it should be watched as it could be signs of virus. We did not subject fasciated plants to a separate evaluation, so no determination can be made concerning tuber yields.

Mashua -

Mashua plants showed the same general trend between year 1 and year 2 as that of oca, where the tuber counts decreased, and tuber weights increase, with an overall increase in yield. Though unlike oca the overall increase for mashua was not significant, the cultivation type GHT actually did have an increase in measurements across the board.

The late timing of the flower set did not allow for seed production in the field, but extending growth season by creating high tunnels could facilitate production of viable seed. This is demonstrated by pod production on our oca plants on the OSU Vegetable

Farm, which may have development had the plants been in stronger tunnels, and by the seed that is for all four tuber types currently being produced by Cultivariable on the

Washington coast.

In regards to not seeing cabbage maggot symptoms on mashua plants as opposed to neighboring plants which also produce glucosinolates suggests that the adult fly uses cues other than glucosinolates to find suitable host plants on which to lay eggs.

Mauka -

Mauka appears not to have a short day length trigger for tuberization (although flowering does appear to be short day induced). Mauka tuber weight and size increases were remarkable, but full size was not realized until grown for two seasons. Because of their size and depth to which they grew, extracting the tubers was very work intensive and is a drawback to small-scale production. Existing undercutters used for lifting beets and carrots might mechanize the process although this would have to be tested because of the deep rooting depth of mauka. There is also concern of possible invasiveness, due to

the depths to which the roots can grow and their drought tolerance. With climate change increasing temperatures, seed set could also become of concern. Having said that, mauka trials and seed production could be particularly important in saving species which was rare to start and has been found to be in continued decline.

Ulluco – We found that his variety susceptible to cucumber beetle. Other varieties may do better as well as growing larger quantities to start or as mentioned by the farmers in Peru, growing them in higher altitudes, in Oregon the issue a very different climate than that of

Peru then must be taken into consideration. The lack of harvest gave us no other data upon which to base conclusions.

Ethnobotany and economic botany:

Peru and Ecuador – Programs enacted in Peru and Ecuador, to stop the decline in cultivation and conservation of genetic variety, are using incentives in the two of the three areas most affecting their continuance: Socio-economic and cultural. Culturally they are combating old perceptions by reintroducing the tubers as a part of the diet, and teaching about the importance of preserving the tubers. Socio-economically, they are trying to connect peasant farmers to markets, such as restaurants and high-end organic farmers markets.

Continued decline in cultivation of oca and mashua can be classified under three categories: climate change, changes in wants and perceptions within local cultures and lack of market demand. Recent indications are that these challenges will continue to cause a decline in their use and growth in Peru. In Ecuador these tubers appear to be 64

gaining in public interest and knowledge. This may be due in part to the size difference of the two countries and the effect on the market. Transportation costs and market distance particularly come into play. Roads in the Peruvian Andes are not well maintained and most of the peasants growing the tubers are thousands of kilometers from large markets: whereas Ecuador is much smaller, the roads are well maintained and the capital city

Quito is in the middle of the Ecuadorian Andes, greatly reducing transportation cost and time. Efforts to engage peasants in cultural trust of the tubers appeared more successful in

Ecuador also, though for unknown reasons. But, taking into consideration tourism can more readily reach these peasant communities; the size of the country also may again play a part. It also has a larger targeted tourist market.

Of the tubers, ulluco has increased most in popularity in recent history and is now the most preferred and readily available in many city markets. This may be because oca and mashua can look very much alike are often mixed in the fields and have been then both associated with poverty food and unfavorable cultural connotations. Mauka, known to be rare, continues to be practically non-existent in general knowledge and use. This, and limited ability to collect genetic samples, leads to the assumption that there will not be an increase in use in these countries.

Pacific Northwest Interviews with professionals in the Pacific Northwest lead to the conclusion that there is a sustained increase in cultivation, breeding and sales. New seed derived varieties may help to maintain the quickly shrinking genetic pool and the number of available varieties. Public interest in the tubers is low but increasing. More information about growth of the plants and uses for the tubers needs to be introduced into the general

populous. For mauka in particular, drawbacks to production and sales are difficulty of harvest and limited general knowledge of the tuber or its uses.

Limitations and Future Research

Our research trials were severely hampered during the second year by the loss of plants due to heat. The data taken are accurate, but due to reduced sample size its usefulness maybe limited. Additionally, the short durations of the trial time is not sufficient to accurately calculate any true trends.

Future research should include, companion planting trials for mashua as it may useful in insect control when planted with other plants, cultivation trials on the Oregon coast and in Eastern Oregon, and breeding and testing for day length neutral tuberizing plants of oca and mashua.

References

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Appendix A: Tuber Nutrition Labels

Figure 27: Nutrition label created by Cultivariable for a. Oca and b. Mashua.

Figure 28: Nutrition label created by Cultivariable for a. Ulluco and b. Mauka.

Appendix B: List of Common Names Worldwide

Table 5: Common names from around the world for oca.

(Anonymous, n.d.-a; Barrera et al., 2004; D. A. Fuccillo et al., 1997; Grau et al., 2003; Hernandez Bermejo & Leon, 1992; Kays, 2011; S. R. S. King, 1987; Popenoe et al., 1989; Sperling & King, 1990; Van Wyk, 2005; Van Zant & Zant, 2016) *Most duplicated name usage has been deleted.

Table 6: Common names from around the world for mashua.

Table 7: Common names from around the world for ulluco.

Table 8: Common names from around the world for mauka.

Appendix C: List of Cultivation Method Abbreviations

Table 9: Table of abbreviations for cultivation methods for all tubers

GHT = started in greenhouse from tubers of original plant in greenhouse. GHTF = started in greenhouse from tubers, with foliage attached, from original plant in greenhouse. GHC = plant started in greenhouse from cuttings of original plant in greenhouse. LFS = tubers from old field plot found in late spring planted directly into the new plot LFGH = tubers from old field plot found in late spring, dried several days to cure, then planted in greenhouse before planted in new plot. EFS = tubers from old field plot found in early spring planted directly into the new plot DT = plant started directly from dry tuber from year 1, stored in greenhouse then replanted to field in year 2 GHS = started from seed planted in greenhouse then moved to field OW = over-wintered tubers (left in field throughout the winter)

Appendix D: Tuber Measurement Complete Data Sets

Table 10: Yield Data Harvest #1, 11/25/2014, for oca, mashua, and mauka grown at OSU Vegetable Farm.

Yeilds 11/26/2014 Oca Mashua Mauka # tubers Yellow GHC Yellow LFS Red GHC Red LFS Mexican Red (cont') Moonshine Rosy Gems Twilight Bolivian Red Hopin Sunset Amarillo GHT (cont') LFS Seed 2-7 (L?)* Var. T GHC Seed 5-14 (L?) (L) GHC * To nearest gram up to double line 1 7.3 2.4 3 8.4 4.3 1.6 7 7 8.5 7.7 1.1 3.1 2.5 5.6 29 37.5 177 87 137.1 56.8 GHC = plant started in greenhouse from cuttings of original plant in greenhouse. 2 3.1 2.3 2.4 6.7 5.2 1.1 6.3 4 2.4 4.1 0.3 2.3 2.9 9.3 33.7 35.7 197 17.2 68.3 15.8 GHS = from seed planted in greenhouse then move to field 3 1.6 1.8 1.6 5 3.3 1.1 6.1 3.7 2.3 7.8 0.7 5.8 2.7 6.4 32.5 25.1 172 116.3 143.7 48.1 LFS = tubers from old field plot in late spring and planted directly into the new plot 4 1 3.6 2.1 0.2 7.7 4 1.4 5.2 0.6 1.8 5.7 6.8 29.2 18.5 112 30.1 23.2 5 0.9 1.8 2.4 15.2 3.9 5.7 1.7 3.5 1.2 3.9 5.9 13.4 21.5 27.8 137 10.7 56.3 6 1.7 2.9 3.5 15.6 2.7 10.6 1.3 6.5 2.5 13.7 4.5 8.2 41.1 10.3 201 83.3 6 7 1 2.5 0.7 10.5 13 2.8 6.3 1.2 1.7 9.2 30.4 7.8 124 39.8 45.8 8 0.5 1.9 2.5 6.4 7.3 1.2 4.3 0.7 1.5 7.3 45.7 5.3 152 33.7 26 9 1.9 1.9 1.4 3.2 11.7 16.2 1.3 1.6 3.5 8.9 27.2 19.1 202 55.4 43.6 10 1.7 2.6 0.5 3.8 4 27.3 3.8 1.6 10.4 7.8 32.8 16.7 55 17.4 27.4 11 2.5 0.5 1.7 3.3 11.3 7.1 1.1 4 6.4 24.9 30.8 107 106.4 59.5 12 2.6 7.8 1.5 1.1 4 6.9 21.3 2.7 9.6 30.4 30.7 86.3 163.8 14.5 13 1.7 5.5 2.7 16.8 0.8 3.7 6.2 2.4 5.9 22.8 36.9 53.9 65.4 90.5 14 2.3 3.6 1.4 6.8 13.4 4.4 6.2 2 10.4 5.4 39.2 26.5 44 178.7 15 3 2.6 0.9 2.4 17.6 1.7 3.5 3.8 11.9 7 10.7 12.9 2.9 3.9 16 1.9 1.6 1.4 11.1 12.2 10.3 2.8 2.8 8.9 6.3 8.4 15.1 36.4 37 17 3.1 1.8 0.2 2.7 4.6 7.1 1.3 5 16.9 3.3 32.7 27.4 73.9 9.3 18 1.4 1.7 14.7 2.6 1.8 11.3 23 8.7 17.2 0.8 25.1 30.6 162.6 138.9 19 1.4 1 12.5 11.7 26.3 5.3 10.4 1.3 16.4 7 16.8 9.9 85.4 156.7 20 2.3 1.6 4 19 6.9 2.1 1.1 3.2 20.6 2.7 24.4 7.7 56.6 5.2 21 1.4 0.5 4.5 6.7 6.6 1.2 2.4 1.3 10.7 5.9 6.1 17.7 12.8 21.9 22 19.6 0.5 3.9 10.5 4.7 7.1 1.8 11 4.6 7.2 43.6 24.9 18.2 23 18.3 7.8 4.1 8.7 1.2 6 1 10.1 6 11.1 12.4 157.9 105.8 24 13.8 3.8 0.9 3.6 16.7 6.7 10.9 20.3 3.3 38.2 46.4 85 140.3 25 10.2 3.2 2.3 0.7 7 5.8 6.2 14.9 1.5 36 74.2 114.4 50.3 26 8.4 4.2 1.7 9.2 3.9 0.8 3.4 8.5 5.4 40 55.9 39.2 27 8.2 1.5 1.1 16.4 2.2 1.5 2.2 13.3 7.9 18.7 27.8 28 5.1 0.3 0.4 3.1 0.9 8 4.5 9.9 5.4 29.5 9.8 29 5.1 2.6 0.4 9.9 2.5 1.1 21.7 5 17.2 30 8.6 0.5 3.4 9.2 6.8 14 4.7 32.1 31 3.1 0.6 4.1 1.4 4 13.5 1.6 4 32 5.4 0.8 3.3 15.1 1.5 13.8 4 38.3 33 5.2 0.1 1.5 21.5 1.7 17 7.3 45 34 4.9 6.8 1 6.9 12.9 16.7 1.6 34.6 35 5.3 5.1 4.2 7.5 13.2 29 4.8 12 36 4 2.6 0.5 6.9 4.4 16.9 0.6 41.7 37 3.3 3.6 1.2 0.8 2.2 20.2 1.8 53.3 38 3.5 3.1 3.3 4 15.5 1.6 40.5 39 3.2 1.2 1.5 3.1 12.5 6.6 15.8 40 3.2 2.6 0.8 36.1 3.7 41 2.3 0.2 35.5 2.3 42 28.6 2.3 43 29.9 0.9 44 40.9 1.5 45 23.9 6.1 46 26.4 0.9 47 36.9 2.2 48 43.9 1.2 49 37.4 3 50 22.5 4.4 Total # tubers 3.0 3.0 41.0 10.0 81.0 37.0 28.0 6.0 39.0 29.0 21.0 6.0 304.0 100.0 39.0 139.0 25.0 3.0 28.0 26.0 82.0 avg 26.3 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 12.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 Total wt in g 12.0 6.5 180.0 37.3 249.0 285.3 224.6 17.6 203.8 121.9 84.9 24.2 1447.1 1400.4 980.8 2381.2 2100.6 220.5 1905.4 1418.9 5645.4 Avg Wt 4.0 2.2 4.4 3.7 3.1 7.7 8.0 2.9 5.2 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.5 14.0 25.1 19.6 84.0 73.5 68.1 54.6 70.0 70.0 min 1.6 1.8 0.5 1.8 0.1 0.7 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.3 1.3 2.5 0.6 4.0 7.7 17.2 2.9 3.9 Q1 2.4 2.1 1.7 2.1 1.0 3.3 3.5 1.5 2.8 1.1 2.0 2.8 5.3 13.9 26.5 52.1 29.5 19.1 Median Wt 3.1 2.3 3.0 2.8 2.1 6.9 5.2 2.0 4.4 1.8 3.1 3.7 9.5 25.1 55.0 87.0 56.3 41.4 Q3 5.2 2.4 5.1 4.7 3.8 10.5 11.5 2.4 7.0 4.5 4.0 5.4 21.6 36.5 137.0 101.7 90.7 58.8 max 7.3 2.4 19.6 8.4 15.6 21.5 27.3 8.5 13.2 23.0 13.7 5.9 45.7 53.3 202.0 116.3 163.8 178.7 St. Dev. 3.0 0.3 4.3 2.3 3.3 5.3 7.2 2.8 3.1 5.7 3.2 1.5 11.8 13.2 68.3 50.9 49.7 50.0 ranking 3 112 Totals Oca Mashua Mirabilis # plants harvested 12.0 2.0 4.0 # tubers 304.0 139.0 82.0 total wt 1447.1 2381.2 5645.4

Avg. # tubers/plant 25.3 69.5 20.5 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams)4.5 19.6 70.0 Average wt. overall 4.8 17.1 68.8

Tuber size most productive Oca Mashua Mirabilis Oca Mashua Mirabilis MIN overall 0.1 0.6 2.9 3.0 39.0 3.0 MAX overall 27.3 53.3 202.0 81.0 100.0 28.0 St. DevP 4.7 13.1 56.0

Table 11: Yield Data Harvest #2 12/19/2014 for oca and mashua grown at OSU Vegetable Farm.

Yeilds 12/19/2014 Oca Mashua # tubers Yellow GHT/F Yellow LFS Red GHT Red LFS Moonshine Rosy Gems Bolivian Red Hopin GHT (cont') LFS (cont') LF/GH (cont') GHT = started in greenhouse from tubers of original plant in greenhouse. 1 3.8 1.2 5.5 4.1 9.5 12.7 1.1 12.8 28.6 2.2 6.3 8.2 52.1 52.2 GHTF = started in greenhouse from tubers, with foliage attached, from original plant in greenhouse. 2 3.5 2.8 2.5 3.5 6.3 7.5 5.5 12.5 13.5 36.1 16 12.7 9 27.1 LFS = tubers from old field plot in late spring and planted directly into the new plot 3 3.9 1.6 2 12.5 9.4 2.8 3 12.1 21.3 16.8 7.1 16.3 31.5 22.8 LFGH = tubers from old field plot in late spring, curred, planted in greenhouse before planted in new plot. 4 3.2 1.6 1.8 8.8 8.7 7.4 1.9 5 32.4 14.4 5 8 28.7 19.2 5 7.1 6.9 11.8 6.7 2.9 3.3 2.2 36.9 74.1 7.9 6.6 18.6 27.9 6 5.8 4.3 9.2 5.9 3 6.9 15 30.5 5.9 2.3 21.4 33.2 7 4.6 1.2 8.1 9.6 4.9 4.5 14 23.2 14.2 14.9 30.5 37 8 10.7 2.3 5.5 4.5 8.5 9.4 20.7 27.7 4.3 29.6 17.9 21.2 9 5.5 3.7 9.1 11.1 5.4 3 21.8 49.2 3.3 21.1 21.8 14.8 10 15.4 15.6 8.9 6.2 11.1 2.3 22.4 23.2 5.3 23.2 23.9 17.3 11 14.3 3.7 13.4 6.5 3 18.9 19 5.3 21.9 14.1 6.1 12 4.7 6.6 3.9 2.5 2.4 14 32 1.6 21.8 12.1 9.3 13 2.8 7.4 8.2 1.8 2.4 13.4 21.8 2.9 24.7 10.5 14.8 14 3.6 9.9 13 13.6 3.2 10.1 11.2 9.8 13.3 29.6 17.7 15 10.1 16.1 8 3.9 3 9 5.4 4.9 15.2 44.6 41.6 16 5 12.5 5.1 3.4 2 13.1 10.1 9.8 4.4 42 47.9 17 3.6 5.6 3.3 6.3 6.6 19.6 4 24.4 34.1 18 13.7 4.9 14.7 5.6 11.3 9.2 18.5 37.4 19 12.3 4.9 2.8 2.4 5.4 23.1 15.7 41.1 20 14 3.5 1.9 4.5 22.4 5.4 17 30.3 21 12.9 7.7 8.2 3.6 24.8 10.1 27.9 33.4 22 15.4 3.4 16.1 1 22.5 12.9 9.1 36.6 23 16.9 5.1 17.5 36.6 15.8 3.4 14.7 22.9 24 7.4 6.7 35.5 18.6 6.5 2.2 18.9 23.7 25 10.7 12.9 26.7 14.8 4.1 15.7 4.6 11.4 26 4.9 22.4 49.5 11.4 30.6 5.3 11 27 5.9 21.7 51.3 7.8 25.5 39.2 7.8 28 3.9 14.6 14.7 3.2 24.7 41.1 11.3 29 6.4 14 17 21.8 13.8 43.5 23.6 30 2.5 13.1 59.2 2.9 19.3 14.1 19.8 31 6 32.2 39.4 2.6 20 34.6 74.4 32 9.7 4.7 34.1 56 25.5 14.9 10.3 33 15.8 4.5 42 27.3 25.8 14.2 37.3 34 2.6 1.6 51.1 28.5 3.2 22.5 30.5 35 20.7 10 10.4 24.2 3.2 27.9 47.2 36 13.4 10.3 15.3 11.6 13.4 59.9 23.2 37 5.7 18.1 6.5 34.2 13.6 12 28.4 38 12.3 6.7 3.2 34.9 15.2 25.3 23.1 39 7.2 5.3 7.3 34.2 3.7 13.5 18 40 8.6 0.6 2.7 35 4.8 11.4 25.6 41 6.2 40.4 1.5 6 1.3 4.9 9.5 42 5.7 43.8 8.2 5.5 7.8 52.1 8.1 43 8.2 30.4 1.1 14.4 44 2.4 36.3 4.9 45 7.3 48.6 3.2 46 4.3 35 2.4 47 3.1 41.6 4.1 48 2.6 33.7 4.6 49 5.2 25.2 3.8 50 24.2 8 51 16 2.6 52 40.5 9.9 53 4.9 4.6 54 11.6 0.6 55 10.1 4.4 56 4 0.7 57 8.1 1.5 58 1.7 1.5 59 3.5 3.7 60 4.9 1.8 61 4.4 3.9 62 3.8 Total # tubers 4.0 10.0 17.0 5.0 25.0 16.0 49.0 16.0 142.0 123.0 84.0 85.0 292.0 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 8.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 Total wt (in grams) 14.4 56.3 89.9 40.7 246.5 122.2 302.4 86.7 959.1 2058.6 1170.7 2100.0 5329.3 Avg Wt 3.6 5.6 5.3 8.1 9.9 7.6 6.2 5.4 6.5 16.7 13.9 24.7 18.5

min 3.2 1.2 1.2 3.5 3.7 2.8 1.1 2.0 0.6 1.3 4.6 Q1 3.4 1.9 2.5 4.1 7.4 5.0 3.3 2.4 4.5 5.3 14.2 Median Wt 3.7 5.1 3.7 8.8 9.2 7.5 5.2 3.1 13.1 11.5 22.8 Q3 3.8 6.8 5.5 11.8 12.5 10.0 7.3 7.5 23.7 21.8 33.2 max 3.9 15.4 15.6 12.5 16.9 13.4 20.7 12.8 74.1 56.0 74.4 St. Dev. 0.3 4.5 4.2 4.2 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.0 15.1 10.5 13.9

ranking 3 1 2 1 Totals Oca Mashua # plants harvested 8.0 3.0 # tubers 142.0 292.0 total wt 959.1 5329.3

Avg. # tubers/plant 17.8 97.3 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams) 6.5 18.5 Average wt. overall 6.8 18.3

Tuber size most productive Oca Mashua Oca Mashua MIN overall 1.1 0.6 4.0 84.0 MAX overall 20.7 74.4 49.0 123.0 St. DevP 4.1 14.2

Table 12: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered oca grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015.

Field 1 Overwintered Oca # tubers Bolivian Red (in?) Hopin in Moonshine Yellow GHTF 1 Yellow GHTF 2 Yellow GHTF 3 Yellow GHTF Yellow LSF 1 Yellow LSF 2 Yellow LSF 3 Red GHT 1 Red GHT 2 (Cont') Red? Yellow ESF 1 Yellow ESF 2 Yellow ESF 3 Mexican Red 1Mexican Red 2Mexican Red 3 1 33.0 55.8 44.9 12.7 13.4 11.1 14.5 10.8 12.8 19.4 41.8 25.3 8.7 35.4 11.2 11.5 18.9 26.7 28.7 22.8 2 32.3 47.4 43.4 9.6 13.0 3.1 12.4 10.2 8.4 7.5 22.2 25.7 9.2 32.4 11.0 12.5 17.0 22.9 20.9 20.5 3 20.9 41.6 36.7 9.6 11.7 1.7 11.2 9.3 8.1 7.1 20.6 26.9 5.5 24.1 8.5 4.1 15.5 21.2 20.5 17.3 4 18.6 39.3 36.6 9.0 10.9 10.9 8.5 7.4 6.1 24.3 37.4 8.2 21.8 7.0 6.0 14.8 20.9 18.5 11.2 5 15.6 35.9 27.7 8.8 10.7 9.1 7.0 7.3 5.5 23.0 39.3 6.2 21.1 6.8 3.0 12.6 20.9 17.8 10.8 6 11.1 34.1 27.1 7.0 10.3 7.3 6.6 4.5 4.5 21.9 27.1 17.5 19.0 6.0 5.2 11.0 20.5 17.0 9.0 7 10.4 33.5 25.6 7.0 9.5 6.7 6.4 3.9 3.8 20.4 23.9 9.5 17.9 5.8 1.5 10.9 19.2 14.6 8.1 8 10.2 33.4 21.6 5.7 8.4 6.1 6.2 3.3 3.3 17.6 30.9 6.3 17.3 5.8 2.0 10.7 17.6 13.9 7.8 9 8.8 33.2 21.4 5.4 8.0 5.8 6.0 3.3 3.2 11.6 19.8 11.7 15.9 5.7 5.6 8.8 17.2 13.3 7.7 10 8.4 32.0 20.5 5.4 7.7 5.8 5.6 2.3 2.9 11.3 20.9 11.2 12.6 5.3 7.8 14.7 12.5 7.2 11 8.0 29.3 17.6 4.8 5.4 5.5 5.4 2.1 2.3 18.4 13.4 9.9 12.2 4.9 6.1 14.5 12.1 6.4 12 7.6 28.4 16.3 4.5 5.3 5.4 4.5 1.8 2.0 14.2 16.7 7.9 11.6 4.4 5.6 13.3 11.4 6.0 13 7.5 28.2 14.6 4.4 4.4 5.2 4.3 1.8 1.0 7.9 15.3 9.6 10.0 4.3 4.6 13.3 11.3 5.1 14 7.4 26.0 12.7 4.3 3.6 5.0 4.1 1.6 8.9 16.5 10.5 9.8 4.0 3.4 13.3 10.8 4.7 15 7.4 21.3 12.3 4.2 3.5 4.8 4.1 1.6 5.2 17.9 10.2 8.4 3.5 3.4 10.9 9.3 4.6 16 6.3 21.1 9.5 3.7 3.5 3.8 4.0 5.4 14.7 9.6 7.7 3.5 3.4 9.4 9.3 4.2 17 6.1 20.4 8.4 3.7 3.1 3.8 3.6 8.3 10.2 5.3 7.4 2.6 2.5 9.3 7.9 4.2 18 5.6 18.6 8.0 3.1 3.1 2.7 2.9 6.4 17.0 4.5 6.6 2.2 2.3 9.2 7.3 3.9 19 5.5 17.5 6.9 2.8 2.9 2.7 2.8 18.1 9.2 4.8 6.3 2.1 1.9 8.9 7.1 3.8 20 4.8 17.5 6.6 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.7 18.5 12.7 3.7 5.5 2.1 1.9 8.3 6.7 3.7 21 4.5 17.1 6.0 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.6 6.8 13.0 3.9 4.8 2.0 8.0 6.5 3.2 22 4.4 16.7 5.2 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.5 2.8 10.1 1.9 4.3 1.9 8.0 6.4 3.0 23 4.4 16.6 4.7 2.2 2.1 2.1 2.5 7.4 10.1 2.2 4.2 7.9 5.8 2.6 24 4.1 16.2 3.7 1.5 1.9 1.8 2.2 4.3 10.7 3.4 4.0 7.8 5.2 2.5 25 3.9 15.4 2.2 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.6 3.3 13.7 3.3 3.9 7.0 5.2 2.5 26 3.6 14.4 1.6 1.5 1.6 6.7 14.7 4.3 3.8 6.8 5.0 2.4 27 3.4 14.4 1.4 1.5 3.0 8.1 2.4 3.7 6.8 4.8 2.2 28 3.3 13.8 1.3 3.6 19.3 3.1 3.6 6.3 4.7 29 3.0 13.2 0.8 3.2 10.1 5.3 3.0 5.9 4.6 30 2.3 13.0 2.2 8.5 1.5 3.0 5.3 4.5 31 12.0 3.0 12.7 1.5 2.6 4.8 4.5 32 11.7 2.8 6.2 2.0 2.6 4.6 4.0 33 11.7 2.4 1.3 4.4 3.8 34 9.2 2.1 1.1 3.9 3.7 35 9.2 3.8 3.7 36 8.9 3.7 3.6 37 8.9 3.6 3.6 38 8.0 3.6 3.5 39 7.6 3.5 3.2 40 6.5 3.4 3.1 41 6.1 3.3 3.0 42 6.1 3.2 2.9 43 6.1 2.5 2.6 44 5.8 2.4 2.6 45 5.4 2.4 2.5 46 5.1 2.2 2.5 47 5.0 2.1 2.4 48 3.9 2.4 49 3.7 2.3 50 3.6 2.3 51 3.6 2.1 52 3.6 2.1 53 3.5 1.9 54 3.5 1.8 55 2.9 1.8 56 2.8 1.7 57 2.7 58 2.6 59 2.4 Total # tubers 30.0 59.0 26.0 29.0 25.0 3.0 27.0 25.0 15.0 13.0 34.0 64.0 34.0 22.0 9.0 20.0 47.0 56.0 27.0 565.0 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 19.0 Total wt (in grams) 272.4 937.4 441.8 133.5 151.4 15.9 144.6 126.4 70.2 68.6 379.6 762.8 348.9 110.6 51.4 163.1 439.4 397.2 187.4 5202.6 Avg Wt 9.1 15.9 17.0 4.6 6.1 5.3 5.4 5.1 4.7 5.3 11.2 11.9 10.3 5.0 5.7 8.2 9.3 7.1 6.9 8.1 min 2.3 2.4 1.6 0.8 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.0 2.1 1.5 1.1 1.9 1.5 1.9 2.1 1.7 2.2 Q1 4.4 5.6 6.7 2.3 2.9 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.0 2.9 3.4 5.5 3.8 2.8 3.0 3.4 3.8 2.8 3.5 Median Wt 6.9 13.0 13.7 4.2 4.4 3.1 5.0 4.3 3.3 3.8 7.7 10.1 7.0 4.7 5.2 7.0 7.8 4.7 4.7 5.0 Q3 9.9 21.2 24.6 5.7 9.5 7.1 6.4 6.4 7.4 6.1 18.3 15.6 15.1 6.0 6.0 11.4 13.3 9.7 8.0 max 33.0 55.8 44.9 12.7 13.4 11.1 14.5 10.8 12.8 19.4 41.8 39.3 35.4 11.2 12.5 18.9 26.7 28.7 22.8 St. Dev. 7.8 12.8 12.8 3.0 3.9 5.1 3.6 2.6 3.4 4.7 9.2 8.5 8.8 2.7 3.9 5.5 6.6 6.0 5.5

Totals # plants harvested 19.0 # tubers 565.0 total wt (in grams) 5202.6

Avg. # tubers/plant 29.7 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams) 8.1 St. Dev. 3.7 Average wt. overall 9.2

MIN overall 0.8 MAX overall 55.8 St. DevP 8.5

# flowered 6.0

Table 13: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered mashua grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015.

Field 1 Overwintered Mashua # tubers GHT #2 GHT #1 LFGH #1 LFGH #2/#3* (cont') 1 67.1 87.0 92.0 88.0 26.7 2 60.2 76.2 82.1 87.0 26.4 3 57.7 71.0 79.8 69.7 25.4 4 54.8 66.4 74.6 69.4 25.3 5 54.4 50.5 71.6 67.8 23.9 6 51.9 46.0 68.6 65.6 23.5 7 51.9 44.7 65.7 65.2 23.3 8 50.9 42.2 51.0 64.5 22.0 9 43.4 41.8 50.5 62.1 21.6 10 43.3 38.7 50.3 60.7 21.1 11 41.5 38.1 40.6 56.6 20.5 12 40.4 37.6 37.0 50.3 20.5 13 40.3 34.4 34.9 48.1 20.4 14 40.2 34.3 34.0 45.3 19.2 15 39.5 33.3 32.7 44.1 16.3 16 36.8 30.1 32.1 43.1 16.3 17 36.4 30.0 29.3 42.8 16.1 18 36.0 29.1 29.2 42.8 15.5 19 32.1 27.0 27.9 41.4 14.6 20 31.4 27.0 27.8 40.1 13.8 21 31.2 26.2 27.7 39.3 13.6 22 30.4 25.0 27.0 37.6 13.5 23 29.7 25.0 25.1 37.1 13.4 24 24.8 24.5 23.6 36.8 13.2 25 24.0 24.5 22.6 35.6 10.9 26 21.8 23.6 22.4 35.5 10.8 27 21.4 20.4 22.1 35.1 10.7 28 21.0 20.0 21.9 35.0 10.0 29 19.8 19.6 21.7 33.7 9.5 30 17.9 19.5 21.5 32.5 9.3 31 17.2 19.2 18.9 32.4 9.3 32 17.0 18.8 17.9 32.3 9.1 33 16.6 18.6 17.9 31.6 8.9 34 15.9 15.0 15.2 31.4 8.5 35 15.2 14.8 14.7 30.3 8.1 36 14.3 14.5 13.7 30.0 8.1 37 14.0 14.2 13.4 29.7 8.0 38 13.2 13.6 13.0 29.6 7.6 39 12.8 13.3 11.9 28.1 7.5 40 12.7 13.1 11.6 28.0 7.2 41 11.0 12.8 10.4 28.0 6.0 42 10.9 12.4 9.9 27.0 5.9 43 10.7 11.4 9.2 26.9 3.0 44 10.4 9.7 8.9 1.8 45 10.1 9.4 8.7 46 9.9 6.6 8.0 47 9.8 5.8 7.8 48 8.8 5.6 7.4 49 8.8 5.3 6.8 50 8.5 5.1 5.9 51 8.4 3.9 5.8 52 8.0 3.8 5.0 53 8.0 3.6 4.6 54 7.9 3.6 55 7.4 56 4.0 57 3.9 58 2.7 Total # tubers 58.0 54.0 53.0 87.0 252.0 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 Total wt (in grams)1450.3 1367.8 1493.9 2524.4 6836.4 Median Wt 18.9 20.2 22.1 26.7 21.2 Avg Wt 25.0 25.3 28.2 29.0 26.9

min 2.7 3.6 4.6 1.8 Q1 10.6 13.0 11.7 13.5 Median Wt 19.8 20.4 22.3 26.8 Q3 39.9 34.4 34.7 38.0 max 67.1 87.0 92.0 88.0 St. Dev. 17.5 19.1 22.5 20.4

Totals # plants harvested* 5.0 # tubers 252.0 total wt (in grams) 6836.4

Avg. # tubers/plant 50.4 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams) 26.9 St. Dev. 0.0 Average wt. overall 27.1

MIN overall 1.8 MAX overall 92.0 St. DevP 19.5

Table 14: Yield Data Field #1 over-wintered mauka grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015.

Field 1 Overwintered mauka # tubers 1-7-1 1-7-2 1-7-3 1-7-4 1-7-5 1-14-1 1-14-2 1-14-3 1-14-4 2-7-1 2-14-1 3-7-1 3-7-2 3-7-3 3-14-1 3-14-2 4-7-1 5-14-1 (L) ESF yr2 DT15 EFS = tubers from old field plot in early spring planted directly into the new plot 1 202.0 1260.0 1150.0 1180.0 750.0 420.0 2869.0 200.0 3485.0 3358.0 395.0 2749.0 495.0 90.0 1324.0 2137.0 750.0 700.0 750.0 0.0 DT=plant started directly from dry yr 2 tuber to field 2 150.0 1810.0 170.0 150.0 130.0 69.0 945.0 4145.0 769.0 120.0 539.0 439.0 695.0 1520.0 934.0 83.0 965.0 540.0 180.0 GHS = from seed planted in greenhouse then move to field 3 150.0 290.0 120.0 130.0 1040.0 222.0 159.0 200.0 1115.0 125.0 121.0 80.0 989.0 102.0 15.0 1030.0 120.0 550.0 4 1660.0 160.0 230.0 306.0 133.0 326.0 480.0 1048.0 65.0 841.0 40.0 749.0 15.0 49.0 180.0 520.0 580.0 5 300.0 60.0 166.0 156.0 621.0 625.0 990.0 225.0 25.0 382.0 85.0 29.0 310.0 150.0 115.0 6 100.0 144.0 489.0 114.0 1320.0 395.0 76.0 62.0 34.0 21.0 340.0 840.0 7 200.0 34.0 346.0 185.0 260.0 225.0 72.0 145.0 29.0 135.0 8 500.0 638.0 324.0 317.0 50.0 170.0 45.0 74.0 750.0 9 90.0 765.0 201.0 910.0 65.0 279.0 86.0 50.0 10 190.0 113.0 46.0 235.0 50.0 11 195.0 70.0 129.0 433.0 70.0 12 100.0 215.0 215.0 200.0 13 210.0 170.0 14 350.0 15 140.0 16 1075.0 St. Dev. Total # tubers 13.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 9.0 9.0 12.0 11.0 7.0 9.0 5.0 6.0 16.0 6.0 5.0 0.0 146.0 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 19.0 Total wt (in grams)4047.0 3360.0 1660.0 1690.0 880.0 1835.0 5151.0 7308.0 6372.0 8806.0 3359.0 5515.0 1542.0 3953.0 2460.0 2334.0 6565.0 2870.0 2175.0 0.0 71882.0 Median Wt 195.0 1260.0 160.0 190.0 440.0 363.0 194.0 269.5 317.0 910.0 192.5 235.0 80.0 90.0 102.0 39.0 255.0 530.0 550.0 0.0 235.0 190.2 Avg Wt 311.3 1120.0 332.0 422.5 440.0 458.8 643.9 609.0 708.0 978.4 279.9 501.4 220.3 439.2 492.0 389.0 410.3 478.3 435.0 0.0 508.9 96.4

min 90.0 290.0 60.0 130.0 130.0 69.0 34.0 70.0 114.0 50.0 46.0 45.0 25.0 29.0 15.0 15.0 50.0 120.0 115.0 0.0 Q1 150.0 775.0 120.0 145.0 285.0 246.8 141.3 158.3 200.0 260.0 110.0 98.5 51.0 74.0 85.0 23.0 138.8 242.5 180.0 0.0 Median Wt 195.0 1260.0 160.0 190.0 440.0 363.0 194.0 269.5 317.0 910.0 192.5 235.0 80.0 90.0 102.0 39.0 255.0 530.0 550.0 0.0 Q3 210.0 1535.0 170.0 467.5 595.0 575.0 714.8 381.8 621.0 1115.0 395.0 436.0 320.0 749.0 934.0 74.5 750.0 660.0 580.0 0.0 max 1660.0 1810.0 1150.0 1180.0 750.0 1040.0 2869.0 4145.0 3485.0 3358.0 990.0 2749.0 695.0 1520.0 1324.0 2137.0 1075.0 840.0 750.0 0.0 St. Dev. 419.1 769.6 459.3 506.8 438.4 414.2 951.0 1129.7 1064.7 1002.9 271.5 780.4 265.2 534.1 598.5 856.7 370.8 290.4 274.3

Totals # plants harvested 19.0 # tubers 146.0 total wt (in grams) 71882.0

Avg. # tubers/plant 7.7 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams)508.9 St. Dev. 96.4 Average wt. overall 492.3

MIN overall 15.0 MAX overall 4145.0 St. DevP 677.4

Table 15: Yield Data Field #2 spring-planted oca grown at OSU Vegetable Farm 2015.

Field 2 Spring Planted Oca # tubers Rosy Gems 5 Rosyin Gems 2-1 outRosy Gems 2-3 out Rosy Gems 4-1 outRosy Gems 4-2 out Hopin 5 in Hopin 2 out Hopin DT out Hopin DT in Sunset 1 outAmarillo 2 outAmarillo inBolivian Red 1 inBolivian Red DT out 1n-01 in 1n-02 in 1n-03 in 1n-04 in 1n-05 in 1n-13 in (Cont') 1n-16 in 1n-17 in 1n-18 in 1n-19 in (Cont') 1n-20 in 1n-24 in 1n-26 in 1n-27 in (Cont') 1s-03 out 1s-05 out 1s-07 out1s-09 in (clusters)1s-10 in 1s-11 in 2n-01 out 2s-08 out 1 25.0 0.6 1.3 11.3 19.4 15.1 11.9 5.0 43.7 16.7 13.1 33.6 26.0 18.2 8.5 17.7 4.4 23.4 5.4 20.1 3.3 21.0 2.1 29.1 17.4 4.2 28.7 14.9 25.5 26.2 4.0 18.1 14.3 21.5 29.3 22.8 9.8 6.1 12.1 2 21.7 0.4 14.8 10.0 9.3 3.7 38.5 16.8 9.8 24.4 18.2 12.4 7.9 9.1 3.2 22.0 4.1 12.7 3.3 17.9 21.1 18.1 4.1 26.3 14.7 23.4 20.5 3.9 10.6 12.6 18.0 24.6 14.3 7.4 5.3 10.5 DT=plant started directly from dry yr 2 tuber to field 3 21.0 10.6 9.6 1.8 3.4 30.8 15.5 8.0 19.1 17.2 10.4 6.6 6.4 2.7 21.0 4.1 11.0 3.3 16.2 18.5 15.6 3.9 22.8 12.5 22.4 20.1 3.9 9.2 5.4 14.6 22.3 17.5 5.9 4.9 8.7 Varietals - tubers grown out in greenhouse over winter 4 15.1 6.8 6.6 1.8 25.1 7.3 5.0 16.3 12.8 10.0 6.0 8.1 2.5 16.6 3.6 10.5 3.3 15.7 16.4 14.1 3.8 16.9 10.0 15.6 15.8 3.8 7.5 4.4 14.5 21.6 9.6 5.9 3.2 8.2 Numbered - New seedlings from seed 5 14.2 6.3 5.9 21.1 3.3 2.9 5.3 12.1 9.1 4.6 2.6 1.7 15.8 3.1 8.9 3.2 14.1 13.4 13.7 3.7 16.7 9.5 14.6 13.7 3.7 3.6 4.3 14.5 17.9 8.1 5.9 1.8 7.4 6 10.5 5.7 21.0 1.7 2.9 3.8 10.1 7.9 4.5 6.4 0.7 14.2 3.0 8.7 3.2 13.1 10.7 12.8 3.7 16.4 8.8 12.9 12.0 3.7 2.8 4.0 13.4 14.6 4.8 5.1 0.8 7.1 7 8.1 5.7 17.2 1.5 1.9 1.5 9.2 7.5 3.7 1.4 13.7 2.9 8.5 3.2 12.3 9.5 12.8 3.6 14.0 8.6 11.5 11.0 3.3 2.8 3.4 13.1 14.2 2.0 5.1 7.1 8 8.1 4.7 17.1 0.8 3.9 9.2 7.5 3.0 4.5 11.8 2.8 8.1 3.1 11.7 8.2 11.9 3.6 12.7 7.0 10.4 10.2 3.2 2.4 2.4 12.3 10.9 1.7 3.5 6.4 9 6.4 4.6 15.0 10.9 3.0 7.0 1.7 5.0 11.6 2.8 7.4 3.0 9.5 7.7 11.1 3.1 11.1 6.8 9.7 9.3 3.1 2.4 11.4 9.7 1.5 3.1 6.0 10 6.1 3.8 10.9 10.0 2.1 5.6 0.9 6.7 11.6 2.5 7.2 3.0 9.0 7.3 10.1 3.1 10.2 6.8 8.9 8.8 3.0 1.4 10.0 9.3 1.3 2.8 5.7 11 4.5 3.5 10.6 8.6 5.6 4.1 10.8 2.4 6.8 3.0 9.0 6.9 10.0 3.0 5.6 6.5 6.8 8.1 2.9 1.4 9.8 9.0 0.9 2.5 5.5 12 2.8 3.0 9.4 3.8 5.3 1.4 9.7 2.1 6.7 3.0 8.6 6.4 9.6 2.9 4.5 6.4 6.1 7.8 2.7 1.4 9.5 8.6 2.3 4.4 13 2.1 2.4 8.3 4.2 3.7 3.5 9.6 1.9 6.7 2.8 8.5 6.4 9.0 2.7 4.1 6.0 6.0 7.4 2.7 1.3 8.1 7.5 2.1 3.3 14 1.8 1.9 6.8 6.9 3.3 3.2 9.5 1.7 6.6 2.8 7.9 5.3 8.9 2.6 4.1 5.7 6.0 7.0 2.5 1.3 7.9 5.8 1.8 3.0 15 1.6 1.6 6.6 4.3 3.2 5.8 9.0 1.7 6.6 2.8 6.2 4.6 8.7 2.6 4.0 4.9 5.8 6.8 2.5 1.3 7.4 5.3 1.6 2.7 16 1.3 1.2 6.3 2.3 3.1 3.2 8.9 1.5 6.6 2.8 5.9 4.6 8.7 2.6 3.9 4.7 5.7 6.8 2.4 1.2 6.8 5.1 1.6 2.2 17 0.9 5.8 4.6 3.0 3.1 8.0 1.4 6.4 2.7 5.8 4.5 8.3 2.5 3.8 4.0 5.3 6.7 2.4 6.3 4.7 1.4 1.7 18 4.9 5.0 2.8 4.6 6.1 1.2 6.0 2.7 5.6 3.9 7.8 2.4 3.7 3.8 5.1 6.1 2.3 6.2 4.5 1.4 1.6 19 3.4 5.9 2.2 3.6 5.9 1.1 5.4 2.6 5.0 3.8 7.6 2.2 3.5 3.6 4.9 6.0 2.3 5.3 4.1 1.4 1.6 20 2.9 19.5 1.9 4.3 5.4 1.0 5.3 2.5 4.7 3.2 7.5 2.2 3.1 3.5 4.9 6.0 2.2 5.2 3.2 1.6 21 15.3 1.7 2.5 4.6 0.8 5.1 2.3 4.6 3.0 7.3 2.1 2.9 3.0 4.6 5.9 2.2 4.6 2.9 1.6 22 7.1 1.3 3.1 4.3 5.1 2.3 4.5 2.9 6.8 2.1 2.7 3.0 4.3 5.7 2.2 3.6 2.9 1.1 23 6.2 2.1 4.2 4.8 2.2 4.1 2.7 6.8 2.0 2.2 3.0 4.2 5.6 2.1 3.5 2.0 1.1 24 15.6 2.7 4.0 4.5 2.1 4.1 2.3 6.6 2.0 1.9 2.8 4.0 5.5 2.1 3.1 2.0 1.0 25 2.6 3.7 4.4 2.0 3.9 2.0 6.6 1.9 1.6 2.8 4.0 5.2 2.0 2.0 1.6 0.9 26 1.7 3.6 4.4 2.0 3.6 1.7 5.5 1.9 1.3 2.8 3.9 4.9 2.0 2.0 0.9 0.8 27 1.5 3.5 4.2 1.8 3.5 1.7 5.4 1.8 1.2 2.8 3.8 4.8 1.9 1.7 0.8 28 1.8 3.5 4.2 1.7 3.4 1.3 5.4 1.8 1.2 2.7 3.7 4.8 1.9 1.2 0.7 29 3.2 3.2 4.0 1.7 3.4 4.9 1.7 1.1 2.7 3.7 4.8 1.8 30 2.2 3.1 4.0 1.5 3.2 4.7 1.6 1.1 2.5 3.5 4.7 1.6 31 1.7 3.0 3.5 1.5 3.0 4.7 1.5 1.0 2.5 3.5 4.6 1.6 32 2.5 2.9 3.0 4.6 1.3 1.0 2.4 3.3 4.4 1.5 33 2.0 2.9 3.0 4.5 1.2 2.4 3.3 4.3 1.2 34 1.3 2.8 2.7 2.3 3.1 4.1 1.1 35 1.5 2.8 2.7 2.2 2.9 4.0 1.1 36 2.7 2.8 2.6 2.1 2.8 0.8 37 3.5 2.7 2.6 2.1 2.8 38 2.2 2.5 2.4 2.0 2.8 39 2.7 2.0 2.3 2.0 2.4 40 1.4 1.8 2.2 1.8 2.2 41 1.7 2.1 1.8 2.1 42 1.7 2.1 1.8 2.1 43 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.9 44 1.9 1.6 1.8 45 1.8 1.6 1.7 46 1.6 1.4 1.4 47 1.6 1.4 0.7 48 1.4 1.3 0.7 49 1.4 1.3 50 1.3 1.2 51 1.0 1.0 52 1.0 53 1.0 All Plants New seed Tuber replant Total # tubers 16.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 5.0 17.0 3.0 4.0 20.0 8.0 7.0 24.0 10.0 22.0 10.0 40.0 6.0 42.0 21.0 31.0 51.0 1.0 28.0 66.0 32.0 53.0 48.0 71.0 8.0 16.0 28.0 26.0 11.0 19.0 6.0 28.0 782.0 642.0 140.0 Total # plants 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 36.0 22.0 14.0 Total wt (in grams) 150.3 0.6 1.7 11.3 57.9 86.2 23.0 13.9 305.4 63.6 43.6 238.1 119.9 132.7 47.4 149.6 15.2 290.1 51.1 295.1 290.7 2.1 209.1 382.9 235.3 216.8 292.7 377.2 57.0 62.5 237.5 244.5 84.5 70.6 22.1 114.8 4997.0 3748.8 1248.2 Avg Wt 9.4 0.6 0.9 11.3 11.6 5.1 7.7 3.5 15.3 8.0 6.2 9.9 12.0 6.0 4.7 3.7 2.5 6.9 2.4 4.8 5.7 2.1 7.5 5.8 7.4 4.1 6.1 5.3 7.1 3.9 8.5 9.4 7.7 3.7 3.7 4.1 6.2 5.3 7.7 3.3

Min wt. 1.3 0.6 0.4 11.3 6.3 0.9 1.8 1.8 2.9 0.8 1.9 1.5 2.1 1.3 0.9 1.3 0.7 1.6 0.8 1.5 1.0 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.8 2.4 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.4 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.4 Q1 2.6 0.6 0.6 11.3 6.8 2.4 5.6 3.0 6.5 1.7 2.9 4.3 9.2 3.0 3.2 2.1 1.9 2.9 1.5 2.2 2.4 2.1 3.0 6.6 1.9 1.8 1.8 2.8 4.9 1.9 2.8 1.4 4.4 3.4 1.6 1.7 2.2 1.5 Median Wt 7.3 0.6 0.9 11.3 10.6 4.6 9.3 3.6 10.8 5.3 5.0 6.6 11.1 5.5 4.6 2.9 2.6 4.3 2.4 2.8 3.6 2.1 5.0 8.3 2.5 3.9 2.8 4.0 6.1 2.3 5.6 2.4 7.7 6.7 4.8 2.8 4.1 2.9 4.4 3.7 6.0 2.8 Q3 14.4 0.6 1.1 11.3 14.8 5.9 10.6 4.0 21.0 15.8 8.9 15.4 16.1 7.8 6.5 4.4 3.1 10.3 3.0 3.1 8.2 2.1 8.5 11.1 3.1 11.5 5.7 6.0 9.1 3.0 9.6 4.3 12.5 13.4 12.0 5.5 5.2 6.6 Max wt. 25.0 0.6 1.3 11.3 19.4 15.1 11.9 5.0 43.7 16.8 13.1 33.6 26.0 18.2 8.5 17.7 4.4 23.4 5.4 20.1 21.0 2.1 29.1 18.1 28.7 14.9 25.5 26.2 18.1 14.3 21.5 29.3 22.8 9.8 6.1 12.1 43.7 29.3 43.7 St. Dev. 7.8 0.6 5.5 3.7 5.2 1.3 11.7 7.2 4.2 8.0 7.2 4.2 2.5 2.9 1.3 5.9 1.2 3.2 4.8 6.7 4.2 7.9 3.4 5.7 4.7 5.5 4.0 5.3 7.9 7.6 2.4 2.1 3.3 2.5 2.1 3.1

Totals All Plants New seed Tuber replant # plants harvested 36.0 22.0 14.0 # tubers 782.0 642.0 140.0 total wt 4997.0 3748.8 1248.2

Avg. # tubers/plant 21.7 29.2 10.0 Avg. tuber wt./plant (in grams) 6.2 5.3 7.7 St. Dev. 3.3 Average wt. overall 6.4 5.8 8.9

MIN overall 0.4 MAX overall 43.7 St. DevP 5.8

# flowered 18.0 15.0 3.0

Appendix E: Mauka Seed Measurements

Table 16: Table Measurements of Mirabilis expansa var. 'L' seed from packet labeled 2016 sent by Michelle Rears to Miriam Kritzer Van Zant at Southern Illinois University, 2016.

Length Width 1 2.8 2.0 2 3.1 1.3 3 2.8 1.8 4 2.8 1.8 5 3.2 2.4 6 2.8 1.8 7 2.8 2.0 8 2.9 2.0

mean 2.9 1.9 median 2.8 1.9 mode 2.8 2.0 Measured to mm, using a Bausch & Lomb hand held jeweler's eyepiece of the type used by botanists, with a screw-on scale attachment lens

Appendix F: Tuber Survey

English version of the tuber survey as provided to IRB

1.0 Name of tuber 1.1 Ethnobotanic Data 1.1.1 Ethnic group: Names of the ethnic group that donated the sample or of the persons who live in the compilation area 1.1.2 Local or vernacular name assigned by the farmer on having cultivated / variety wild place / form. Indicate the language and the dialect if you do not provide the ethnic group 1.1.3 Translation/transliteration: Note the translation into Spanish of the local name of the accession 1.1.4 Meaning of the name local vernacular or do you have a meaning the local name (e.g., oca, oqa, ibia, ciuba, apilla, Apina, miquichi)? If so, describe it briefly in the descriptor 1.3 notes. 0 No 1 Yes 1.1.5 History of the use of the plant or particular variety 1 Ancestral / indigenous (associated always with the place and the community) 2 introduced (in a last unknown time) 3 introduced (time and introduction known) 1.1.6 Parts of the plant used 1 Tubers 2 stems 3 leaves 4 root 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.7 Uses of the plant food 1 Food 2 Medicine 3 for animals 4 Forage 5 Ornamental 6 Ceremonial 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.8 Frequency of use of the plant 1 Daily 2 weekly 3 Occasional 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 85

1.1.9 Special uses 1 Children 2 Elderly 3 Feasts 4 Religious purposes 5 Heads 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.10 Main methods of cooking (Only the tuber) 1 Boiling 2 Roast 3 Soups 4 Local specialties 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.10.1 Cooking time [min] register the number of minutes for each state of the descriptor 1.1.10, as available 1.1.10.2 Number of recipes 1.1.10.3 Preparation 1 Mazamorras/coladas 2 Tortillas 3 Jams 4 Puddings 5 Dehydration (Kaya/K'aya/q'aya, Kawi) 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.11 Taste (gustatory quality) of the cooked starch (according to the local preferences) 1.1.11.1 Flavor of the tuber 1 Bad 2 Good 3 Acceptable 1.1.11.2 Flavor of stems and leaves 1 Bad 2 Good 3 Acceptable 1.1.12 Main methods of preparing (stems and leaves) 1 Boiling 2 Roast 3 Soups 4 Local specialties 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.12.1 Cooking time [min] register the number of minutes for each state of the descriptor 1.1.12, as available 1.1.12.2 Number of recipes

1.1.12.3 Preparation 1.1.13 Consistency of the tubers boiled 1 Firm/hard 2 Tender 3 Mealy 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.14 Sweetness of the pulp of the tubers boiled 0 Not sweet 3 Moderately 5 Slightly sweet 7 Sweet 9 Very sweet 1.1.15 Aroma of the tuber cooked 0 Absent (unscented) 1 Present (aromatic) 1.1.16 Cultural characteristics: Does there exist any type of folklore associated with this type of tuber? (p. ej. taboos, histories and/or associate superstitions). If so, describe it briefly in the descriptor 1.3 notes 0 No 1 Yes 1.1.17 Crop conditions 1 Plain dry (elevated land) 2 Wet plain (elevated land) 3 Slope of 4 Hills Slope of mountains 99 Other (specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.17.1 Preferred cultivation conditions if they exist, describe the opinion of the farmer about the adaptation in the descriptor 1.3 notes 0 No 1 Yes 1.1.18 Times of cultivation 1.1.18.1 Date of seeding/planting [YYYYMMDD] 1.1.18.2 Harvest date [YYYYMMDD] 1.1.19 System 1 monoculture crops 2 interleaved (indicate the cultivation in the descriptor 1.3 notes) 1.1.20 Seasonal nature 1 Available only at special season / period 2 available during the whole year 99 other (to specify in the descriptor 1.3 notes)

1.1.21 If collected wild, flora associated with, other species of plants/dominant cultures, even other species of Oxalis, found in the place of collection, or in their vicinity. 1.1.22 Popularity of the oca: is it a popular cultivar and widely cultivated, or not? Briefly describe why in the descriptor Notes 1.3 0 No 1 Yes 1.1.23 Specify market information regarding whether the cultivar has obtained a higher price or less per unit on the market 1 Less 2 More 3 Normal price 1.2 Stress key information about the types of physical stress (drought and frost) and biological (pests and diseases) associated. 1.3 Notes: indicate here the additional information recorded by the collector, or any specific information on any of the states of the descriptors before mentioned.

1.4 May pictures be taken of the tuber? (Indicate name, and descriptors of each tuber in 1.5 notes.) 0 No 1 Yes 1.5 Other notes and observations