Integration of Transport & Land-Use

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Integration of transport & land-use

Th e case of the Leiden - Gouda area

Delft , Jasper Bras Integration of transport and land-use: The case of the Leiden - Gouda area

Delft , 24th Januari 2013

Thesis plan MSc Urbanism Architecture, Uranism and Building Sciences

Student Jasper Bras 1402579 [email protected] .nl www.jasperbras.nl

Mentors 1st mentor Prof. V. (Vincent) Nadin V.Nadin@tudelft .nl

2nd mentor Prof. dr. W.A.M. (Wil) Zonneveld W.A.M.Zonneveld@tudelft .nl

External committee member A.S. (Alper) Alkan MA A.S.Alkan@tudelft .nl

Cover image: In support of: Satellite image of landscape MSc3 Uranism Leiden to Gouda Th esis Plan (AR3U022) (Google Earth, 2012) Graduation Lab Urbanism (AR3U100)

Univerity of Science Chair Graduation studio TU Delft Complex cities & Faculty of Architecture Spatial Planning and Strategy Regions in Transformation Summary S Summary

Th is summary of the explains the structure research project. WKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWV 7,3 WHFKQLFDO VSDWLDO LQVWLWXWLRQDO 7KHRUHWLFDO SURFHVV This master thesis contains a comprehensive on concepts and models which support )UDPHZRUN and multi-disciplinary research on the integrated transport planning, such as ‘Transit integration of transport infrastructure and land- Oriented Development’ (TOD). Because of the use. ‘The Rijn Gouwe Lijn’ (RGL), a rail project multi-dimensional content this research, the 7KHRU\ DGDSWHGPRGHOVIRU FDVHVWXG\DUHD which connects the area between Leiden and theoretical framework shows the structure of 5HYLVHG VSDWLDOSODQQLQJLQ1/ Gouda is chosen as a case study. The research the TIP-model (Koppenjan & Groenewegen, 6FKHGXOH is comprehensive in the sense that studies 2005), and follows this structure in fi nding 'HVLJQRI are done according to three dimensions for specifi c concepts within the spatial, institutional $UWLIDFWV ‘complex technological systems’ such as railway and process dimension. This means that the infrastructure: technical (space), institutions and research goes further than spatial development process – derived from the conceptual ‘TIP- concepts as TOD; from the institutional model’ of Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005). perspective organizational models are 2EVHUYDWLRQ investigated that support the spatial concepts The research of this master thesis draws on and the integration of policies. In terms of *HQHUDO 6SHFLÀF some critical issues and major developments, process, strategic spatial planning approaches )LHOG6WXG\ )LHOG6WXG\ which contribute to a changing practice and funding mechanisms are explained. RVHUYDWLRQRI HPSLULFDODVVHVPHQW of spatial planning in the Netherlands: the Subsequently, research criteria or indicators are VSDWLDOSODQQLQJLQ1/ FDVHVWXG\DUHD constraints around integration of infrastructure derived from the theoretical concepts, which FDVHVWXG\DUHD planning and spatial development, and the can be used for the empirical analysis of the related issues of governance at regional case study area in order to fi nd answers to the level, between provincial and municipal research questions. The case study is regarded administration – also known as the ‘regional as the specifi c fi eld study. gap’. Both issues come together with projects in regional transport infrastructure. Within The Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL) is used as a case this context two main research questions study to address these issues. The east-part defi ne the subject of research, the fi rst for of this project is a railway line, running from addressing the issues at the case study, the Leiden to Gouda. This project is relevant second for proposing (alternative) design because it crosses various municipal territories. recommendations: Also the project is known of it’s the diffi culties around the decision-making process. The • What are the issues of governance empirical research on this project (from the between local planning agencies, around perspective of space, institutions and process) the integration of sectoral polices on shows that there was no or little governance mobility and land-use and around the culture at involved public authorities for implementation of a transport infrastructure integration of policies on mobility and land-use. project such as the Rijn Gouwe Lijn at Also supporting integral concepts or visions on regional level? the project where missing. Thirdly, the study reveals the potentials of regional partnerships • What planning mechanism can address to fi ll the ‘regional gap’ between municipalities issues of governance, facilitate integration of and provincial government. policies and support the implementation of such a project? Based on the results of the case study and with the knowledge of various theoretical concepts The research is inductive: it starts with an related to integrated transport planning, some observation study on the spatial planning recommendations have been done which practice within the Netherlands, including the ultimately have been translated to (alternative) current issues and developments within this spatial, institutional and process design system that might infl uence large infrastructure proposals for the project and its region – the projects (appendix A). This stage, the general design of artifacts. fi eld study, is followed by a literature study

Fig. 0.1 Research methodology: inductive research

Fig. 0.2 Adapted satellite image of landscape between Leiden & Gouda Summary 3 A

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the persons who contributed to the graduation project. Inquiries with experts, citizens, and other respondents - the interviewees from the provine of Zuid-Holland, the municipality of Zoeterwoude, the regional partnership Holland Rijnland, the former alderman of the municipality of Leiden, the Chamber of Commerce (KvK) and ProRail. Also I would like to emphasize Procap for their willingness to get me the right information, the project organization of the Rijn Gouwe Lijn who kept me informed on the recent developments around the project and the association ‘Deltametropool’ who helped me with some of the empirical analysis.

My special thanks go out to my parents, who always have been there for me. They supported me in my studies since I started at the Intermediate Vocational Education (MBO). It is doubtful if i would have achieved this level without their mental support.

Last but not least, I would like to thank Vincent Nadin and Wil Zonneveld for their mentorship. They allowed me to study spatial planning issues that caught my personal interest, and supported me to involve studies on other disciplines such as public management.

Jasper Bras Delft, November 2012

Fig. 0.3 Traditionally a photograph of every graduation student within the studio Complex Cities is taken, in order to promote the subject of research. Acknowledgements 5 P

Preface

If we think of large scale infrastructure projects in the Netherlands that have been developed recently we might come to the conclusion that the number of completed projects in terms of rail infrastructure is very limited. And if someone might ask to give a successful example of a railway line that has been developed last years it is hard to give a positive answer to this. We probably all know the ‘Betuwelijn’ or the recently completed ‘HSL’ (FYRA) (both connecting the Netherlands with its neighbouring countries), because of the issues around these projects; the extraordinary budget and their outranging costs in particular. It even might be argued that such projects have put large railway projects in a negative perspective. But also projects of smaller scale have been realized, at regional level: the ‘Randstadrail’ for example – a tramline that connects The Hague and Rotterdam. This project is probably more successful, partly because the line has been built together with its surroundings. Nevertheless, what these projects have in common is that they are deﬁ ned by high complexity; for instance, they require participation of many different stakeholders and ask for integral planning approaches because these projects interact with their spatial and programmatic environment.

The research of this master thesis draws on these constraints regarding integration of infrastructure planning and spatial development, and addresses the related issues of governance at regional level, between provincial and municipal administration - the ‘regional gap’. Both issues come together with projects in regional transport infrastructure. In order to understand the context of this ‘arena’ the thesis contains a survey on the system of spatial planning in the Netherlands, including the latest practices related to integrated transport planning.

Secondly, in order to ﬁ nd potential and appropriate concepts that anticipate on these critical issues, various theories on integrated transport planning (e.g. nodal development or ‘transit oriented development’) and regional governance (e.g. institutional capacity building) are derived from literature research. As part of the empirical research, a regional transport infrastructure project has been taken as a case study: the ‘Rijn Gouwe Lijn’ (RGL) between Leiden and Gouda. In this case the critical issues regarding regional transport infrastructure are addressed and appropriate concepts from the theoretical study are applied.

Preface 7 T Table of content Table of content

Summary 3 2.4.1 Strategic spatial planning 68 2.4.2 Funding mechanisms 70 Acknowledgements 5 2.4.3 How to apply at the case study? 71 2.5 Th e empirical assessment 72 Preface 7 2.3.1 Th e purposes of the empirical research 72 2.3.2 Studies on spatial & programmatic implications 72 Reader 13 2.3.3 Studies on institutional capacity & process 73 2.3.4 From case study to alternative design, and further 74 Organization 15 3 Th e case of the RGL 77 1 Introduction 17 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 78 1.1 Rationale for this study 19 3.1.1 Project agreements 78 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation 21 3.1.2 Th e crucial steps in decision making 79 1.3 Problem statement 25 3.1.3 Th e organization behind the RGL 81 1.4 Aims & research questions 26 3.2 Th e spatial and programmatic implications 84 1.5 Research approach 29 3.2.1 Th e spatial characteristics of the region 85 1.5.1 Research components 29 3.2.2 Th e spatial and programmatic embeddedness of the RGL 89 1.5.2 Research methodology 31 3.2.3 Th e station typologies 93 1.6 Introduction of the case study area 33 3.2.4 Th e municipal plans for spatial development 100 1.6.1 Policies on infrastructure development 33 3.2.5 Conclusion of the spatial studies 100 1.6.2 Geographical conditions 33 3.3 Th e institutional capacity & steering process 102 1.6.3 Territories 37 3.3.1 Th e legal powers 102 1.6.4 Use of data for empirical research 37 3.3.2 Th e interests and ambitions 104 3.3.3 Sectors, territories and organizations 109 2 Integrative concepts from theory 39 3.3.4 Th e degree of operation: integration, coordination or coordination? 111 3.3.5 Th e role of the regional partnerships 113 2.1 Space, institutions, process 40 3.3.6 Governance culture 115 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 42 2.2.1 Physical elements: nfrastructure & land-use 42 4 Conclusion & recommendations 117 2.2.2 Morphological elements: types of development 43 2.2.3 Transit oriented development 47 4.1 Conclusions case study 118 2.2.4 How to apply at the case study? 50 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 122 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 51 4.2.1 Strategic spatial planning (process) 125 2.3.1 Types of institutions and their relations 51 4.2.2 Transit oriented development (space) 126 2.3.2 Institutional arrangements: ‘the mutual fi t’ 55 4.2.3 Institutional framework (institutions) 133 2.3.3 Adjustment of policies: integration, coordination, cooperation 55 4.3 Recommendations to similar projects in the Netherlands 136 2.3.4 Resources 61 4.4 Recommendations for future research 139 2.3.5 Capacity building 64 2.3.6 How to apply at the case study? 66 2.4 Strategic planning and integratel funding concepts 67

8 9 Table of content

5 Bibliography 141

5.1 Literature 142 5.2 Illustrations 148

6 Appendix 151

A Spatial planning in the Netherlands B RGL project agreement: fi nancial distribution C Empirical analysis of the case study area D Analysis SprintStad (Deltametropool) E List of interviewees F Refl ection

10 11 Reader R Reader

Before the content of the thesis is part of subject it is helpful to get an idea of how this thesis 1 SecƟ on is structured and how this thesis can be red. Th erefore the Lay-out of the thesis and the 1 Structure of the thesis are being explained fi rst.

Title Introduction • Number of chapter • Title

About The À rst section contains the thesis plan. This is the proposal • Summary for graduation with the thesis as the end product. In the À rst Thesis Plan paragraph the Organization of the study and the studio is explained (1.1). The second paragraph contains the Rationale for this study where the discourse and the relevance of the study • Keywords are being explained (1.2). In Introducing & framing the objectives (1.3) several elements which are taking part of the research are Lay out Structure of thesis mentioned. This is followed by the Context (1.4) introducing the sight, the project area where the analytical studies are about. The Problem statement (1.5) contains the problem where the research • Overview of paragraph based on. This paragraph is followed by the Aims & research questions (1.6) containing the theoretical and analytical aims, the main research question and sub-questions for the research. The research strategy and methodology are being explained in Research approach (1.7) followed by the Expected outcomes in (1.8). The section will be ended with Phasing & time schedule placing the research in time (1.9).

Keywords Thesis plan - Organization - Decentralization - Relevance The lay out of this thesis contains different page This thesis is divided into seven chapters. styles. The ﬁ rst section (1) Introduction is in fact the Paragraphs #1.1 Organization #1.2 Rationale for this study #1.3 Introducting and framing the objectives thesis plan where all further chapters will are #1.4 Context #1.5 Problem statement #1.6 Aims & research questions introduced; it contains the proposal for the #1.7 Research approach #1.8 Expected outcomes #1.9 Phasing & time schedule research. • Illustration 1 SecƟ on page 12 1. Introduction /// Thesis plan /// Jasper Bras /// Fig. 1.1 Adapted image of note (Martintolley, 2012) 13 In the second chapter (2) Theoretical framework, First there are pages which introduce a new various theoretical models and concepts are chapter. These pages contain a brief summary explained which are relevant for the research. Planning instruments 2. Theoretical framework and introduction of the elements that are This section is the framework for the empirical 2.2 discussed in the chapter, several keywords and study. It provides supporting information for

2 Paragraph In this paragraph several planning instruments will be discussed. Th ese are theoretical visions (SV) which are more Á exible and less take a broader view into consideration and practice. restrictive than the ones they had to develop seek collaboration: ‘To incorporate mutual an overview of the paragraphs which are part of planning models which can be used in practice. Because every planning model is being before (Rijksoverheid, 2011; Gier, 2011). In interdependencies between neighbouring created from another perspective they will be compared. Out of this paragraph one model or practice the policy encourages provinces and municipalities’ (Hulst & Van Montfort, 2007). a combination of models which seems to be the most suitable for an adaption in practice will municipalities to develop within their own Doing so a single SV will evolve partly into a be projected on the case study area. Before the alternative planning instruments from theory urban borders. Spatial developments within bigger planning context: the inter-municipal the section. the municipal borders can have an impact on structure vision (ISV). The term inter-municipal are being mentioned, the current models of spatial planning (2.2.1) Recent developments externalities across those borders where local implies that the vision is cross-border (Hulst & on spatial planning in NL and spatial policies (2.2.2) Wro & structure visions, used in the authorities don’t have to be held responsible Van Montfort, 2007) and involves more than • Number of paragraph Netherlands will be addressed. In (2.2.3) Strategic spatial planning approaches, the planning for (Needham, 2011). Due to the retreatment of one municipal territory). Over the past years The third chapter (3) is the Empirical assessment. national planning policy these conÁ icts will be the À rst ISV’s have seen the light – Zuidplas models from theory will be discussed, followed by the capacity of planning instruments to covered less. (Stuurgroep Driehoek RZG Zuidplas, 2006) change structures of Governance (2.2.4). In each sub-paragraph solutions will be addressed. and Greenport Boskoop (BVR & TAUW, 2009). In the current situation municipalities and In practice these visions are solely developed This section contains the research around the • Title provincial governments À rst have to develop from economic perspectives and are not based a SV (article 124 of the Dutch constitution) on scientiÀ c sources, for there is no theoretical 2.2.1 Recent developments on (2010). In his inaugural speech at the TU Delft to make it more explicit in a later phase. framework nor clear deÀ nition of an ISV, and Fragmentation and Structure: Challenges for This À ne tuning will be done in a so called there are no directives to support the practice. case study area. spatial planning in NL spatial research and policy he relates the theory ‘bestemmingsplan’ (regulation plan) on • Summary of fragmentation in both governance and space municipal level, and an ‘inpassingsplan’ 2 Paragraph page The history of Dutch spatial planning can be to the Dutch context - in accordance with the (adjustment plan) on provincial and national typed as the integrated comprehensive model earlier statement of Kanie (2011), the different scale. These plans have a juridical character. 2.2.3 Strategic spatial planning (Nadin, 2010) which can be interpreted as a types of government addressed by Hooghe Except for the ‘inpassingsplans’ which become • Title of sub-paragraph planning model that provides solutions for and Marks (2003) and the SSP approaches of less restrictive compared to former provincial approaches everything (Albrechts, 2006). This model of Albrechts (2004; 2006). They all acknowledge a ‘streekplan’ and the former national ‘PKB’ government-led spatial planning became over need for new types of (sub-level) governance (Planological Key Decisions Rijksoverheid, What are strategic spatial plans (SSP) and in The thesis will be ended with a section of the years no longer sufÀ cient over the years together with new Á exible formats of spatial 2008). As a result municipalities have more how far do they differ from the project plans to meet market demands (Hajer, 2003). One of planning. These innovative forms should answer freedom in their decision making process. (as was the case within the comprehensive the purposes of the decentralization process the undeÀ ned Á exibility in recent shifts within There are also pages that introduce a new integrated model of planning in the NL)? in the spatial planning policies is to stimulate the Dutch system of spatial planning. It should be kept in mind that the number Whereas a project plan is more conformance Conclusion and recommendations (4), which also new SSP practises which are more orientated of scientiÀ c sources which are describing the based, strategic plan is more performance towards the involvement of a variety of actors The decentralization process (in the use of a spatial SV in the Netherlands are very based (more focused on quality instead (like actor-network theory or collaborative Netherlands) can have a positive impact when limited – except for (Van den Donker, 2005; of quantity) (Albrechts, 2006). According paragraph. Each paragraph is introduced very planning) (Healey, 2003, 2007). But as long making ‘a proper institutional design’, but can Liefferink, 2011) – while in practice the use of to Albrechts (2004, 2006) we might say in also lead to fragmentation (Kanie, 2011). In SV’s are obligated by the Dutch planning law includes design alternatives for the case study as there is no proven alternative or no clear terms of plans: master plan/land-use plans guidelines these decision might have (negative) order to make an institutional design succeed it Wro. According to Liefferink (2011) the spatial vs. strategic plans; in terms of planning type: spatial consequences. A shift towards a more is necessary to create a proper network among SV can be classiÀ ed as strategic spatial plan and legal regulation vs. framework; in terms shortly at the top of the page. This part is decentralized spatial planning might lead to a various decentralized actors and to ensure that not as a project plan which has the character of governance type: government-led vs. the framework is Á exible. Regarding theory of a so called ‘blue print plan’ This means that area. further differentiation in the spatial structure government-led-but-negotiated form of within regions (Needham, 2011). Based on it becomes clear that such an institutional for better exploration of scientiÀ c sources a governance. Or we deÀ ne the differences: these recent developments in spatial planning design can be part of a SSP (Albrechts, 2004; (inter-municipal) SV can be better addressed as Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009). A further a strategic spatial plan for a speciÀ c territory, written in another font. policies the Dutch model will not be that x project plan (blue-print plan): comprehensive anymore but takes another explanation of this instrument can be found in a albeit the fact a SSP implies more than a vision conformance based / comprehensive / direction towards a still undeÀ ned Á exibility. speciÀ c chapter at the end of this paper. (Albrechts, 2004). land use planning / government-led / regulation plan; x strategic spatial plan: performance The Bibliography can be ﬁ nd in chapter (5), Flexible instrument: Strategic spatial 2.2.2 Wro & structure visions Possible instrument: Inter-municipal based / selective / actor engaging / structure vision government-led-but-negotiated-form planning of governance / providing a framework Introduced in 2008 by the Rijksoverheid Governments are compelled by the Wro to (for actions). followed by the Appendix (6), which also The current shifts in the spatial planning system (2011) the Wro (Wet ruimtelijke ordening) law produce their own SV. In order to minimize and the related problems in the Netherlands obliges governments on national, provincial undesired externalities as a result of their Where comprehensive planning is hierarchical are being acknowledged by Zonneveld and municipal level to make structure planning activities, it seems logical that they and persuasive, strategic spatial planning is contains a survey of the spatial planning

2.2 Theoretical framework 49 3 Regular page 48 2. TheoretiTheoreticalcal framework /// Thesis plan /// Jasper Bras /// context: the system and daily practice of spatial 1.2 Rationale for this study 1. Introduction planning in the Netherlands. The norms, values, Then there are the regular pages which contain instruments and authorities regarding spatial When it comes to spatial development around It could be argued that the role of the urban this infrastructure there seems to be little planner or designer (what both could be consensuses. Both provincial and municipal typed as urbanist) play an important role in only text, text supported with illustrations planning are explained in this study. tiers of government do not have adjusted this. Therefore the urbanist needs to have their spatial visions for locations around the the capacity to not only understand these line. With the retreating of higher tiers of urbanization processes but also needs to know government both municipalities and province how to deal with, how to participate and how to (always on the left side), or pages with only need to operate more coherent when it comes intervene within this complexity. to spatial planning, especially because this location is not labelled as a national ‘key region’ 3 Regular (mainport, brainport or greenport). 2. Different arenas illustrations. For the role of an urbanist there could be made Academic relevance a distinction between the developed countries, the developing countries and the undeveloped countries which are all dealing with According to Needham (2011) the amount of urbanization processes but on a different way. research that has been done on the impact of Next to this it is important to realize political policies on the structure of spatial development structures, economic powers and socio-cultural • Title & number of section is limited. It is even harder to À nd attempts backgrounds – which are inÁ uencing the role of which formulate integral strategies answering an urbanist – differ between countries. these conÁ icts. In the work of Zonneveld (2010) similar observations are addressed. • Title & number of paragraph By doing analytical research on this project 3. The task of an urbanist location, followed by an attempt to apply planning instruments from theory as an To continue with the ethics of an urbanist it the alternative for the current mechanism, I hope tasks of this profession need to be considered to gain new useful information which could be • Explanation of illustration À rst. added to current spatial planning approaches. What should be the task of an Urbanist? Allmendinger and Haughton (2009) mention that the task of an urbanist has shifted: ‘…it • Page number & chapter Ethical relevance could be argued that planners are not central to the governance processes (…) in essence, they are Ethical relevance in terms of urban planning and part of a fragmented landscape of governance, design is can be interpreted in many different whose complexity seems to require coordination ways. In this paragraph I try to address some not at one particular privileged sector, but • Page number & paragraph of these interpretations. Ethical relevance in instead through some complex, tangled terms of recent developments (the urgency of networks operating across scales and sectors.’ our profession) (1), the context or the working (Allmendinger and Haughton, 2009: 629) À eld wherein a planner operates (2), the tasks of an urban planner (3), urban planning in conÁ ict To continue with: ‘So planners, and others areas (4) and the need of urban planning in the involved in the development process, are not context of the Netherlands (5). only coordinating across different spaces and sectors, but also negotiating the resultant different time scales.’ and ‘the other aspect of delivery which planners are starting to have to 1. Urgency of our profession deal with more thoroughly than in the past is the complexity of funding streams involved in Especially in these times where rapid processes large-scale regeneration.’ (Allmendinger and of urbanization are taking place all around the Haughton, 2009: 629) Despite of the fact that world, the essence of understanding these this is about the UK it might also count for the processes becomes increasingly important. Netherlands where similar processes are going Fig. 1.1 wefwefawfawfawfewaewaefaw (www.

18 1. Introduction /// Thesis plan /// Jasper Bras /// 1.2 Rationale for this study 19

12 Reader /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras Reader 13 Organization O Organization of the department

In order to understand the discourse wherein this study is taking place it is important to understand the structure of the study and to know the philosophy of the graduation studio. Th is will be explained in this paragraph.

This graduaƟ on project is taking place within the Macroeconomics studio of Complex CiƟ es. This graduaƟ on studio is a specializaƟ on of the master track Urbanism within the master programme Architecture, Urbanism and Political science Building Sciences of the Faculty of Architecture, at the TU DelŌ . The studio is organized by SpaƟ al Planning and Strategy, a core chair of the faculty. Both the studio and the chair are led by Professor Social Physical Vincent Nadin and assisted by pracƟ ce professor Joost Schrijnen. Professor Wil Zonneveld holds a sciences Public management sciences joint post with the OTB Research InsƟ tute with & governance whom there is much collaboraƟ on.

The studio deals with the complexity of contemporary ciƟ es. The urban planners and designers who join the studio try to understand the urban processes and the network of ciƟ es within Sociology Interdisciplinary Trafﬁ c & transport the global society, its economy and its high quality ﬁ eld of this services. Despite the fact that the global network engineering is increasingly determining the global city, each research urban region characterized by its own climate, cultural background and ethnical background Social geography e.g. Urban planners and designers study on these Spatial & urban relaƟ ons of the contemporary global ciƟ es with an environmental, economic, social and poliƟ cal planning diversity, connected to both global and local networks. Within this network they try to propose Spatial form design intervenƟ ons which may increase the capacity of the urban regions and local places.

Design

Fig. 3 Interdisciplinary ﬁ eld of this research

Organization 15 1

Title Introduction

About The ﬁ rst section contains the thesis plan. This is the proposal for graduation wich also pays attention to he outlines for the research: the arguments and motivation for this study, a problem deﬁ nition and the aims for research. The section also introduces the research approach, the methodology and contains an introduction of the case tudy.

Keywords Thesis plan - Rationale - Motivation - Problem statement - Methodology - Case study

Paragraphs #1.1 Rationale for this study #1.2 Problem analysis & motivation #1.3 Problem statement #1.4 Aims & research questions #1.5 Research approach #1.6 Introduction of the case study area

16 Fig. 1.1 Photograph: station area Leiden 17 1.1 Rationale for this study 1.1 Rationale for this study

If we think of large scale infrastructure projects in the Netherlands that have been developed recently we might come to the conclusion that the number of completed projects in terms of rail infrastructure is very limited. And if someone might ask to give a successful example of a railway line that has been developed last years it is hard to give a positive answer to this. We Kaart (inter)nationale bereikbaarheid van stedelijke regio’s met topsectoren probably all know the ‘Betuwelijn’ or the recently completed ‘HSL’ (FYRA) (both connecting the Netherlands with its neighbouring countries), because of the issues around these projects; the extraordinary budget and their outranging costs in particular. It even might be argued that such projects have put large railway projects in a negative perspective. But also projects of smaller scale have been realized, at regional level: the ‘Randstadrail’ for example – a tramline that connects Th e Hague and Rotterdam. Th is project is probably more successful compared to the Betuwelijn and the HSL, partly because the line has been built together with its surroundings.

Nevertheless, what these projects have in leefbaar en veilig). The vision promotes a further common is that they are marked by high decentralization of the spatial planning policy of complexity. They are both very complex the Netherlands (Ministerie van Infrastructuur technological systems which require en Milieu, 2011). In this document the national participation of many different stakeholders government has concentrated its interests by and ask for integration of policies to meet with the designation of nine ‘top sectors’ that have the strong interaction between infrastructure international perspectives - such as life sciences, and spatial development (Koppenjan & logistics and creative industries - distributed Groenewegen, 2005). over several strategic economic locations of national priority, mainly in the Randstad - such At present there seem to be two major as the mainports Schiphol and Rotterdam, developments going on within the Dutch brainports ‘Zuidoost Nederland’ and greenports system of spatial planning, which could Aalsmeer, Boskoop and the Bollenstreek (fi g. infl uence these critical issues around complex 1.2). These clusters are or will be connected technological systems such as railways: by a network of primary infrastructure, such as the freeway network and the high speed - the devolution of powers from higher to railway corridors (HSL), which are supported lower levels of governance, and; by multiple years investment programs for infrastructure, space and transport: the - the integration of sectoral policies to the MIRT policies (Meerjarenprogramma Ruimte, support of infrastructure planning. Infrastructuur en Transport). 1#"#*'()#/#%'-+#11-.0#!1-/#, The devolution of powers is revealed in the ',.-/1!&'.&-* In comparison to the former planological ,1#/, 1'-, *&--$"4#%#,,#1 reforms of national law on spatial planning, and key documents: the PKB’s (Planologische ',.-/1-6#/" + ,1#/, 1'-, * subsequently in the changing ambitions and Kernbeslissingen) – whereby national &--$"3 /4#%#,,#1 responsibilities of the Dutch planning agencies. government policies covered all of the country / ',.-/12'"--01#"#/* ," The integration of policies can be seen in the equally (De Gier, 2011) – a stronger focus on /##,.-/1 attention of the planning agencies for integral specifi c locations becomes clear. Consequently approaches regarding mobility and land-use. this shift in focus requires lower authorities 2'" 0 -%#0,#*&#'"0*'(, which are not appointed as key locations 1 "3 ,',1#/, 1'-, */#!&1 .--/+#13 /' #*#0,#*&#'" In the spring of 2011 the Dutch Ministry of to develop concepts and policies for their 3/#"##,3#'*'%&#'" Environment and Infrastructure (Infrastructuur 3#/'%',1#/, 1'-, * own jurisdictions. They are enabled to do so 01 1'-, 0.--/4#%#,,#1 en Milieu) presented the most recent planning by the devolution of powers. Earlier in 2008 3#/'%#*2!&1& 3#,3 , -#"#/#,0.--/ vision document for the country: the concept the new law on spatial planning: Wro (Wet , 1'-, *# #1#)#,'0 structure vision infrastructure and space Fig. 1.2 Most recent publi- ruimtelijke ordening) replaced the former law ##& 3#,3 ,, 1'-, * #* ,% (Ontwerp Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en on planning: the WRO (Wet op de Ruimtelijke #/##,3-2"'%"#1-.-%/ 7# cation of national planning ',,#,& 3#,3 , Ruimte: Nederland concurrerend, bereikbaar, Ordening). This reform on spatial planning law , 1'-, * #* ,% vision document

18 1.1 Rationale for this study 19 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation

has given lower authorities a wider range of With the reforms of spatial planning - the national concept structure vision and the law on legal instruments and responsibilities for the spatial planning (Wro) - the structure of governance in Dutch planning is changing. Lower daily practice of spatial planning; (a) next to the national government the municipalities are authorities need to deal with spatial issues regarding regional infrastructure and housing, and now allowed to make structure vision plans are supposed to take more responsibility by the designation of new legal instruments such (structuurvisies) more fl exible and less restrictive as structure vision plans and land use plans (De Gier, 2011; Needham, 2011). Th is demands than before, and (b) also the provinces are for a reorientation towards the daily practice of planning by the provincial and municipal authorized to compose legal land use plans governments. What are their roles? What are the responsibilities? How to use the given (inpassingsplannen) (De Gier, 2011). planning instruments? And last but not least: how to manage regional projects that cross Another shift can be seen in the integration municipal borders, with the necessity for cooperation between neighbouring governments of sectoral policies, with which the national and multiple stakeholders? government is trying to facilitate planning procedures. For instance the proposed law on environment (omgevingswet) that will replace and combine regulations related In order to come to a clear problem defi nition Boxmeer & Vliegenberg, 2011) (fi g. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6). to planning (Rijksoverheid, 2012a), and the for this research it is important to understand The question is: are they able to do so…and decision to integrate different ministries at the underlying reasons for the institutional how? national level (Rijksoverheid, 2012b). Thus changes. The two reforms should answer (a) to the Ministry of Housing, Spatial Development issues regarding scale of public management At this point it is interesting to consider the and Environment: VROM (Ministerie van (Mastop, 1991; Hajer, 2003; Salet, 2006), (b) to second development mentioned: the integration Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en the changing principles and concepts on spatial of policies. This is not only refl ected in the Milieu) and the Ministry of Transport and Water planning (Hajer & Zonneveld, 2000; Zonneveld, joining of ministries on national level, but Management: VenW (Ministerie van Verkeer 2012) and to changing governance attitudes also in the ambition of planning agencies for en Waterstaat) became the Ministery of IenM to spatial planning (Lambrechts & Zonneveld, integral development. In view of the increasing (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu). 2004). The research argues that social and importance of infrastructural networks it makes economic changes have a crucial impact on sense to investigate the integration of policies This change in policymaking aims for a space, such can be seen in the arising of socio- on mobility and land-use, for it might be more integral approach of mobility and economic networks, which are refl ected in the argued that network infrastructure and spatial land-use, and of infrastructure and spatial reaction of spatial patterns that have become development interact (Dieleman & Wegener, development; the national planning agency more polycentric (Salet, 2006). 2004; drawing on Hanson, 1959). uses the structure vision document to promote integral developments around multimodal The socio-spatial interactions primarily take For better understanding a closer examination nodes, stressing the importance of network place at a regional scale, thus labeled as ‘the is desired at the underlying conditions that developing. On the regional scale lower new issues of regionalization’ (Salet, 2006). explain why the integration of policies on agencies in the periphery are challenged to act Key regions surpass nation states in economic mobility and land-use is likely to happen. accordingly. importance and need to strengthen their Within the perception of the network society Fig. 1.3 Schematic representation of positions by facilitating the ambitions of their the most direct consequence for planning is develoution process from higher to regional actors (Boelens, 2009). Governments that connectivity has become more important lower authorities are expected to anticipate on these interactions than proximity in the network structure (Salet, by changing their institutional structure 2006). In addition networks have become matching with the socio-economic and multimodal which result ‘in integrating centers spatial conditions of the network society – the of multifarious interaction’ (Curtis & James, institutional capacity needs to fi t with the new 2004; e.g. where train, tram, bus, and subway reality (Salet, 2006). The rescaling of territorial lines cross). Such nodes are more attractive for governance in order to fi nd a ‘mutual fi t’ for spatial development than ‘purely functional regional issues can be regarded as one of the nodes’ along ‘single mode networks’ (e.g. only reasons why national government is transferring one bus or tram line). Thus, development at powers and tasks to lower authorities, especially transit nodes with great social and economic to the provincial planning agencies (fi g. 1.3). diversity requires place-based plans (Curtis & Subsequently the provincial government James, 2004), or new strategies that focus on is supposed to coordinate and facilitate adapted spaces (Salet, 2006; drawing on Lynch, developments regarding regional infrastructure 1980). In view of this it seems evident that and adjustment of spatial developments (Van planning policies should aim for integrated

20 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation 21 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation 1. Introduction

approaches based on the strong relation between mobility and land-use in order to facilitate this type of development.

First attempts to such approaches have already been made in the Netherlands, with projects as Stedenbaan(+), Zuidvleugel Atelier, or developments around HSL stations as Amsterdam CS, Rotterdam CS and Breda. However lower authorities as the municipalities are not yet familiar with these concepts of spatial planning, or still have a far way to go (Tan & Bertolini, 2010). Also at regional level it is questionable how much knowledge and experience provincial agencies have to deal with the adjustment of spatial development in and around their network nodes. What do they need to coordinate and facilitate these processes? Do their new instruments sufﬁ ce to work out reliable concepts and strategies?

Fig. 1.4 The growing Randstad

Fig. 1.5 Coalition forming

Fig. 1.6 Changing spatial policies

22 1.2 Problem analysis & motivation 23 1.3 Problem statement 1.3 Problem statement

For decades the three-tiered Dutch government structure (national, provincial, municipal) is giving diffi culties for issues that play on regional level – ‘the regional gap’. Th is regional gap can be seen as an uncovered ‘institutional void’ between provinces (the formal regional government) and state, and between province and municipalities. At these administrative gaps at regional level (provincial government) most challenges take place in terms of governance and policy integration (Zonneveld et al., 2012).

Thus, it seems obvious that the two municipalities have the expertise in terms of developments regarding the devolution concepts or strategic approaches that facilitate of powers and the integration of policies the integration of policies around railway lines? !? described above play a role in this discussion; (Tan & Bertolini, 2010). And when it comes to the legal and policy changes might be seen the coordination or the institutional capacity as a reaction of national government on these which is needed for the implementation of regional gaps. It might be argued that national railway lines and the adjustment of spatial !? ! government wants to give room for ‘integrative developments around transit nodes, it territorial strategies’ – the MIRT-policy might be questionable if the involved legal addressed above for instance – and to facilitate institutions (province and municipality) have !? new (cooperation) mechanisms for projects that the right instruments and capability to use ask for a regional approach. these instruments – are the new legal planning !? instruments appropriate? Such issues might The regional infrastructure networks – often be expressions of the administrative regional ! MIRT-projects – that cross various municipal gap between provincial and municipal borders seem to be an interesting case for the administrations. research. In particular with railway lines both discourses regarding legal or institutional capacity and integration of policies are clearly ! represented. Especially with the increasing importance of socio-economic interactions it might be expected the mutual dependency between these multifarious transit nodes !? increases. Thus, projects of railway infrastructure often require strong cooperation mechanisms and ask for concepts that support adjustment ! of spatial development and for integrated policies as an answer to the clear interaction of mobility and land-use around transit nodes (Curtis & James, 2004).

With the national government paying less attention to (and having less clear policy for) areas that are not of their key concern the pressure of governance on lower authorities !? increases. Even more interesting seem to be the regional railway lines that do not fall under the MIRT-policy (or not anymore) and are located outside the areas of national !? priority – it is questionable if the lower ! authorities (especially provincial governments) have enough capacity and experience to coordinate such infrastructures (Van Boxmeer & Vliegenberg, 2011) (ﬁ g. 1.7). In how far do

Fig. 1.7 The railway line with stations at the case study area, the region between Leiden and Gouda

24 1.3 Problem statement 25 1.4 Aims & research questions 1. Introduction

Th e aims of this research, translated into research questions. something to the current practice of planning. that (regarding the subject of this research) Therefore, it is important to understand the all concepts should contribute to integrated system of Dutch spatial planning fi rst. This transport planning. study is supported by the following question: The following objective is to see if these This research has several purposes: trends are described. An attempt will theoretical concepts (or parts of it) are be made to illustrate these trends in used in the daily planning practice, in terms  Firstly, the purpose of this research a ‘relational diagram’ of the Dutch 1. How does spatial planning work in the of regional infrastructure projects. This is to address the weaknesses within planning practice in terms of integrated Netherlands? approach can be seen in twofold – contains this regional gap between provincial transport planning. a problem addressing and a problem solving and municipal tiers of governance, component: it gives the possibility (a) to test if through the perspective of regional These purposes are incorporated in two main the weaknesses as addressed in the problem infrastructure developments such research questions, which represent the general This question should address what institutions statement are actually present in the daily as railway lines that cross various aims for this research and include a problem and agencies are authorized to practice spatial practice of spatial planning, and (b) the models municipal borders; do the lower tiers of addressing and a solution oriented section: planning, what (legal) instruments they have could function as a framework that support governance have suffi cient institutional and what their attitude is towards spatial improvements within the current planning capacity to deal with projects of this planning – the principles, concepts and policies system; it helps with the formulation of scale (e.g. available legal planning that are used to steer spatial development. The recommendations for improvement. instruments)? What are the issues of governance between answer to this question should conclude with local planning agencies, around the integration the current trends on spatial planning – the  Secondly, the research should reveal of sectoral polices on mobility and land-use trends that might infl uence the paradigm of in how far lower governments have and around the implementation of a transport infrastructure projects at regional level. This 3. How are these models from theory (integrated) policies that facilitate such infrastructure project such as the Rijn Gouwe Lijn study can be found in the attachment (appendix represented in the Dutch spatial projects; what are their ambitions and at regional level? A). planning practice, and what can they do they use the right instruments to add to this? achieve these ambitions? What planning mechanism can address issues of When having a clear understanding of the governance, facilitate integration of policies and general planning structure in the Netherlands  Thirdly, the research should emphasize support the implementation of such a project? (together with the institutions, their roles, in how far provincial and municipal responsibilities, and policies) it is likely to The relevant theoretical models and theories governments use concepts for investigate what models and concepts from are tested in a case study (chapter 3). The area integration of sectoral policies on theory might be relevant in terms of integrated which is chosen for the case study needs to mobility and land-use; in how far is Ultimately, the main research question should transport planning: represent the issues that have been addressed their planning mechanism appropriate lead to a planning concept or model (or in the problem statement; regarding the for the implementation of such projects components of that model) that incorporates administrative problems around institutions and and do they have enough experience solutions for the problems around the governance, and related to the integration of in this? integration of policies on mobility and land- 2. What spatial, institutional and policies on mobility and land-use. use, and to an institutional framework with operational concepts or models are  Fourthly, the research should – the capacity to counteract the regional relevant when it comes to integrated Also, the last question should strengthen based on models from planning administrative gap between provincial and transport development at regional level? the arguments for alternatives for the region theory – (a) deliver spatial guidelines municipal governments. If the research does not What are the strengths and weaknesses and is supposed to help in the formulation of or recommendations in order to succeed in the aim to deliver a suitable concept of these models? spatial, institutional and operational design achieve regional adjustment in spatial or model, recommendations regarding both recommendations for the area. In the end, the development around infrastructure issues might be suffi cient too. experiences and knowledge gained with the projects, (b) contribute to the proposal assessment of the case study area should be of an institutional model or conditions The questions accommodate several objectives The question refers to three dimensions based translated to a diagram that shows the relations for organizing the spatial objectives, which are steered by several sub-questions. on the integrated institutional approach of within the daily practice of spatial planning in and (c) help to formulate a strategy With both questions is meant that the focus of Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005); technical/ the Netherlands. which enhances the implementation of this research is to (a) address the weaknesses of spatial, institutional and process (TIP). They those spatial objectives. the daily planning practice in the Netherlands state that a technical (or spatial) design in terms of integral infrastructure development needs to be supported with an institutional  Fifthly, the research should address (the case study in particular), by (b) projecting and a process design that facilitates the the current relations within the Dutch suitable planning concepts from theory implementation of a project. In a literature practice of spatial planning. During (theoretical framework) that, (c) in the end review I will pay attention to this approach, the research various related planning also have the potential to contribute or add and to concepts within all three dimensions (chapter 2). An important condition here is

26 1. Introduction /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 1.4 Aims & research questions 27 1.5 Research approach 1.5 Research approach

In order to achieve the aims for this research the questions are supported with several studies. Th ese studies are done according to various methods. Th is can be translated to a research strategy and methods used within the strategy. It is importance to notice that more specifi c 7KHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUN sub-questions and related studies for the assessment of the case study area will be mentioned at the end of the theoretical framework. 5HÁHFWLRQ

1.5.1 Research components Thus, after the research has ﬁ nished spatial, institutional and operational recommendations 0RGHOVIURPWKHRU\ can be formulated – for the region and to the 'HVLJQ In headlines the research contains three main practice of integrated transport planning in the studies: Netherlands. Possibly the multi-dimensional recommendations can be presented in a design 1. An exploration of the Dutch system of within each dimension or combined, in some spatial planning (appendix A). sort of a ‘relational diagram’ which represents the complex relations of a regional projects 2. A theoretical framework that contains a $QDO\WLFDOIUDPHZRUNEmpirical analysis 3URMHFWLRQ where different scales and dimensions come literature review on theoretical models together. Because it is uncertain at this stage of integrated planning within three how such a design would look like, it might be dimensions (space, institutions and useful to address some components that have process); to be part of a design – for every dimension.

3. An empirical assessment of models These can be the design components: from theory on one case study area in order to fi nd answers to the research Fig. 1.8 Structure of research in headlines 1. Spatial design: type of development questions (by desk research, interviews concept, type of policies, the ambitions and mapping). behind the policies, amount of stations, type of stations, type of spatial The various studies of the research cover development, regional traffi c and theory and practice (refl ected in a theoretical public transport networks, regional framework and an empirical assessment) public facilities, type of programmatic (fi g. 1.8). Within this structure, the theoretical functions, mix of functions. 7HFKQLFDOVSDWLDO framework helps to organize the empirical research (projection). Subsequently the 2. Institutional design: institutional information derived from the empirical arrangements, degrees of policy assessment on the case study area helps to adjustment, type of institutions, type and adjust the theoretical framework (refl ection). number of resources, type and number This interrelation between theory and practice of legal instruments, actors involved, should help to refi ne and adjust the available type of organization. information during the research, in order to give answers to the questions as accurate as 3. Process design: type of spatial planning possible. strategy, dynamic framework for development, fl exibility of arrangements, 75,$1*8/$7,21 Next to the idea that the research should give visioning, gathering/encouraging answers to the research questions, it should stakeholders, tools that support provide crucial knowledge and expertise implementation, monitoring. 7,3 regarding the subject and location, which can be useful by creating an alternative ‘design’ or recommendations for the area of the case study ,QVWLWXWLRQDO 3URFHVV and perhaps, as contribution to the current practice of spatial planning in the Netherlands (in the direction of integrated transport planning). Fig. 1.9 Research method of triangulation

28 1.5 Research approach 29 1.5 Research approach 1. Introduction

1.5.2 Research methodology not derive from theory; the research model is 0RG00RGLLILILHG inductive (Mackay & Fayard, 1997). ))UUDDPPHHZZRRUUN )U) DDPPHZHZRURUN The relations between the dimensions of 7KHRU77KHRU\\ According to the inductive model the second space, institutions and process (TIP) described step of research takes place in the theoretical by Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005) are world in order to defi ne a theoretical framework refl ected in the research and in the various in order to place the real world in perspective. studies that are part of the research (on theory This framework can be found in the following 22EEVHUYDWLRVHUYDWLRQ and practice). As already said the idea behind chapter (2) – it represents a literature review **HHQHQ UDO 66SSHFLSHFFLIILFF these dimensions and relations between them on various models and elements from the ))LLHOG6WXGHOG6WXG\\ ))LLHOG6WXGHOG6WXG\\ 11DWDWXXUDUDO3KO3KHQHQRRPHPHQD ) will be described in the theoretical section. spatial, institutional and operational dimension. Nevertheless it might be argued here that this Subsequently, research criteria or indicators requires a ‘multi-dimensional approach’, to the can be derived from the theoretical concepts, extent of the research structure and the analysis which can be used for the empirical analysis of ''HVFULSWLYHVFULSWLYH but also for to the extent of an (alternative) 00RGRGHHOO the case study area in order to fi nd answers to ,,QWQWHUDFWLRQRQ ZLWKDUWLIDFWV design or design recommendations. the research questions. The case study can be 7KHRU7KHRU\\ considered as the specifi c fi eld study (the third The problem here is that such an approach phase regarding the model). would give the research a relatively large amount of variables as it refl ects a multitude According to the original model the following of paradigms across multiple disciplines. This (fourth) stage proposes beholds a return to 'HVL'HVLJQRIJQRI is why it is important to have strong indicators the theoretical world to refi ne or modify the $UWL$UWLIDFIDFWWV 5H5HYLYLVHVHGG for research, to understand the relations of theoretical framework. Here an issue occurs 66FFKHGXKHGXOH the research and to describe these relations, because it is not the intention of this research and – possibly even more important – to use to redefi ne the theoretical models but rather to a research method that accommodates these fi nd models and recommendations that would 22EVHUYDWLRQEVHUYDWLR Q relations: a framework for triangulation across be appropriate within the Dutch planning disciplines (Mackay & Fayard, 1997). practice of transport planning and for the case ))LLHOGHOOG 66WWXGXG\ (YYDDOOXDWLRQQ study area – the research does not only requires In general, triangulation refers to the idea that conditions for analysis but also asks for design different research methods and studies should (recommendations). According to Mackay and be used to verify results within one paradigm. Fayard (1997) a design process is quite different But it is also possible to triangulate across from a scientifi c method. Thus, such design WKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWV 7,3 scientifi c and design disciplines – which would (recommendations) in the form of a concept WHFKQLFDO VSDWLDO be even more benefi cial in disciplinary fi elds or model behold somewhere between the LQVWLWXWLRQDO (Mackay & Fayard, 1997). The latter would be theoretical and the ‘real world’. 7KHRUHWLFDO SURFHVV appropriate for this research regarding the )UDPHZRUN multi-dimensional component (fi g. 1.9). But In the other research models that Mackay and then, how would such a research approach look Fayard (1997) present, a world in between the DGDSWHGPRGHOVIRU 7KHRU\ like? What research model is needed for this? theoretical and the ‘real world’ is indicated as FDVHVWXG\DUHD ‘the design of artifacts’ or the ‘cognitive veil’, 5HYLVHG VSDWLDOSODQQLQJLQ1/ As said above the research is built on several 6FKHGXOH described in a somewhat similar model of studies within theory and practice (refl ecting Jesperson (2009). In classical science an artifact 'HVLJQRI the interrelation between the theoretical and $UWLIDFWV is seen as an error in research (for example, the empirical- or ‘real world’). Drawing on the an undesired alternation in data). But in social problem analysis and problem statement of and cultural terms (used in social sciences) an this research it might have become clear that it artefacts can be seen as projects or products 2EVHUYDWLRQ starts with the observation of ‘the real world’ – designed and used by humans in order to solve current issues within the Dutch system of spatial problems or accomplish certain aims. There planning (fi g. 1.10). This stage can be typed as *HQHUDO 6SHFLÀF are (a) primary artifacts used in production a general fi eld study, which is further elaborated )LHOG6WXG\ )LHOG6WXG\ (e.g. telephone, spoon), (b) secondary artifacts RVHUYDWLRQRI HPSLULFDODVVHVPHQW in a survey and exploration of spatial planning which are representations of primary artifacts VSDWLDOSODQQLQJLQ1/ FDVHVWXG\DUHD in the Netherlands (appendix A). However, the (e.g. user manual of a telephone) and (c) FDVHVWXG\DUHD research starts in the empirical world and does tertiary artifacts which are representations of

Fig. 1.10 Inductive research: theory vs. reality

30 1.5 Research approach 31 1.5 Research approach 1.6 Introduction of the case study area

secondary artifacts (Wartofsky, 1979). Artifacts Th e ‘Rijn Gouwe Lijn’ (RGL) and its region have been chosen as the case study for this do not necessarily have a physical form; research. But why is this project used as a case study? What are the characteristics of this especially for designers (such as architects) virtual artifacts or interactive artifacts are project and what are the conditions for the empirical research? In this section a short important communicative instruments that introduction of the project is given together with its related policies (and with the current refl ect abstract patterns of thinking. Schmidt & developments regarding the project). Wagner (2002) illustrate the idea of an artefact with the multiplicity work of an architect. The architects use a large repertoire of artifacts such as sketches, scale models, images, renderings, The selection of the case study has been 1.6.1 Policies on infrastructure done according to some criteria – the chosen CAD plans, samples 3D visualizations, but also development calculation sheets and text documents. These area needs to represent the issues that have instruments fulfi l coordinative functions – they been addressed in the problem statement; support internal and external communication regarding the administrative problems around What infrastructure policies can have an with involved actors. The architectural practice institutions and governance, and related to the infl uence on the project? One of the policies represents a multiplicity of (coordinative) integration of policies on mobility and land-use. that may have an infl uence is the so called artifacts. The spatial planning practice contains Therefore, the area should be a region where MIRT-policy, which is explained below. similar interdisciplinary and communicative plans are made for rail infrastructure that cross relationships. What can be argued now is various jurisdictions and which involves various that the system of spatial planning in the governments of different tiers (preferably Netherlands, which is neither theory nor municipalities and provincial administration) MIRT projects practice. It might be seen as artifi cially-created (fi g. 1.11). In this respect the ‘Rijn Gouwe Lijn’ The national government presents a MIRT artifacts, rather than naturally-occurring (RGL) is chosen as the case study area for the project book every year, which are multiple phenomena. This approach where research empirical research. years investment programs for infrastructure, takes place within and between different worlds space and transport (Meerjarenprogramma This project is interesting because it always of thinking (theoretical, empirical) with an in- Ruimte, Infrastructuur en Transport) (fi g. 1.12). has been marked by uncertainty and with between level of artifacts or a cognitive veil is MIRT-projects are the main infrastructural political, institutional, operational and spatial called ‘critical realism’ (Jespersen, 2009). developments. The national government challenges. Institutionally and operationally, supplies subsidies for the development of these One of the aims (or rather fi nal aim) of this the project is known of its diffi culties regarding projects (Rijksoverheid, 2011). research is to come up with a (conceptual) the decision-making process, the political model or design (recommendations) – or, a changes, the involved institutions, their interests MIRT-projects are national interventions set of design implications/criteria – regarding and agreements that have been made for that cross all governmental layers (fi g. 1.13). integrated transport planning, at the level the project. In spatial terms the project was Provincial and mainly municipal governments of the case study area and at the level of the characterized by technical complexity and have little to say about these projects. They spatial planning system in the Netherlands. In marked by questions regarding the integration have to deal with it. This makes regions where this respect it might be argued here that the and adjustment of sectoral policies on mobility MIRT-projects will be planned or realized end product – that should anticipate on the and land-use. Recently it has been announced interesting locations for the empirical part of daily practice and theory of spatial planning – that the project is cancelled (in its intended the research. rather can be typed design of artefact rather form) – only some parts of the plans remained (Leidsch Dagblad, 2012). An underlying than a then a theoretical or practical model. Fig. 1.11 From national territory to case question for the case study area in that respect study area might be in how far it had come so far – the struggles around this project need to be fi gured 1.6.2 Geographical conditions out. What is the Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL), what are the But in order to fi nd an answer to this a facts and characteristics around the project and better understanding of the case is needed its region? How can this region be defi ned? (input for research is needed). Therefore, In order to understand the geographical scale some expressions of the (decision-making) and technical challenges of the project some environment and the critical issues around the characteristics, facts and fi gures regarding project are explained below. the infrastructure project and its spatial and programmatic surroundings (the area wherein the project is positioned) are given.

32 1. Introducton /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 1.6 Intrduction of the case study area 33 1.6 Introduction of the case study area 1. Introduction

Infrastructure website Vervoersplanologie (2011) is also Two MIRT projects play an important role in announce that the vehicles will be using the the area between Leiden and Gouda (fi g. 1.14). regular railway connection – the railway track They are related to each other and are currently is already there but the amount of stops will point of discussion. One of them was the ‘Rijn be increased (but less compared to the original Gouwe Lijn’ (RGL): the aim of this project was to plan agreed in 2005 with the general project develop a light rail connection from Noordwijk contract) and the frequency will be raised. Boulevard via Leiden, to Gouda central station. In the same area there is another MIRT project Thus, where in the original plans the vehicles planned: the so called RijnlandRoute (RR): the were supposed to run on different type of provincial road near Leiden will be widened tracks from the west coast all the way to Gouda and extended. Despite the possible effects both (East) and through the city centre of Leiden projects will have on each other (an interesting (without any transit), the project is now more case in itself), this graduation project focuses following the current situation, whereby several on the RGL because this project crosses several transits between different modes of transport municipal borders and represents therefore are needed when making a trip from the west an interesting case within the discourse of the coast to Gouda – on the western part of Leiden devolution process of spatial planning policies. there will be a ‘guided-bus-track’ (shuttle Another argument is that it would be simply busses) and from Leiden central station to the too much work in relation to the time available east frequencies of current existing railway lines to involve both projects into this graduation will be increased (but with transit on different project. Because the RGL project was divided in railway lines in Alphen a/d Rijn when travelling an east and a west side, the research will focus to Gouda (eastern part). Again it might be on one part of the project; the RGL-East from questioned here how it came this far; the Leiden to Gouda, which is already complex projects seems to be ‘emaciated’, regarding the enough on itself. original ambitions and plan departures – what can be learned from this project? Fig. 1.12 Several MIRT projects in the Randstad The RGL is divided in a western and an eastern part (namely the RGL-West and RGL-East). In its original form the RGL could be seen as a project where ‘hybrid’ transport vehicles would run as a Spatial development light rail through the western part of the region Both infrastructure projects in the area connect (from the west coast to Leiden – whereby the several towns and villages. As explained in the NATIONAL GOVERNANCE line should cross the city centre of Leiden), and model earlier infrastructure brings on activity Infrastructure Urban fabric would run on an already existing railway track and mobility which lead to new forms of on the east side running from Leiden via Alphen spatial development. It is interesting to look PROVINCIAL GOVERNANCE aan den Rijn to Gouda. On that east side the back in history and to see what infrastructure Infrastructure Urban fabric light rail vehicles were supposed to move in has meant for the area in terms of spatial between frequencies of regular trains (which development and on what locations this has MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE were also scheduled on the same track). taken place. From brief observation it becomes Infrastructure Urban fabric clear that the area between Leiden and Gouda – During the research provincial government both classical Dutch cities with city rights (Cox, has decided to cancel the project in its original 2005) – have been car dependent during the form (Leidsch Dagblad, 2012). At the moment last decennia. This is well represented in the this hybrid construction is not part of concern type of industry – located around car roads – MIRT anymore – vehicles will not run through the which is mainly oriented towards transport and PROJECTS city centre of Leiden. The project now draws on distributional activities. plans that have been presented a year before (Vervoersplanologie, 2011) wherefrom becomes The densities of population are quite low Interaction model clear that the RGL-West is running from Leiden compared to other urbanized areas in the to Noordwijk Boulevard, as a so called ‘guided- Randstad (fi g. 1.15, 1.16, 1.17). Except for Leiden Influence of MIRT projects bus track’. The RGL-East will connect Leiden and Gouda, these cities are already highly on urban sprawl through different and Gouda and several towns and villages connected to the main infrastructural network governmental scales in between with higher frequencies. On the in the Randstad. Fig. 1.13 Infl uence of MIRT projects

34 1.6 Introduction of the case study area 35 1.6 Introduction of the case study area 1. Introduction

1.6.3 Territories 1.6.4 Use of data for empirical research Spatially, the region has been defi ned according to the infrastructure and spatial descriptions Most diffi culties around the project which above. Institutionally, the region can be have been introduced above will be analysed defi ned by the involved territories. Because the in the empirical research (chapter 3). The infrastructure development is cross-border; critical issues around the project will also be several territories (jurisdictions) are involved Leiden addressed more in detail at the beginning of in the regional project. In the empirical part of that section – a theoretical framework needs the research these territories with their specifi c to be formulated fi rst (around the subjects jurisdictions and policies need to be taken into represented by the problem statement) in Alphen aan consideration. The following municipalities order to assess the issues of the case study. The den Rijn which are located along the axis of the gained knowledge by researches on theory and infrastructural project (the East part of the RGL Zoeterwoude on the daily practice of planning give room to from Leiden to Gouda) will be included into the strengthen the framework (including indicators) Rijnwoude research: for empirical assessment of the case study area, which means that more specifi c questions to Boskoop  Leiden; the case are formulated in a further stage.

 Zoeterwoude; Because plan departures, involved actors, Rijn-Gouwelijn West attitudes, decisions and agreements on the  Rijnwoude; project have changed over time, it is important Rijn-Gouwelijn East Waddinxveen  Alphen aan den Rijn; to use a starting point on which the analysis of the case study area will be measured. The RijnlandRoute Gouda  Boskoop; analysis will take into account the original plans that where formally agreed in the general  Waddinxveen; project agreement of the RGL-East at July 2005. With the recommendations (for design) that  Gouda. follow after the analytical research on the area, the new situation will be taken into account. The provincial government which will be included in the research is Zuid-Holland.

Fig. 1.14 Overview of the case study area

! € 73,6 mln Leiden Municipality Population Surface area km2 Density pop/km2 117.914

Alphen aan den Rijn Leiden 117.914 23,16 5.372 Zoeterwoude 72.729 8.118 Zoeterwoude 8.118 21,91 383 Rijnwoude 18.511 Boskoop Rijnwoude 18.511 57,85 327 15.065 Alphen aan den Rijn 72.729 57,68 1.321 Waddinxveen Boskoop 15.065 16,96 1.014 25.282 Gouda Waddinxveen 25.282 29,39 905 71.096 Gouda 71.096 18,1 4.207 40.579 N N Total 328.715 225,05 1.461

Fig. 1.15 Figures of the involved authorities Fig. 1.16 Figures of the involved authorities Fig. 1.17 Figures of the involved authorities

36 37 2

Title Integrative concepts from theory

About The main question of this research is oriented towards the delivery of a possible planning mechanism that could help in addressing the issues of regional governance and of integration of policies around transport planning. In study on Dutch spatial planning the context of these issues has been explained (appendix A). But in order to assess such issues at the case study area a theoretical framework is needed. A framework that provides theoretical understanding of models and concepts, which makes it possible to take a look at the case from a critical point of view. Secondly, such theoretical models can support the main research question in ﬁ nding an (alternative) planning mechanism for the case (and possibly, for similar projects of integrated transport planning within Dutch practice).

The section contains several theoretical dimensions related to the subject of research and relevant for the case study area. The ﬁ rst theme contains spatial development concepts regarding integrated transport planning (space), the second is about the institutional capacity building which is needed for the support of the spatial concepts to integrated transport planning (institutions) and to address the issues of the ‘regional gap’. These concepts are followed by spatial planning strategies and funding mechanisms for integrated transport planning concepts (process).

The section concludes with the formation of the assessment of the case study area, based on the theories of discussed in this chapter.

Keywords TOD - Institutional capacity building - Policy adjustment - Strategic spatial planning

Paragraphs #2.1 Space, institutions, process #2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning #2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment #2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts #2.5 The empirical assessment

Fig. 2.1 Photograph: landscape Hazerswoude 39 2.1 Space, institutions, process 2. Integrative concepts from theory

In the introduction of this thesis it has been mentioned that the subject is researched private bodies bounded by their expertise or according to a multi-dimensional TIP-model of Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005) (fi g. legal powers, need to create an institutional framework for adjustment of policies, together 2.2). Th is model allows incorporation of dimension-specifi c concepts (space, institutions with contracts and arrangements around the and process) and anticipates on the multi-dimensional content of the issues around regional content of the project. governance and integrated transport planning. But why is this model relevant? How do both issues relate to the dimensions of space, institutions and process? To make the triangle complete, a process design is needed because ‘in view of the complexity and multi-actor nature of technologically complex systems, a design cannot be a “blueprint” created through an Hartman et al. (2011) explain a certain case rules, cultures, customs, values and norms intellectual process by a designer behind a as a ‘situation’ (for example, a study on that structure the world view of planners. desk.’ (Koppenjan and Groenewegen, 2005: the potentials for a railway line with spatial The distinction between these dimensions 242). A process design can be made in developments around stations). The situation is recognized with the TIP-model (technical, order to facilitate the interactive processes can be analysed through scales and by different institutional, process) of Koppenjan and between stakeholders, for stimulating an angles or dimensions. The scales can be divided Groenewegen (2005). To a large extent, this arena or platform for discussions and for in macro level (long term expectations and approach corresponds with the dimensions defi ning the project in stages. For example, a trends, or the context of the issues), meso addressed by Hartman et al.: Koppenjan regional railway project which crosses various level (the issues represented at regional level and Groenewegen propose a format for an jurisdictions and thereby does an appeal on – the manifest and the core of the issue is (institutional) design for ‘complex technological various public authorities, needs a process considered at this level) and micro level (where systems’ such as transport infrastructure, which of negotiation between involved public and local consequences of changes at higher levels incorporate a ‘technical’, ‘institutional’ and private actors in order to align policies: legally, become apparent). ‘process’ design in order to steer developments fi nancially, in terms of expertise etc. Defi ning within each of these particular dimensions. a strategy could be helpful for doing so, The exploration of the system of spatial Although the defi nitions are not the same, the placing the project in perspectives of time and planning in the Netherlands (appendix A) can need for a technical design seem to correspond decisions. be regarded as the observations at macro level, with the ‘material’ dimension of Hartman et where trends and institutional environment al., because Koppenjan and Groenewegen also In order to make a spatial, institutional or have been studied (which form the context consider transport systems (rail, road, water, operational design, supporting concepts can of this study). The subject and supporting tube) as technological systems (next to non- be helpful. From the perspective of integrated questions of this study are intended to address physical systems as information system, e.g. transport planning such concepts are addressed the issues at regional scale; the meso level. It internet). In terms of the case study however, in the next paragraphs, according to the three is expected that the case study area (the RGL- the RGL transport project which is a railway line, dimensions. Each dimension will be translated railway project and its region) represents those can be considered as the spatial or technical to the situation of the case study, together with issues; therefore it is considered as the core of dimension that needs a design to become some appropriate concepts which are supposed the study. The stations and their transit zones realized or adjusted. to address the issues occurring within each of along the railway line can be considered as the dimensions. the micro level – agreements made at higher Koppenjan and Groenewegen argue that authorities around adjustment of spatial such technical systems also ‘pre-supposes development around stations (or absence of coordination of the behavior of parties those agreements) may have consequences for necessary to make the system function (…) Space Institutions the development at these locations. which is organized through institutional arrangements that regulate the positions and Because this research particularly takes place at relations between parties. In addition to a regional level, it makes sense to take the other technological design, an institutional design is Study & variables of this model into consideration; the also needed.’ (pp. 242). They further argue that Design ‘material’, ‘organizational’ and ‘institutional’ an institutional design is not separate from dimension. According to Hartman et al. (2011) technological design nor it is determined by the material dimension is about the physical it. Considering the railway project at the case and morphological elements and their mutual study, this would mean that also an institutional relation. The organizational dimension is design is needed to support the technical and about actors and their organizations and the spatial intentions of the project – actors, such Process institutional dimensional dimension comprises as governments of various tiers and (semi-) Fig. 2.2 Schematic model of spatial, insitutional and operational dimension

40 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.1 Space, institutions, process 41 Spatial concepts of integrated 2. Integrative concepts from theory 2.2 transport planning

Th is paragraph draws on the spatial part of the main research question; what are the issues co-determines location decisions place singly or in combination: (1) expansion around the integration of policies on infrastructure and land-use and what planning concepts and so results in changes of the land of existing town, (2) corridor development, use system (Dieleman & Wegener, (3) ribbon development, or (4) sprawl or can facilitate the integration such policies? Th e purpose is to fi nd appropriate concepts in 2004:310), drawing on Hansen (1959). dispersed development (fi g. 2.3). Corridor and terms of integrated transport planning and to place the spatial assessment of the case study ribbon development both might be seen as in perspective. Th is also means that before the bridge can be made to such spatial concepts, Within the comprehensive approach of the linear development types. He further explains the spatial conditions that require such concepts need to be addressed: the understanding Netherlands government has policies for that the type of spatial development (its of spatial relations from a theoretical point of view and how these could be expressed in the both infrastructure and land-use (appendix form) could have an infl uence on traffi c and A). The way in which this interaction between mobility, wildlife, biodiversity, fi nancial costs of case study area. Th e issues within the spatial dimension should address the necessity for infrastructure and land-use takes place is infrastructure, the viability of existing services (alternative) spatial concepts around integrated transport planning. therefore also determined by government and facilities, the composition of the population policies and not only by spatial interactions. For and might lead to undesirable segregation. the case study area, which concerns a railway line together with station and agreed numbers These questions indicate the infl uences of of spatial developments between involved spatial development on other closely related The spatial dimension (or material dimension) ‘The compactness of the medieval city resulted participants, it would be interesting to see dimensions such as environmental quality can be decomposed in two spatial categories; from the need for fortifi cations and from the how these elements of transport and land-use (biodiversity), mobility, social welfare, economic the physical and the morphological elements fact that most trips had to be made on foot. infl uence each other, what (sectoral) policies growth and spatial coherency. If spatial (Hartman et al., 2011). Subsequently, the When these two constraints disappeared in have been used and in how far these have been development stays controlled (up to a certain undesired outcomes of such spatial interactions the nineteenth century, urban development, adjusted for steering this interactions. extend), its consequences for other aspects or existing spatial policies are explained. following this paradigm, largely became a will not be totally unforeseen and may be Finally this leads to the spatial policies (from a function of transport technology.’ (Dieleman reduced, or might even be improved. This can theoretical point of view and not as in study on & Wegener, 2004:310). As an example of these be achieved with ‘integrated development’ the Dutch planning context – appendix A) and developments in the nineteenth century they approaches (where sectoral policies are being concepts of spatial development which are able mention one of the fi rst studies on the spatial 2.2.2 Morphological elements: integrated). With a lack of control within to address the spatial issues around integrated development of cities (Hansen, 1959). ‘This types of development spatial development, or in the case of spatial transport planning. research shows the inter-relationship between policies being misused, this may damage the transport (and thereby infrastructure) and other aspects. This poor appearance of spatial spatial development of cities: locations with The appearance of spatial interaction as development, often as unforeseen outcomes good accessibility had a higher chance of being explained above goes accompanied with of policies or non-policies can be headed as developed, and at a higher density, than remote rural-urban land conversions (Wasilewski & 2.2.1 Physical elements: ‘urban sprawl’ (Squires, 2002). locations.’ (Dieleman & Wegener, 2004:310). Krukowski, 2003) or land allocations (Fleischer infrastructure & land-use Hansen explained this in a model called ‘land- & Tsur, 2009), which are processes whereby use transport feedback cycle’ which works as open land is being transformed into urban built up areas – the so called greenfi elds. Such Because the subject of research is mainly follow: processes lead to different type of spatial Undesired outcomes of spatial about ‘integrated transport planning’ and  The distribution of land uses, such as development patterns: it can be argued for involves integration of policies on infrastructure development residential, industrial or commercial, instance, that when more greenfi elds are used Although the undesired outcomes of spatial and land-use, it can be questioned why it is over the urban area determines the for spatial development, this creates another development do not form the main topic of needed to integrate such policies. What are the locations of human activities such as type of spatial morphology compared to spatial this research they do need a short explanation underlying spatial conditions for integration of living, working, shopping, education or developments on existing locations. But what because it is important understand the negative transport and spatial development policies? leisure. are the spatial development options in terms outcomes of spatial interaction – the urban Not surprisingly, one of the underlying spatial of spatial morphology? And what patterns are growth process addressed above – in order  The distribution of human activities conditions can be found in the relation between considered as ‘undesired’? This might be useful to show what is ‘supposed to be avoided’. in space requires spatial interactions infrastructure and land-use (urban growth or, to know, in order to understand the spatial This does not mean that the process of urban or trips in the transport system to spatial development). In order to understand ‘characteristics’ of the region, connected by the growth is only negative; it also has benefi ts overcome the distance between the this relation it might be helpful to explain a RGL-project (the case study). (urban and economic growth often goes hand locations of activities. model of this interaction. For the location it is in hand). important to understand theory which explains  The distribution of infrastructure in the Undesired outcomes of spatial development how (urban) spatial development takes place. transport system creates opportunities can be subdivided in two dimensions which are Dieleman and Wegener (2004) address theories Types of spatial development and for spatial interactions and can be of concern in the Netherlands: of urban sprawl. In their paradigm of urban measured as accessibility. their impact on other factors development they say that technical conditions In his book Needham (2007) mentions several  urban sprawl (spatial morphological determine the internal organization of cities:  The distribution of accessibility in space types of spatial development which can take expression, related to form, insuffi cient

42 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 43 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 2. Integrative concepts from theory

policies, lack of authority); market outcomes (Krabben & Van Dinteren, ‘nuclearity’, mixed uses and proximity (Galster the combined effect of growing affl uence, 2010) and territorial governance in particular. et al., 2001). Others (Ewing et al., 2002) mention changing lifestyles and the vast advance in  oversupply of allocated land and low development density, segregated land personal mobility made possible by the private property (programmatic expression, This also might be seen as one of the reasons used, lack of signifi cant centres and poor street automobile.’ (pp. 309). With car use connectivity misuse of policies, competing interests, that in the Netherlands the term urban sprawl accessibility. becomes more important than proximity. lack of coordination within territorial is a little unconventional, but why oversupply Considering the spatial development patterns governance both horizontal and of allocated land and property is one of In fact urban sprawl can be simply explained of Needham (2007) and its consequences vertical). the most urgent problems within the fi eld according to a brief simulation of urban again, a link can be made between linear and of spatial planning (indicated as one of the growth process addressed above: an area dispersed developments along car roads, more Maybe the main difference between the two trends in appendix A); at least 15 per cent of has been urbanized by the process of spatial diffi cult and more expensive to connect by dimensions can be seen in the idea that urban all municipalities in the Netherlands suffer interaction between infrastructure and public transport because of their widespread sprawl is more a natural process related to form, from oversupply of allocated land or property land-use, but the authority of that area has distances. This is a development which is not caused by the changing the patterns of socio- (ANP, 2012) – oversupply is partly the result of insuffi cient spatial policies to control urban desired from the perspective of integrated economic interactions (Salet, 2006), together the rural-urban land conversions as property growth or has insuffi cient capacity to respond transport planning which aims for connectivity with insuffi cient spatial development and investment. to external infl uences such as economic or and compact developments around transit planning policies, and with a lack of authority. mutual competition (Janssen-Jansen, 2010). nodes (VTPI, 2011). Oversupply might be seen more as an artifi cial Despite that urban sprawl does not seem to be The urbanized area has an attractive business undesired outcome and a product of competing as dramatic compared to countries with very climate and has a growing population. In As the simulation explained above already interests, competing policies or a misuse of little spatial planning policies, it might be useful this situation the urban area needs to extend illustrated, another important factor which goes spatial policies and a lack of coordination to take a closer look at the expressions of urban according to its demand, but does this in its accompanied with poor spatial development between public authorities (horizontal and sprawl, and its causes – possibly such patterns cheapest possible way (also because of pressure can be found in the negative expression vertical – multilevel governance). To continue, can be found at the case study area. According of the competitive market). In this form spatial of ‘externalities’ – it can be considered urban sprawl may be seen as a pure negative to Squires (2002) urban sprawl can be defi ned development can lead to endless suburban a an underlying component for spatial spatial expression, as a product of spatial as: ‘…a pattern of urban and metropolitan areas – which can be seen as urban sprawl, issues of urban sprawl and oversupply. The interactions without spatial control. And growth that refl ects low-density, automobile- characterized by low densities, no diversity understanding of externalities might address although oversupply of allocated land and dependent, exclusionary new development on (single use), ‘strip and leapfrog developments’, the importance for regional governance. property is also a physical problem it might the fringe of settled areas often surrounding segregated land used, lack of signifi cant centres be interpreted as a negative programmatic a deteriotating city.’ (pp. 2). Urban sprawl and poor street accessibility (causing excessive Several expressions of externalities have been expression (often characterized with contains several dimensions: sprawl, density, travel time and costs) (Dieleman & Wegener, described: political externalities (Zywicki, 1998; monofunctional development) of undesired continuity, concentration, clustering, centrality, 2004) Depoorter, 2006), environmental externalities (Zywicki, 1998), economic externalities (Aidt, According to Dieleman & Wegener (2004) 1998), agglomeration externalities (Meijers urban sprawl has the following causes: & Burger, 2009; De Vor & De Groot, 2010), positive and negative externalities (Netessine 1. General causes relating to the general & Zhang, 2005; Jou & Lee, 2008), regional and drift of change in developed societies; urbanization externalities (Meijers & Burger, 2009), to mention some. expansion of 2. Insuffi cient government policy, spatial existing town planning related. Originally, the term ‘externalities’ comes from economic literature. In the end externalities expansion of The fi rst reason is mainly present in Western existing town can always be expressed in fi nancial costs or corridor development society, where under the network society benefi ts. Sankar (2006) does an attempt to socio-economic interactions changed rapidly, explain the defi nition: and where territorial planning agencies have not been able to respond to these changes ‘Externalities arise when certain actions of immediately (Dieleman & Wegener, 2004; producers or consumers have unintended Salet, 2006). In third world cities which have external (indirect) effects on other producers or/ been affected by globalization the absence of and consumers. Externalities may be positive ribbon development spatial policies plays a more important role. or negative. Positive externality arises when Historical and technological factors such as an action by an individual or a group confers sprawl car use also have been mentioned in literature benefi ts to others. A technological spillover is a (Dieleman & Wegener, 2004) as one of the positive externality and it occurs when a fi rm’s

major contributors to urban sprawl, because invention not only benefi ts the fi rm but also the reaching distance by car is almost unlimited enters into the society’s pool of technological and it makes the driver less dependent on other knowledge and benefi ts the society as a whole. ways of transport – it gives the driver individual Negative externalities arise when an action by freedom. They state that: ‘urban sprawl is an individual or group produces harmful effects Fig. 2.3 Schematic diagram of options for urban development (Needham, 2007)

44 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 45 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 2. Integrative concepts from theory

on others.’ (pp. 1) been mentioned throughout this section. The are relevant because the case study area diagram of urban forms can be projected on concerns a project of cross-border, regional Thus, externalities can be interpreted as extra the case study area, which may help to fi nd transport infrastructure connecting multiple costs which have been brought forward by and support an appropriate spatial concept or networks and locations for spatial development. decisions; decisions which might have been approach for the area. These concepts of spatial development get positive for the initiators, but unforeseen specifi c attention below. 1 and negative for others. In terms of space, Drawing on the spatial interactions and externalities can be interpreted as the development patterns above, it can be said situation whereby an authority takes (spatial that spatial networks have become important. planning) decisions for its own territory, which Also in theoretical approaches can be seen that 2.2.3 Transit oriented have an infl uence on the social, spatial or economic conditions in another jurisdiction. development In the Netherlands, this can be expressed in competing (specifi c) public facilities such Regarding the interactive relation between as swimming pools, theatres and shopping the development of mobility and land-use, malls within one region, but also in the and its possibility for producing ‘undesired quantitative sum of spatial program such as development outcomes’ expressed by sprawl housing stuck, industrial estates and offi ce 2 and mono-supply or oversupply, it can be parks. In such situations the region can get questioned what spatial planning concept out of balance; too much mutual competition, can address such negative externalities of too less diversifi cation, too less specialization spatial development – one that recognizes and – according to the variables of externalities anticipates on this mutual depended relation addressed by De Vor and De Groot (2010). of mobility and land-use. It might be argued It often might be matter of competition, that with the approaches to integrated transport where the one authority wants to distinct itself planning answers can be found. If it comes from the others. This can be associated with to spatial planning of regional infrastructure authorities having high ambitions to support planning, different transport approaches can labour activity, economic growth, attractivity be distinguished according to Curtis and James (2004) (fi g. 2.5): or liveability within their territories. Without Fig. 2.4 Schematic diagram of spatial patterns 3 suffi cient communication or coordination (Meijers & Burger, 2009) 1. Single modes; between public authorities this may lead to poor spatial development outcomes such as 2. Multi-modes; urban sprawl or oversupply in a region. In spatial planning has become more network theory also can be found that both oversupply 3. Accessibility modes (which can also oriented, which is characterized by new spatial (De Vor & De Groot, 2010) and urban sprawl be interpreted as Transit Oriented concepts such as ‘networks of polycentricity’ Fig. 2.5 Schematic diagram of different (Meijers & Burger, 2009) can be a result of Development – TOD). externalities. or ‘polycentic complexity’ (Salet, 2006). This transport approaches (Curtis & James, 2004) is refl ected in literature of concepts drawing The single mode transport approach is Clear communication and coordination on polycentricity: polycentricity as a spatial characterized with the development of specifi c between authorities in one region (Janssen- planning strategy (Davoudi, 2003), as a model mode network plans which can be about roads transport lines are well connected or integrated Jansen, 2010), and clear spatial visions and (monocentric versus polycentric model) or public transport. Within this approach each and different interests are shared between the concepts for that region (Hartman et al., (Davoudi, 2003), and as green concepts (from mode-specifi c agency has its own interest and public transport agencies. In this situation, 2011) should avoid undesired spatial planning green belts to green infrastructure) (Amati & is (not always) concerned with the nodes along the bus stop at the front of a train station and outcomes and incorporate ‘free riders’. Taylor, 2010), or also in the form of cohesion the specifi c transport line. This can be a public planning of transport modes is adapted to policies (Faludi, 2005): ‘polycentric territorial transport company providing bus transfers; in each other. In such situations, land use patterns Now it is reasonable to make the bridge again cohesion policy’. Within such theories spatial its planning the company does not take into often follow the conditions of the integrated to morphologies of spatial patterns. Meijers development takes place among networks; account other public transport modes and stops transport plan. Thus land use is treated & Burger (2009) talk about consequences linear or around nodes. Through the latter the along the bus line are not well connected to passively. With the accessibility approach of externalities on the spatial structure and bridge can be made to ‘nodal development’ stations of other public transport modes such land use and integrated transport planning is relate this to the urban form (fi g. 2.4). They (Filion, 2009), a spatial development type as subway or train. The multi-modal approach better integrated and makes better and more explain this according to a diagram with two wherefore promising and appropriate spatial goes a step further and comprises integrated intensive use of the geographical aspects of the axes: (1) between centralized and dispersed concepts such as ‘transit oriented development’ transport plans. This approach concerns a specifi c site. This approach is applied through development, and (2) monocentric and (Curtis et al., 2009) and ‘integrated transport broader transport perspective where different the use of place-based plans where land use polycentric development. In fact this diagram policies’ (Curtis & James, 2004; Bertolini et al., modes of transport are better integrated and planning, transport planning and urban design brings together the spatial options which have 2005; Hull, 2005) can be found. These concepts adjusted on each other. The nodes along the are brought together. The geographical aspects

46 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 47 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 2. Integrative concepts from theory

especially refer to the quality of the space design principles that facilitate implementation? community is extremely important if it comes to openness of space etc.) because nodes should around a transport node, where the following the liveliness and activity of a neighbourhood. be approached as places with potential qualities components can play a role (Curtis & James, Specifi c (spatial) guidelines and conditions This means that with regional visioning around – which is called place-making orientation 2004: 286): for TOD can be found in the online database TOD, collaboration with the community must (VTPI, 2011). Every type of node needs another of the Victoria Transport Policy Institute. be taken into account and should be seen one adjusted approach. Based on the experiences  Spatial land use patterns (e.g. mixed According to the best practices in TOD of the measurements for the implementation of of the project ‘Stedenbaan’ in the South Wing use); (VTPI, 2011) the following points of attention TOD (Curtis et al., 2009). Additionally, it is not of the Randstad in the Netherlands, Balz and should be considered when it comes to the hard to understand that planning approaches Schrijnen (2009) have distinguished nine  Form of the physical environment at implementation of the concept: as TOD are often complex and require intensive degrees in potential developments, based on a sub-regional and local level (e.g. cooperation among wide and multiple ranges qualitative spatial dimensions: the interface between the transport  Create a vision for an attractive of stakeholders and those who are affected network and adjacent land uses); community. by the policies (Bertolini et al., 2005). The 1. Rural Areas: spaces in the middle of the organizational and institutional perspective on landscape for housing development in  Potential of economic and social drivers  Integrate transit and land use planning. TOD will be addressed under the next heading the countryside and recreational use. (e.g. retail shopping and employment). of institutional capacity building.  Provide high quality pedestrian and 2. Small Towns: new housing sites close In this situation, the different modes of cycling facilities around transit stations, Despite the spatial theories on TOD tend to be to small towns that can expand transport such as bus and train are well based on universal design. very technical, they sometimes focus on spatial into autonomous, compact, lively, integrated, and the integrated multifarious qualities also. As said above, regarding the multifaceted communities set in the nodes are positioned in a lively spatial  Manage parking to minimize the scope of this research (the case study) the focus countryside. surrounding with public facilities such as a amount of land devoted to vehicle will be on the latter – technical details of TOD town hall, a library, commercial centres, but parking around stations. will not be used in the assessment of the case 3. Outskirts of Cities: restructuring areas also social housing. In this way, the spatial study. With having the case study in mind, also on the quiet, spacious and green edges  Encourage car sharing to reduce the environment supports an active multiple these spatial qualitative aspects of the concept of the cities; these qualities can be need to own automobiles. transportation network (high frequencies) and need attention because (A) fi rst observations consolidated, enhanced and used. vice versa. of the case study show a variety in spatial  Create compact, mixed-used 4. Cities of the Future: easily accessible communities. environment around stations of the RGL-project For the case study it can be questioned to what (rural follows urban landscape etc.). Secondly and dense housing areas; can gradually extent or degree integrated transport planning (B), it can be investigated in how far the project expand into mixed use developments took place around the project – did the  Create complete communities, with with their own identity. shops, schools and other services within corresponds with the spatial ambitions for the approach of the RGL-project correspond with region as a whole and in how far it corresponds the single mode, multi-mode or accessibility convenient walking distances within the 5. Business Sites: extensively used areas TOD neighborhoods. to the spatial characteristics, addressed above – mode of transport planning? Because for the the (spatial) embedding of the project. along the motorway to be turned into RGL-project a fi nancial link between spatial intensively used employment zones. development and the railway line can be  Structure property taxes, development found, it is expected that the degree to which fees and utility rates to refl ect the lower 6. Regional Crossroads: areas linked to one public service costs of clustered, infi ll integrated transport planning took place A. Spatial differentiation by of the major motorways intersections corresponds most with the accessibility mode. development. in the South Wing; highly suitable distinction of station typologies for developing services with a supra- The latter approach of Curtis and James is often  Understand and expand the market When thinking of qualitative approaches of regional function. associated with the spatial planning concept of for Transit Oriented Development. TOD also the stations can be considered, ‘transit oriented development’ (TOD). According Identify the types of households and because transit oriented developments take 7. Randstad Hubs: not intensively used to the Victoria Transport Policy Institute businesses that are most amenable to place around nodes (e.g. nodal development). areas, but highly accessible by road and (VTPI, 2011) TOD promotes: ‘…residential and TODs. Educate public offi cials, planners, But this does not mean the nodes are generic local public transport; excellent places commercial districts located around a transit developers, residents and business and similar to each other – a single node (A) for experimental new employment and station or corridor with high quality service, managers concerning the potential in a poor populated rural area is not the same mixed use areas. with good walkability, parking management and benefi ts of locating in a Transit Oriented as a transit node (B) in a high populated city other design features that facilitate transit use Development. centre. Earlier in this section the distinction 8. Creative Cities: urban centres accessible and maximize overall accessibility.’ (website). has been made between purely functional by every mode of transport well suited  Encouraging commercial development But a further understanding is needed in order or single nodes and ‘integrating centres of to new urban-type dwellings and around transit stations. to assess the case study project according multifarious interaction’. These typologies creative workplaces. depend on the combination of transport to the requirements of TOD and in order to From this list, visioning an attractive community make this concept applicable at the case study modes or infrastructural networks. Anyhow, 9. City Centres: key sites, well served by might be one of the most important aspects the emphasis should be on a more refi ned every mode of public transport but less area (in the last stage of this research, when with regard to the case study area. It needs to (alternative design) recommendations or distinction between the nodes based on accessible by car; will have to be better be said that TOD may not be successful without qualitative factors (environmental characteristics designed for users of public transport. proposals are done): What characterizes the suffi cient cooperation of the community. The concept or mechanism of TOD? What are the such as functional program, cultural diversity,

48 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning 49 2.2 Spatial concepts of integrated transport planning Integrative concepts for the 2.3 institutional environment

This set of nodal typologies and station 2.2.4 How to apply at the case As the changing use of space does no longer meet with the institutional confi guration (Salet, characteristics can be useful to assess the RGL 2006; Salet & Woltjer, 2009), together with the existence of a ‘regional gap’ created by an project in the case study area on differentiation study? in spatial developments along the line, because uncovered ‘institutional void’ between provincial and municipal authorities (Zonneveld et al. 2012), it make sense to investigate what institutional structure can respond to these this area is characterized with a similar diverse As said above in this paragraph, the interaction landscape as project Stedenbaan. Secondly, this between mobility and land-use, or confl icts spatial and institutional changes – especially in the case of regional integrative transport approach might be helpful for the application between policies on both sectors can lead to projects which are in need of adaptive spatial concepts as TOD. Th is raises the following of a ‘refi ned’ TOD concept for the RGL project, negative externalities, expressed by undesired questions: What institutional concept is needed to support a spatial concept as TOD? In how as a possible alternative to the current practice development outcomes such as mono- or of policy adjustment on mobility and land- far do policies around transport projects (similar to the case study) need to be aligned, in oversupply of functional program (e.g. program order to support a concept as TOD? What resources are needed for doing so? Th is asks for a use. This refi ned approach of TOD regarded as of offi ces, housing, industry or commercial integrated transport planning that recognizes functions). In order to investigate (and avoid) further observation of adaptive institutional models which have the capacity to deal with the different types of stations in the area and which such undesired outcomes a few studies can be dynamic institutional environment around large scale transport infrastructure projects. Th is proposes tailored development concepts for done on the RGL project: paragraph draws on the institutional part of the main research question; what are the issues each station according to their characteristics. of governance between local planning agencies involved in regional transport infrastructure 1. To defi ne or apply an integral transport projects and what institutional concepts or models can address these issues? Th e purpose is to planning concept it can be questioned to what extent or degree integrated fi nd appropriate institutional concepts related to integrated transport planning and to place B. Spatial embedding of the project transport planning took place around the institutional assessment of the case study in perspective. in its region the project – did the approach of the At the case study area the ‘embeddedness’ RGL-project correspond with the single of the project in relation to the region can be mode, multi-mode or accessibility mode researched according to the following question: of transport planning? Within this institutional dimension, these and planning. Nevertheless, cooperation In how far does the concept behind the RGL (dynamic) institutional environments and the is considered here as a substantial part of project meet with the development concept 2. To defi ne the spatial differentiation meaning of institutions need to be explored institutional capacity because it can also be for the region – if there is any concept or vision of the transit zones along the line or fi rst in order to come to specifi c institutional seen from the perspective of policy adjustment for both? This can be ‘measured’ by linking for the proposal of a ‘tailored’ TOD concepts that can be useful for the project at which will be explained in this section. those concepts together. The importance of concept as an alternative for the current the case study area. an (adaptive) regional concept is addressed practice, the project can be analysed through the distinction of station The institutional dimension is characterized by Hartman et al. (2011) and Zandbelt (2011). The institutional dimension appears in by some substantial features. Coordination, With a regional concept they aim for a more typologies. What are the spatial and programmatic implications of the RGL? literature in terms of ‘institutional practices’, integration and cooperation of policy fl exible approach that responds to the changing ‘institutional density’ (Hajer & Zonneveld, adjustment could be seen as one of the dynamics in the region (adaptive planning), What type of station environments can be found along the line? How 2000), ‘institutional conditions’, ‘institutional key activities. Together with institutional address the need for acknowledging the ambitions’, ‘institutional strategies’, ‘institutional arrangements, policy adjustments take place spatial qualities within the region (qualitative are the nodes connected to other public transport modes (multifarious confi gurations’ (Salet, 2006) and ‘institutional within different contexts, within different embedding: what characterizes the region?) models’ (Curtis & James, 2004), to mention layers at different scales, formal and informal, and address the importance of defi ning the nodes of interaction)? What type of developments can be found around the some. It can be interpreted in different ways. between public, semi-public and private players. key interventions/projects in the region that For this reason it is important to describe the support the ambitions for the region. Especially nodes? What building heights do these buildings have? meaning of institutions within this research. the latter argument can be important for Institutions may be laws and regulations, addressing the link between the RGL-project policies, contracts [or arrangements (Curtis and the vision for the region: In how far does 3. At the case study area the 2.3.1 Types of institutions and ‘embeddedness’ of the project in & James, 2004)] and organizations [or social the RGL support the regional vision? Is the agencies (Boelens, 2009)], which regulate and their relations project seen as the instrument to realize the relation to the region can be researched according to the following question: In coordinate the behavior of actors in complex regional ambitions or was the project an networks (Koppenjan & Groenewegen, 2005). ambition on its own? how far does the concept behind the Within the institutional dimension, it makes RGL project meet with the development The latter might be interpreted in a different sense to take a more refi ned look at the concept for the region – if there is way; the behavior of actors has more to do appearance of institutions and their relations, in any concept or vision for both? In with the process of decision making, of the order to understand the institutional context of how far does the RGL support the implementation of a specifi c project, and the case study from a theoretical perspective. A regional vision? Is the project seen as often concerns public-private structures of distinction can be made, in the different layers the instrument to realize the regional cooperation (Stead & Meijers, 2004). From that where coordination takes place and wherein ambitions or was the project an perspective it might be argued that cooperation institutional arrangements are being agreed. ambition on its own? more touches upon the dimension of process The term layer refers to a vertical orientation.

50 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 51 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

There are also theoretical approaches to Within the discussion of top-down and institutional structures with a particularly bottom-up planning approaches addressed horizontal orientation. as one of the trends addressed in the study on Dutch spatial planning (appendix A), this relation between the institutional layers and their powers play an important role in Institutional layers the legitimation of decisions. Should spatial Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005) make development take place in a predominantly a distinction between different institutional informal institutional environment (layer environments according to a ‘four-layer model’. 4: bottom-up), as the model of Koppenjan and Groenewegen pronounces, or in a more /D\HU,QIRUPDOLQVWLWXWLRQDOHQYLURQPHQW The model represents four types of institutions and their environment with a vertical relation formal institutional environment (layer 3: top- (fi g. 2.6): down)? This might depend on how powerful an institutional layer is, but also on the type  Layer 1: Actors and games of project and who it may concern. It might be argued here that the two opposites of  Layer 2: Formal and informal top-down and bottom-up approaches are institutional arrangements always interdependent on each other and there is always a certain balance between the  Layer 3: Formal institutional institutional layers. environment /D\HU)RUPDOLQVWLWXWLRQDOHQYLURQPHQW  Layer 4: Informal institutional environment Nested territorial institutions & 7\SH, 7\SH,, 1HVWHG )UDPHZRUNVRI The model starts with the fourth level of strategies of fl exible response From another perspective, a distinction can WHUULWRULDOLQVWLWXWLRQV ÁH[LEOHUHVSRQVH the ‘informal institutional environment’ (characterized by culture, norms, values, be made between the ‘nested territorial orientation and codes). This informal institutions’ and the ‘constitution of strategies institutional environment can be seen as the of fl exible response’ (Salet, 2006). As the name most fl exible layer, close to society and quickly already says, the ‘nested territorial institutions’ responding to social and economic interactions, are often characterized with a long tradition of in contrast with the relatively slow responding existence and are supported by formal rules, /D\HU)RUPDODQGLQIRUPDO formal institutional environment, formed by laws, regulations and constitutions. Within LQVWLWXWLRQDODUUDQJHPHQWV ‘nested territorial institutions’ (Salet, 2006) the four-layer model of institutional layers operating in a political climate ‘that has little by Koppenjan and Groenewegen, the nested tolerance for intertwinement of public and territorial institutions can be positioned in the private interests and where self-enrichment ‘formal institutional environment’ (layer 3). and waste of government money is relevant.’ These institutions can be public administrations (Koppenjan & Groenewegen, 2005: 248 – table with their own jurisdictions such as provincial 1). Secondly the model shows the important or municipal governments, but also water infl uence of the fourth layer of the informal boards. The jurisdictions often overlap – the institutional environment on other levels – Dutch network of governmental agencies is the infl uence on the mindset of agents in characterized with an ‘institutional density’ /D\HU$FWRUVDQGJDPHV networks at the fi rst level: ‘this level infl uences (Hajer & Zonneveld, 2000). the perceptions of agents with respect to the problems they identify and the solutions In addition, due of the changing conditions they consider feasible. It determines what pushed forward by the network society, the kind of incentive structures are acceptable nested territorial institutions do not always and what would be effective.’ (Koppenjan & have suffi cient institutional capacity; when their Groenewegen, 2005: 246)). From this point of jurisdictions do not cover projects or relations view it might be argued that the other layers of which are cross-border, and with the absence institutions are partly or should be based on the of direct fi nancial resources, specifi c knowledge informal institutional environment in order to or legal power. Such uncovered ‘institutional Fig. 2.6 Schematic diagram of institutional layers (Koppenjan & Groenewegen, 2005) legitimate decisions. and governance types (Hooghe & Marks, 2003)

52 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 53 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

voids’ in the Netherlands often take place at represent the horizontal organizational structure multiple institutional layers. The rescaling and or in other words, that governance Type II will the regional level (Zonneveld et al., 2012). As of institutions and agreements. Strategies repositioning of the institutional structures not work without Type I (Hooghe & Marks, mentioned in the introduction of the thesis of fl exible response commonly take place around such projects is characterized with 2003). Type II governance (temporary from (chapter 1), these ‘regional gaps’ can be seen according to rules and laws, which make them both vertical and horizontal agreements, which character) is needed to fi ll the gaps between as an uncovered ‘institutional void’ between formal institutional structures. The relation require a lot of coordination and integration. the nested territorial institutions. Therefore provinces (the formal regional government) and between the nested territorial institutions and This will be explained below. inter-governmental arrangements are being state, and between province and municipalities. strategies of fl exible response can also be made. Such processes are also called the At these administrative gaps at regional level compared with the two types of governance, ‘spatiotemporal fi x’ (Allmendinger & Haughton, (provincial government) most challenges briefl y described in an article by Zonneveld 2009) or ‘mutual fi t’ (Salet, 2006). take place in terms of governance and policy (2010), drawing on Hooghe and Marks (2003): 2.3.2 Institutional integration. In particular, this is the case with With the recent chosen path of the national regional infrastructure projects, which cross  Type I: based on offi cial public authority arrangements: ‘the mutual fi t’ government of devolution of planning tasks multiple jurisdictions. boundaries and the hierarchical – which are not of national importance – to relationships between tiers of agencies at a lower administrative level (both Institutional arrangements can have a vertical According to Allmendinger & Haughton government. It refl ects the world of provincial and municipal), the discourse of and a horizontal dimension. Arrangements (2009) such projects can be placed in the formal spatial planning which is usually horizontal institutional agreements have have a (multilateral) vertical dimension if they perspective of ‘soft spaces’: where hard spaces legitimized through the conventional become even more important. This exploration have been made between different layers are considered as the legal jurisdictions, the methods of political decision-making. of can be positioned in the context of the of institutions. In a horizontal dimension soft spaces can be cross-border and have institutional layers mentioned above: the arrangements are made between institutions ‘fuzzy boundaries’. They furtherer argue that  Type II: based on specifi c planning discussion on inner- and intra-governmental on the same layer. The latter needs further with a ‘spatial focus of strategy’ the types of tasks. The spatial boundaries and the arrangements takes place in a horizontal explanation. spaces can be interpreted. These spaces need cast of players are both open. Often, organizational structure of institutions and Type II governance is ad hoc, project appropriate forms of governance; where hard Institutional arrangements between public agreements (layer 2). bound, and therefore fl exible. spaces are characterized by ‘government institutions know a long tradition in the Dutch bodies’, soft-spaces may be governed by Looking at the characteristics, Governance culture of spatial planning (in the study on ‘non-governmental bodies’.In such cases the Dutch planning (appendix A) explained as nested territorial institutions often miss the Type I is comparable with the tasks of nested territorial institutions. Governance Type II takes the process of negotiation). In the current 2.3.3 Adjustment of policies: institutional capacity and are in need of fl exible, planning system, (local) planning agencies (temporary) strategic institutional frameworks place around the constitution of strategies integration, coordination, of fl exible response. Also Albrechts (2006) have access to instruments such as ‘indicative which can respond quickly to social, economic plans’ and ‘planning documents’ (e.g. structure cooperation and spatial changes, and have legal powers and Allmendinger and Haughton (2009) acknowledge this relation in their articles by visions – appendix A) which in general form for the governance of cross-border issues. the key for inner-governmental agreements saying that strategic spatial planning often is The institutional environments and structures Such structures are called ‘the constitution of (Hajer & Zonneveld, 2000). Regarding the accompanied with new forms of institutional have been explained, together with anticipating strategies of fl exible response’ (Salet, 2006). institutional frameworks addressed above, structures with a high presence of fl exibility. agreements and strategies that deal with the it might be concluded that these inner- FForor the case studystudy area, it will be interestininterestingg In addition, it is important to understand institutional complexity. But how can such governmental agreements are made within ttoo investiinvestigategate whether an institutional void that either governance types, or institutional agreements been made? What is needed the nested territorial institutions, characterized eexists.xists. EspeciallEspeciallyy at regionalregional level this could be structures, are present at the same time; they to achieve inter-governmental agreements? by governance Type I. As said before, due relevant, where confl icts between municipal are interdependent. Governance Type II will An answer for this might be found in the of the changing conditions pushed forward andand provinciaprovinciall ggovernmentsovernments mimightght tatakeke pplacelace not even work without Type I; nested territorial adjustment of policies. From the perspective under the network society, these inner- around the RGL; a projectproject that crosses the ‘fuzz‘fuzzyy institutions are needed in order to form ‘a of policy making Stead and Meijers (2004) governmental agreements are not always boundaries’ of various jjurisdictions.urisdictions. Therefore, constitution of strategies of fl exible response’. regard policy integration ‘…as the management suffi cient; to overcome cross-boundary issues, a further elaboration is needed of possible of cross-cutting issues in policy-making that the Dutch spatial planning system is in need conceptsconcepts anandd stratestrategiesgies tthathat hhaveave tthehe potentiapotentiall Within the context of regional infrastructure transcend the boundaries of established policy of ‘inter-governmental agreements’ between toto anticipate on tthehe institutionainstitutionall compcomplexitieslexities projects which are often cross-border, the fi elds, and which often do not correspond to public agencies, private actors (e.g. real estate andand wwhichhich hhaveave tthehe capacity to overcome tthehe relation between both the two institutional the institutional responsibilities of individual companies, enterprises), societal actors (e.g. regionalregional gapsgaps.. structures seems inevitable. The ‘Stedenbaan departments.’ (2004, 03). This seems relevant NGO’s) of similar and different levels of scale. Project’ (Balz & Schrijnen, 2009) – and possibly, for the case study because (drawing on the These agreements are being made within the Strategies of fl exible response do not need to the RGL-project in the case study area – might theory of Koppenjan and Groenewegen, 2005) constitution of strategies of strategies of fl exible be confused with the ‘informal institutional be considered as ‘hybrid projects’ that involve the RGL-project can be seen as complex response, characterized by governance Type II. environment’ (layer 4) in the four-layer model governance Type II, but not independent system that requires participations of various of Koppenjan and Groenewegen; the strategies from governance Type I. However, next to this It has been mentioned that strategies of fl exible institutions or actors which often have their of fl exible response do not only take place horizontal relation these projects also have response can hardly be formed without the own policies – it might be argued that most around cultures nor values and norms, but in common the vertical orientation, involving presence of the nested territorial institutions, institutions make policies; for their own benefi ts

54 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 55 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

(such as enterprises), or for others (e.g. public government) and according to combinations authorities). It raises the question in how far do of both. Also combinations of integration policies need to be adjusted in order to make and coordination are possible: Curtis and the project feasible. James (2004) address that different modes of policy adjustment are often combined Stead and Meijers (2004) describe several and adhere somewhere between the degree degrees of policy adjustment from the of coordination and integration. This is perspective of ‘policy-making’ (fi g. 2.7): represented situations where a distinction ,QWHJUDWLRQ is made between central organizations and  Cooperation: implies dialogue and others; the central organization gets a ‘steering’ information (more effi cient sectoral (managing) role of the whole process, while policies). other organizations are hold responsible for ‘rowing’ (implementation). In such model, it is  Coordination: implies policy coherence usual that the central organization is formed and policy consistency (adjusted + more by others, and that the organizational structure effi cient sectoral policies). of the coordinating body is supported by the representatives of all the organizations;  Integration: includes dialogue and all organizations are connected, directly and information, policy coherence and indirectly. &RRUGLQDWLRQ policy consistency, joint working, create synergy and same goals (joint new For the case study area, such combined forms policy). can perhaps be seen in the central project organization, which is set up around the RGL- According to this model the modes or project. This organization is formed by various degrees of policy adjustment can be placed representatives of the involved participants: in a hierarchical order: from cooperation public authorities (province, municipalities) and to integration. The degree of operation is (semi-)public (ProRail, water board) or private determined by interaction, interdependence, bodies (Chamber of Commerce – KvK). It is also formality, recourses needed, loss of expected that the organization has a portfolio autonomy, comprehensiveness, accessibility of varying tasks: for example the adjustment of and compatibility (between actors). Where policies on transport infrastructure and land- &RRSHUDWLRQ ‘cooperation’ implies dialogue and information use. This shows that adjustment of policies between policies, ‘coordination’ goes a step is often expressed in different ways. From further – in this form policy making has to this perspective it might be asked if there are be more transparent and coherent, whereby different policy types or categories of policies confl icts need to be avoided. ‘Integration’ or which can be adjusted. ‘integrated policy making’ recognizes the same characteristics as cooperation and coordination In the literature review of ESPON (2013) but as the word refers to, in this form policies drawing on Briassoulis (2004) three categories are integrated into one policy. Therefore joint of ‘policy integration’ (integration might working, the use of same goals and creating be interchangeable for the other modes of synergy is needed. This model shows that operation) are defi ned: integration of policies is the opposite idea of ‘cooperation’, where institutional responsibilities  Sectoral integration (cross-sectoral )UDJPHQWHG of different departments, organizations or integration and inter-agency or stakeholders stay strongly remained and stakeholder integration); ÀHOGRILQWHUHVW separated.  Territorial integration (vertical and Stead and Meijers further argue that horizontal integration); integration can take place in different ways: horizontal sectoral integration (between  Organizational integration different departments and professions in (strategic integration and operational public authorities), vertical inter-governmental integration). integration (between different tiers of

Fig. 2.7 Schematic diagrams of degrees of policy adjustment (Stead & Meijers, 2004)

56 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 57 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

Sectoral integration ‘…is about the ‘joining up’ interest this is called ‘horizontal integration’. according to the degree of integration, territorial institutions’) earlier addressed. This of different public policy domains and their coordination or cooperation. Note that the means that in the case illustrated above the associated actors within a given territorial area.’ Organizational integration can be seen as descriptions above mainly concern coordination public administrations (national, provincial (ESPON, 2013 : 8) quoting (De Boe et al., 1999: the ‘…cooperation between parties.’ (ESPON, activities, or a combination of coordination and and municipal governments) are the nested 15). It might be argued that in general this 2013 : 8) quoting (De Boe et al., 1999: 15). This integration, and not integration alone. How territorial institutions. In order to address the process falls under the discipline of law- and form of integration is required to achieve both could territorial policy adjustment take place at cross-border issues with regional infrastructure, policy-making (Mastop, 1991) – management sectoral and territorial integration. According the case study? the public administrations form temporary laws, such as AMvB – Algemene Maatregelen to the article of ESPON (2013) supporting project organizations (constitution of strategies van Bestuur). Integration and coordination of arguments of Kidd (2007), the organizational Imagine the situation of a regional of fl exible response), with its own legal (public) sectoral policy domains take place integration emphasizes the actor perspective infrastructure project, crossing multiple powers, with specifi c tasks, agreements (intra- to make them more effi cient, to address and might even frustrate attempts for sectoral jurisdictions. The local governments or planning governmental agreements) and which can competing and contradictory objectives, and and territorial integration, when applied agencies (municipalities) do not have suffi cient respond quickly to social, economic and spatial to align with complex interactions between altogether. Also organizational integration can capacity for the realization of the project. Here changes (governance Type II). Hereby, the multiple arenas of public policy interests, be categorized, in: ‘strategic integration’ which there are several ways possible; integration, project organizations are often accompanied by in order to achieve a predominant goal. In is about the alignment of linked strategies, coordination or cooperation can take place, in representatives of the public administrations. spatial planning this form of integration plays programmes and initiatives (e.g. strategic visions a vertical or horizontal axis. The municipalities These repositioning and rescaling activities an important role, especially when it comes or structure vision documents), and ‘operational can work to together (horizontal coordination), around institutions can be considered as to complex projects which cross multifarious integration’ concerns the alignment of related but they can also join-up and function public ‘territorial coordination’. environmental facets and which may have a delivery mechanisms (e.g. funding mechanisms administration (horizontal integration). In the considerable environmental impact. Sectoral or legal land-use plans). In other words, from same way the institutional structure can be integration can be distinguished in two the perspective of organizational integration reformed in a vertical context: the municipalities dimensions: ‘Cross-sectoral integration’, we have a coupling between (strategic) spatial can work together with higher levels of Policy adjustment related to regional covering different policy arenas which visions, objectives and spatial concepts at the governance – provincial and national agencies one hand, and operational decision making at (vertical coordination), or they operate in one transport infrastructure (sectors) operate at multiple scales and ‘inter-agency’ Some of the organizational relations between the other hand. within one public body (vertical integration). or ‘stakeholder integration’, which refers to institutions have now been described (also In terms of institutional reform the latter integration between public, private, civil sector appendix A), which can be considered and It can be argued that both dimensions relate to example is not likely; in the case of a regional agencies. interpreted more in general and in different each other when the following to questions are infrastructure project, often institutional ways. From the perspective of the project in the Territorial integration ‘…is about the integration raised: structures with coordination between multiple case study area it makes sense to look closer, of public policy domains between territories.’ layers of governance are present. Also, for to the role governance in projects of regional (ESPON, 2013 : 8) quoting (De Boe et al., 1999:  What needs to be integrated (or the horizontal axis counts that coordination infrastructure; here adjustment of policies can 15). The aim of territorial integration is to coordinated, or cooperated)? – sectors/ or cooperation is more likely than integration be placed in the context of integrated transport achieve and legitimize effi ciency in facets as territories/organizations (in terms of institutional reform – and not in planning. Thus, it might be questioned what governance, globalization and sustainability. terms of laws and policies, for which integration confi guration might be appropriate in terms of Especially in terms of large (regional  To what extend or degree do sectors, is more common). It would not make sense integrated transport planning? infrastructural) projects which cross borders of territories or organizations need to be if municipalities with their own jurisdictions multifarious territories or jurisdictions, this is a ‘integrated’? – integration/coordination/ (including their constraints – concerned cooperation From this perspective Curtis and James (2004) relevant option. This action is also advocated with more issues than spatial planning only) have formulated how the degrees of policy to address positive and negative externality integrate, because a regional infrastructure This dialogue or approach might be useful for adjustment should organize the different effects (externalities) of such projects. From the project is not indefi nitely; they are based on components around integrated transport perspective of a regional cross-border project, the assessment of the case study, where policy (strategic) spatial planning objectives instead, adjustment possibly can be applied in different planning: where organizations, laws and policies integration of territories seem to be a drastic which are selective and temporary in most meet each other – stating that integrated mode of operation (as governments have other dimensions. This can be explained by some cases (Albrechts, 2004). examples, according to the different types of transport planning has a much broader responsibilities that fall under their jurisdictions context than just land use and transport policy adjustment. Therefore coordination and cooperation besides such a project, e.g. education, integration only. Drawing on a document of the activities, or a combination of coordination and healthcare); therefore coordination seem to Department of Environment, Transport and the integration activities, in both horizontal and be a more appropriate measure. Territorial Regions [DETR] (1998), they identify three areas vertical ways, are more likely than integration integration recognizes two dimensions: if policy of integration: coherence takes place across spatial scales Policy adjustment for institutional only (in terms of regional infrastructure this is called ‘vertical integration’, and when reform (territories) projects). The degrees of policy adjustments in  Integration of modes policy coherence between takes place between The repositioning and rescaling activities around terms of institutional reform have the potential neighbouring authorities (nations, provinces, the relations described above, brings forward to facilitate the development of institutional  Integration of transport and land use municipalities etc.) and areas with some shared the discussion whether the transformation structures and relations such as the ‘strategies [sectoral integration] of institutional structures should take place of fl exible response’ (in relation to the ‘nested

58 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 59 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

 Integration with ‘whole of government’ Policy adjustment of strategies and and Groenewegen (2005) and Hartman et al. tools (Curtis & James, 2004), which is also called policies [territorial integration] instruments (organizations) (2011). Strategies that facilitate the process are ‘resource management’. In general, and in the As explained above the adjustment of policies therefore further discussed under the heading light of this research, resources can be headed The ‘integration of modes’ can be seen as a in terms of organizations is regarded as the of operations. into: transport policy, and refers to the integration of alignment of linked strategies or of related different transport modes at specifi c locations,  Natural resources (land, products, delivery mechanisms. It can be argued that in order to improve the effi ciency of public goods) – tangible this is more an instrumental expression of transfers and to reduce travel time. policy adjustment that facilitates the process of 2.3.4 Resources  Human resources (labour, intellectual The ‘integration of transport and land use’ implementation of ideas. From the perspective and human capital) – intangible can be simply explained by the idea that of integrated transport planning, this can In order to adjust policies within a situation this form of integration aims sustainable be explained according to adjustment of (organizations, laws, policies, regulation,  Financial resources (fi nancial capital) – spatial development, by using the ‘modes instruments and actions which are needed etc.), the available resources need to be intangible of multifarious interaction’ (supported with to make the project realized. This raises the addressed; without an understanding of the transport policies) as the framework for question of how organizational integration available resources integration, coordination  Legal resources (legal capital, authority) fostering compact spatial development with could be translated in the RGL-project, which is and cooperation do not make sense. Note – intangible high densities around transport nodes – which a regional transport corridor. that resources imply a wide range of useful is in fact the concept of TOD. As explained sources or supplies (which also have to do with In classical economics three categories of As said above, organizational integration can be above this process often works vice versa: these skills, competences), and hence include the resources are recognised: land, labour and divided into strategic integration and operational policies stimulate the capacity and frequency dimensions of policies, laws, organizations etc. capital (Mahoney & Pandian, 1992). Land integration. In terms of strategic integration it of public transport, which creates a higher addressed above. It might be argued that the includes ‘natural resources’, labour falls under can be argued that involved authorities should demand for spatial program (especially around amount of size of resources determine the level ‘human resources’ and capital refers to ‘durable align their structure vision documents (appendix these transport nodes). Finally, the new spatial of institutional capacity: the more resources, goods’ which are already-produced. These A): integrating the different policies into one development leads to a bigger pressure on the more powerful and effective the institution categories can be headed into tangible and document, aligning concepts and giving public transport and asks for larger capacity is (Gupta et al., 2010) drawing on (Yohe et al., intangible resources (Mahoney & Pandian, priority to projects within their general vision and higher frequency. The integration of both 1996; Mendelsohn & Nordhaus, 1999; Nelson et 1992). Natural and capital resources fall under documents, in order to communicate their ideas policies should bring forward that this process al., 2010) and (Healey, 1992; González & Healey, tangible resources, human resources under to other potential participants. This illustrates gets covered and stays in balance (both 2005)).For instance, Stead and Meijer (2004) intangible resources. Since this section is that authorities (e.g. provincial government) not transport and land use are regulated) and argue that environmental groups (NGO’s) often about institutional capacity it is worth to look only need to be communicative, they also need negative externalities (as urban sprawl, together have limited resources and capacity for research at intangible resources. Bontis et al. (1999) to be selective in order to be strategic (Albrechts, with its costs) are reduced. Because transport or publicity to support their arguments, further subdivide intangible resources in 2004, 2006). and land-use policies are often aimed by compared to interest groups, which often ‘fi nancial capital’ (money) and ‘intellectual authorities at the same level – whether public possess more fi nancial capital. capital’ (information and more). Both these In terms of operational integration it can be resources seem to be the most infl uencing (cross-sectoral between different departments) argued that the delivery mechanisms such For the case study area it would be useful factors for determining the institutional capacity or private (inter-agency between different as land-use plans or fi nancial structures and understand what resources the involved of institutions and stakeholders. Gupta et al. authorities) – this can be regarded as a form of agreements should be aligned. However, authorities and stakeholders had at their explain fi nancial capital as the ‘…availability of ‘sectoral integration’. it can be expected that these instruments disposal, in order to analyse how negotiations fi nancial resources to support policy measures often have high legal powers and are less The ‘integration with whole of government took place: for instance, did the participant had and fi nancial incentives.’ (2010: 06 – table 1). To fl exible than strategic instruments. From this policies’ refers to the integration of other a lot of expertise, money or legal authority in continue, Bontis et al. explain that intellectual perspective – it might be argued – it is diffi cult policies than only transport and land use. This order to infl uence the decision-making process? capital recognizes ‘human capital’ (competence, to integrate a sectoral restrictive project plan for is more about governance, which is important attitude and intellectual agility) and ‘structural waterways with a legal sectoral plan of railway when it comes to integrated transport planning. Therefore is reasonable to take a closer look capital’ (relationships, organization, renewal and infrastructure in case of a bridge. In such cases For example, environmental policies, which at what resource stand for, or what it can development). Human capital is a collection the policies are aligned, but do not necessarily are strongly embedded in the Dutch system be. A resource can be a source or supply. A of intangible resources embedded in the have to be integrated. Because legal plans are of spatial planning (appendix A). Other resource can be tangible or intangible, and members of an organization, whereas structural less fl exible and adaptive it might be argued policies can be health and education. From can be subdivided in different categories capital is more oriented to the dynamics of that integration would be a ‘bridge’ too far: the this perspective the ‘whole of government’ such as material resources, rules and ideas the (external) market – the scope of structural degree of coordination might be more desired may refer to the public authorities, who have (Healey, 1992) – which also touches upon capital is embedded within the routines of an in terms of operational policy adjustment. such a wide ranging tasks belonging to their the institutional layers (e.g. rules and games) organization, but does not concern nodes of of Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005). An human capital (Bontis et al., 1999). portfolio. Therefore, the integration with whole As might be seen in the two examples organization or institution can gain profi t by of government policies can refer to ‘territorial addressed above adjustment of policies in using their resources (Needham, 2007). Finally, Several categories of resources have been integration’. terms of organizations corresponds with the resources can be managed, with instruments or addressed. But in the light of this research, operational or process dimension of Koppenjan

60 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 61 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

where regional infrastructure projects are point Legal capital Intellectual capital governmental body at one scale (including of subject, more specifi c types of resources are Legal capital (Mahoney & Pandian, 1992) can be Intellectual capital or its substantive; human the different public sectoral agencies), and can likely to be mentioned. Curtis and James (2004) compared with ‘authorization and regulation’, or resources (Bontis et al., 1999) have to do with therefore be considered as a party that knows a explain several types of resources, relevant as ‘rules’ (Healey, 1992); described by Curtis and the available knowledge. It might be interpreted little bit of everything (aware of all expertises). from the perspective of integrated transport James (2004) as a traditional resource – formal as the expertise of a stakeholder. Imagine a planning: (1) authorization and regulation; because of its statutory planning controls for complex project with diffuse structures but For the case study area it is important to be (2) pricing; (3) strategic asset management; land use planning or transport regulation. These with clear goals and objectives, as is often aware of the fact that different stakeholders (4) building community capacity. However, important planning controls can be laws of the case with projects of integrated transport have different expertises; what is the it might be argued whether these could be regulation and statutory planning documents. planning. These projects are also characterized stakeholders’ expertise, how did they use/ typed as resources. In particular the chosen Especially laws play an important role in the by a wide range of actors. Especially in such apply their knowledge and in how far did this defi nitions do not seem to stroke with the Dutch system of spatial planning. They support situations it is important that every party or correspond with the dedicated tasks and own notion of a resource. Defi nitions as ‘pricing’ spatial planning policies, determine how stakeholder knows its own tasks and operates interests? It can also be investigated in how are or ‘strategic asset management’ more touch planning agencies of all scales should act, and according to their own expertise, in order the expertise is adjusted or integrated between the idea of a coordination tool (such as ‘policy what instruments they can use – in this way to achieve the overarching objectives. And stakeholders of the project. making’, ‘integrated planning’, ‘funding’ and laws have an important impact on the power of even more important is that these parties are ‘research and monitoring’, addressed later a planning agency. Note that within decision- selected because of their expertise knowledge, in their article). Albeit both series have a making arenas (often characterized by a variety to pursue a balanced organizational structure. different meaning, the types of resources and of stakeholders) (Albrechts, 2004 & 2006) this The expertise differs among the range of Financial capital tools seem to be tangled up. In addition, the type of resource supports the public agencies stakeholders. The expertise can be categorized From economic theory it can be understood relation is not clear. For instance, it does not in particular – not the private stakeholders, into several headings and associated with that fi nancial capital or resources are the seem likely that ‘authorization and regulation’ which operate under private law (Needham, possible types of stakeholders: physical and monetary assets, which have an can be coordinated by ‘policy making’, and 2007). It is the laws of regulation which are infl uence on the value of an organization or a ‘pricing’ by ‘funding’. In fact this represents subject to change, in the recent reforms in the  Environmental – different tiers of project (Bontis et al., 1999). It can be seen as a a tool coordinating another tool. Instead, Dutch system of spatial planning (appendix government/public sectoral agencies, stakeholder’s investment in a project. In other policy making can be done with the purpose A). Some of the laws of regulation which have consultancies, NGO’s. words this means that the fi nance of a project to save intellectual property, support patents, been changed recently, or which are subject to depends on the money made available by the or to pursue a sustainable approach on land change at this moment:  Land-use / development – different investors. With regional infrastructure projects use, which is a (natural) resource. In addition, tiers of government/public sectoral – characterized by a wide range of stakeholders in terms of resources, maybe authorization  WRO (Wet op de Ruimtelijke Ordening agencies, consultancies, real estate – it is often the case that each stakeholder or and regulation can be typed as ‘legal capital’ > Wro (Wet ruimtelijke ordening – companies. party invests a different amount of money. This which is a formal defi nition used in literature general law of spatial planning) depends on the interest and the fi nancial power (Mahoney & Pandian, 1992), or falls under  Transport – different tiers of of a stakeholder. Often, interest and fi nance are ‘authority’ (Gupta et al., 2010) drawing  AMvB (Algemene Maatregel van Bestuur government/public sectoral agencies, linked to each other and interest is measured by on Biermann (2007); hence the fact that a – general administrative order) (public) transport companies. fi nancial investment. Not only interest, but also regulation or law can support or strengthen the risk and reward are linked to the percentage of power, infl uence and effi ciency of an institution.  ‘Bestemmingsplan’ (land-use plan) >  Social and civil – different tiers of fi nancial investment. This share of investment is Addressed by Gupta et al. as the: ‘…provision of ‘Omgevingswet’ (environmental law) government/public sectoral agencies, called ‘equity stake’ (Hale, 2008). Hale explains accepted or legitimate forms of power; whether local communities/civil organizations. that equity stake plays in important role in or not institutional rules are embedded in These important changes in legislation have ‘equity-based business partnership’, whereby an constitutional laws.’ (2010: 06 – table 1). been described (appendix A). Also formal  Financial – different tiers of investor with for instance, an investment of 51% or statutory planning documents could be government/public sectoral agencies, also has a major infl uence in the project, but I want to conclude here that it might be more dedicated as legal capital or authority resources. consultancies. also bears the risk and gains profi t (if possible) useful to stitch down to the idea of fi nancial, These have also been described in the study according to this percentage. This share of  intellectual and legal capital – or as addressed on Dutch spatial planning. In the case study Management – different tiers of investment is often agreed within fi nancial by Gupta et al. (2010): ‘fi nancial/economic it can be investigated if the legal authorities government, consultancies. arrangements. It might be questioned if with resources’, ‘human resources’ and ‘authority’ – had enough legal resources to make the RGL- complex projects of regional scale and with  Legislation and juridical – different tiers which might be the most infl uencing resources project feasible. For instance, did the provincial a long time span the share of investment or of government, specialized juridical in the decision making process and could play a government have enough legal capacity in contribution should be fi xed. major role as determining factors for (adaptive) terms of the ability of planning instruments offi ces. institutional capacity (Gupta et al., 2010). It is (e.g. land-use plans), in order to facilitate the But maybe the type of investment even plays It is noteworthy that public administrations worth to pay some specifi c attention to these implementation of the project? a more important role in regional projects (different tiers of government and public resources. with public-private partnerships (since public sectoral agencies) and consultancies often have agencies do not necessarily have to gain profi t available different categories of expertise; there where private investors have to – public and are different types of public sectoral agencies private investors have other interests). Thus, and consultancies with specifi c knowledge. The public actors have other fi nancial resources different tiers of government refer to the whole

62 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 63 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

than private parties; they get their money by (Gupta et al., 2010) or ‘adaptive governance’ But how can capacity building be to rescale the claim on the (sometimes un) other ways and have different purposes with and ‘resilience thinking’ (Baud & Hordijk, achieved? According to Healey (1998) clear available resources to another level of authority. their fi nancial investment. From this perspective 2009). The authors of the latter state that ‘… communication among different stakeholders Hereby the amount and size of resources play these types of investment can be cathegorized. adaptive governance strategies aim explicitly at and greater fl exibility belong to some of the key an important role. This distribution of resources equipping stakeholders to deal effectively with characteristics of institutional capacity, which is: is called ‘resource allocation’ (Healey, 2007).  Public fi nancial investment (by subsidies change, surprises and risks.’ (Baud & Hordijk, The bundling of resources corresponds to a and taxation models) – there is no 2009: 1069). ‘Adaptive’ can be seen as an  …is the context within which where large extent with the adjustment of operational need for a fi nancial profi t according to important additive to capacity building because there is suffi cient appreciation, trust policies addressed above. the share of investment, a balance is it concerns greater fl exibility and autonomy and communicative skill for different suffi cient. of institutions. Gupta et al. mention that stakeholders to fi nd their ‘voice’ For instance, when a provincial government adaptive capacity is a useful concept to assess and ‘listen’ to each other involves has the intention to realize a regional project of  Private fi nancial investment (by own institutions, but there has not been a systematic not merely careful design of specifi c transport infrastructure it does not have all the fi nancial gains) – a surplus for the share framework for doing so. communication arenas; resources to achieve this: of investment is desired in order to survive. González and Healey (2005) describe capacity  …is characterized by a rich social - in terms of (a) legal resources this building as: ‘the ability of the institutional infrastructure (richly informed, and might depend on laws and regulations In projects with a wide range of stakeholders relations in a social milieu to operate as a outwardly oriented networks where (defi ned by national government: these two interests are often the cause of collective actor’ (pp. 2056), which not only knowledge – intellectual capital – can public law, law on spatial planning painstaking negotiations. Private companies indicates the joining up of policies but fl ow around) of positive relationships – Wro), the available legal planning often want to get fi nancial profi ts out of their also represents integration of resources or between governance, citizens and instruments (e.g. provincial land-use investment, where public administrations only institutions, in order to ‘work collectively companies; plans) and on other (lower) public have to legitimate the fi nancial investment by towards the creation of better and fairer authorities which are ‘automatically’ providing of services (however, the investment quality living environments.’ (pp. 2056). They  …allows rapid mobilization to affected by the new policy, because the should be reasonable, approved by citizens, also address that governance capacity can be new circumstances and enables project crosses their territory; and estimated as expected). This relationship assessed according to the (a) specifi c episodes fl exible responses to be designed may also be the reason why public parties (such as the actors and arenas), (b) governance and developed (delivering of - in terms of (b) intellectual resources the often bear the risk for private stakeholders process (e.g. networks, coalitions, stakeholder policy objectives of concern to all provincial government may not have which otherwise do not invest their money in selection processes) and (c) governance cultures stakeholders); all the technical expertise regarding valuable and risky projects, especially in times (e.g. range of accepted mods of governance, the infrastructure and therefore needs of economic crisis. formal and informal structures for policing  …with a focus on enhancing the to involve (often semi-public or private discourses and practices). Such levels can be ability of place-focused stakeholders actors and institutions); This complex situation brings forward new used for the assessment of the case study. For to improve their power to ‘make a questions of where the fi nancial investment for instance, it would be interesting to investigate difference’ to the qualities of their - in terms of (c) fi nancial resources it is projects should come from (which stakeholders in how far there was a governance culture for place, which can be enforced by likely that the provincial government and what sort of money) and what (fl exible) integration of policies or of resources. collaborative planning. does not have enough budget to get structures are needed. For the case study area the project fi nanced and is therefore it could be interesting to fi gure out these Healey (1998) also specifi cally writes about Drawing on the latter, according to Healey dependent on author investors to relations and what alternatives might be more ‘institutional capacity’ and the relation with this capacity has three dimensions: (1) the become ‘stakeholders’ of the project. appropriate. Funding structures such as regional the local community; its relation with social knowledge resources, (2) its relational resources, This can be public and private actors. funds or crowdfunding can be seen as possible capital and the need for collaborative planning and (3) its capacity for mobilization. These For the public authorities that are new tools for investment, which are discussed as an appropriate tool (which is explained resources slightly intertwine with the range of involved in the projects because it further in this section. later in this section) for institutional capacity resources mentioned earlier (intellectual capital connects their territories, the provincial building. Institutional or governance capacity or human resources, legal or organizational government usually expects that they lies in the quality of local policy cultures and capital and fi nancial capital). contribute because they will benefi t the building up of distinctive policy cultures. from the new project (improved 2.3.5 Capacity building Nevertheless, this local capacity is often Institutional capacity building calls upon the connectivity). fragmented. Therefore, paying attention to available resources. The resources can be joined the local civil communities is an important or scaled up (according to the degrees of policy This illustrates the idea that a provincial The resources addressed above play an aspect of institutional capacity building. These integration also). As said before stakeholders government is very dependent on other actors, important role in capacity building. However it conditions does remind to the institutional can share knowledge, but they can also give usually raises its capacity by using resources of might be worth to look at the defi nition fi rst. reform as a reaction on changing socio- fi nancial support to achieve a higher total others. This is not without consequences; other What is capacity building? In literature capacity economic interactions, described above. The investment budget for a project (what will only ‘stakeholders’ will have more infl uence on the building is often combined (capacity building of social component of capacity building is also be done when the project concerns interest of project – they expect that their interests are what?) or corresponding with other defi nitions, recognized by Gupta et al. (2010) referring to the investors). In terms of rescaling of resources represented in the project. This process requires such as ‘governance capacity’ (González and refer to the ‘adaptive capacity of society’. It they can be distributed to higher authorities. compromises from all parties, often through a Healey, 2005), ‘community capacity building’ might be clear that institutional capacity has a In the case it is desired to raise the capacity of process of negotiation. (Healey, 1998), ‘adaptive capacity of institutions’ strong social component. an institution for instance, there will be tried

64 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment 65 2.3 Integrative concepts for the institutional environment Strategic planning and 2.4 integral funding concepts

But resources are only a substantial part of 1. The existence of an ‘institutional void’ Th e institutional and policy reforms which are needed to support the spatial ambitions (institutional) capacity building. Gupta et al. between provincial and municipal (expressed in concepts and visions) cannot be achieved in one day. Such changes oft en (2010) state that this is just one of the six administration can be investigated at dimensions (variety, learning capacity, room for the case study area – in how far are require long-term processes of negotiation. Th ese processes can be steered or facilitated by autonomous change, leadership, availability of did the involved institutions establish a diff erent approaches and instruments. Such approaches particularly can be found in strategies resources and fair governance) which play a central project organization (framework which defi ne actions on the long- and short-term. It can be expected that the RGL-project role in the adaptivity of institutional capacity. of fl exible response), what agreements of the case study also requires long- and short-term thinking because of its high complexity, To come back to the systematic framework have been made and what have been large scale, and involvement of various stakeholders and decision-makers. But what proposed; they have developed an ‘institutional the tasks and responsibilities of the capacity wheel’ to measure the adaptive involved institutions and of the project operational structure, steering mechanisms, instruments or strategy would be appropriate institutional capacity. This method is interesting organization? to canalize the process of realizing the project ambitions? Th is paragraph draws on the because of its comprehensiveness, and it operational part of the main research question; what are the issues around the decision- contains several of the components addressed 2. To what extent have policies been making process of a regional transport infrastructure project and what strategic models or in this section. Nevertheless this approach adjusted (sectorally, territorially and concepts can support the operational structure (e.g. steering the available resources)? Th e contains too much variables; the research needs organizationally), in particular around to be done by a team of professionals and data mobility and land-use (sectoral) in order purpose is to fi nd appropriate strategic concepts in process management (related integrated needs to be validated by several members of to support the RGL project – to the transport planning), and to place the operational assessment of the case study in perspective. a single stakeholder. Therefore the assessment degree of integration, coordination or criteria for adjustment of policies (and cooperation? In how far did involved resources) addressed above might be suffi cient governments adjust their policies? In to assess institutional structure and capacity of how far do did sectoral departments the project at the case study area. and public and private actors adjust From the perspective of integrated transport and, equity fi nance). Research and monitoring their policies? In how far did strategies, planning Curtis and James (2004) have has the aim to inform coordinative bodies For the assessment of the case study area visions and other legal instruments have distinguished several tools or instruments about the impact of policies and planning it further can be questioned in how far been adjusted? that have the capacity to steer the policies or process and to ascertain if policies and plans the involved agencies had the capacity to resources addressed above: are achieving their desired outcomes. It integrate policies and in how far they had the 3. It can also be investigated to what facilitates the learning process (planning-as- available resources for doing so. Secondly, it extend institutional capacity has  ‘policy making’; learning) (Faludi, 1994, 2000). Research and can be questioned in how far there was the been built up within the institutional monitoring can be done during the process, governance culture to achieve this? structure around the project, in order  ‘integrated planning’; not only afterwards. The different type of to support policy adjustment. Did the instruments is further outlined below, and is involved actors (and central authority  ‘funding’; explained according to several relevant theories. or organization) have the right  ‘research and monitoring’. 2.3.6 How to apply at the case instruments or resources? In how far did It can be noticed that the some of these the involved (public) institutions have instruments in fact already have been discussed Policy making can be seen as a mechanism in the former paragraphs: the discourse study? the governance culture to strengthen which provides the overall strategic direction institutional capacity? of ‘policy making’ can be found within the for the project (portfolio). It sets the – formal – institutional dimension, in the model of policy environment in which plans are developed and As said above in this paragraph, the changing 4. In terms of the available resources the adjustments; and in the also expressions actions are taken. Integrated planning can be use of space does no longer meet with the distinction can be made between the ‘integrated planning’ have been mentioned in considered as a tool that integrates resources institutional confi guration, which is expressed legal, natural, fi nancial and intellectual both the spatial and institutional dimension within a geographical setting, through different in a regional gap between provincial and resources: To what extent did the by the concept of TOD, and which can also levels (e.g. local, regional) that are concerned municipal administration. In particular involved institutions have appropriate be regarded form of policy adjustment. Thus, with the spatial challenge. Funding mechanisms around regional transport infrastructure legal resources coordinate the project it can be argued that in reality these concept can affect fi nancial resources in different projects which are cross-border and ask or to align policies? To what extent to are strongly related to each other and do not ways: through the use of subsidies, land for an integral approach of various sectoral the actors have the (technical) expertise take place within one dimension of space nor purchase, services, infrastructure and intangible policies, institutions, agreements and available regarding the project? How is the institutions nor process. For instance, with the resources. Funding can be used for (fi nancial) resources, appropriate institutional structures fi nancial contribution between involved model of policy adjustment ‘organizational capacity building. Recently, bottom-up funding are needed with suffi cient institutional capacity. actors been arranged? integration’ has been explained. This form In order to assess the institutional environment mechanisms which support participation of policy integration could be subdivided around the RGL project at the case study area of communities have seen the light (e.g. in ‘strategic integration’ and ‘operational and to the support of possible institutional crowdfunding). Although it does not always integration’. It seems that such aspects are design alternatives for the case the following need to be the case, funding mechanisms are concerned with instruments that deal with researches can be done: often linked to structures of cooperation (e.g. processes. As said above strategic integration public-private partnerships, scope optimisation

66 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts 67 2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts 2. Integrative concepts from theory

refers to the adjustment of strategies and  project plan (blue-print plan): adjusted by different tiers of government fl exible approaches, and operational integration conformance based / comprehensive / (vertical) and within a various network of actors more refers to legal instruments such as funding land use planning / government-led / (horizontal). mechanisms and agreements. Both instruments regulation plan; get specifi c attention. Although the literature on the theory of spatial  strategic spatial plan: performance planning strategies is plentiful, this has not yet based / selective / actor engaging / led to clear guidelines for practical use. The government-led-but-negotiated-form spatial planning model of Albrechts (2004) 7UDFN 2.4.1 Strategic spatial planning of governance / providing a framework provides opportunities. The model contains a /RQJWHUPYLVLRQ (for actions). brief set of design criteria which is quite clear and suitable for the Dutch context to bridge For the case study area it might be questioned Where comprehensive planning is hierarchical the institutional void at the (sub-) regional what planning mechanism is needed for the and persuasive, strategic spatial planning is level. The ‘four track model’of Albrechts could RGL – one that meets with the social, spatial and selective and oriented to issues that really function as a framework wherein the municipal institutional conditions addressed above: open matter. Strategic spatial planning is action structure visions and other mechanisms could to integration of other mechanisms such as oriented: more focussed on the process of be integrated. The four track model concerns policy integration, institutional capacity building mobilization of third parties, therefore fl exible (fi g. 2.8): and adaptive spatial concepts for the region. in institutional design, and attentive to a various 7UDFN network of stakeholders. In spatial terms the  Track 1: a long-term vision is to be /RQJWHUP It can be argued that Healey has played an strategic spatial planning focus is on a limited shaped; VKRUWWHUPDFWLRQV important role in the debate on spatial planning: number of strategic key issue areas and on defi ning spatial planning from the perspective of spatial relations between territories with an  Track 2: long-term and short-term social sciences (e.g. ‘interactive decision making’, emphasis on quality. Because of this outcome actions will be determined; ‘collaborative planning’ (Healey, 2003, 2007a, is not fi xed. Strategic spatial planning has the 2007b). But to fi nd suitable planning approaches capacity for ‘rescaling’ spatial issues on agendas  Track 3: contact with stakeholders will from the perspective of this research, these of higher tiers of government and is fl exible be made, which will be followed by; need to be considered in terms of regional in a way that it allows integration of other and integrated transport planning. Planning planning instruments or mechanisms such as  Track 4: the basic process – the contact – with citizens. 7UDFN approaches have to fi t within the current climate ‘transit oriented development’, or institutional &RQWDFWZLWKVWDNH of spatial planning in the Netherlands (Salet capacity building. To deliver the desired The model works as follows: it is divided in four KROGHUV & Woltjer, 2009), and deal with recent issues outcome strategic spatial planning depends not as qualitative embedding, spatial performance on itself but on the custom made conditions tracks. Within (Track 1) a long-term vision is to and stakeholder engagement. Based on these formulated during the process: ‘The rationale of be shaped, in (Track 2) long-term and short- criteria the ‘strategic spatial planning’ model strategic spatial planning is to frame activities term actions will be determined, within (Track of Albrechts might be useful for the case study of stakeholders to help achieve shared concerns 3) contact with stakeholders will be made, area. about spatial changes.’ (Albrechts, 2004: 749). which will be followed by the basic process – the contact – with citizens (Track 4). Also this But what are strategic spatial plans and in how Especially on regional scale we see complex process is not linear. It is important to take into far do they differ from the project plans (as was structures that do not ask for just one but account all the further steps during the fi rst 7UDFN the case within the comprehensive integrated for a various network of actors, which asks track. This model) seems to be a clear approach %DVLFSURFHVVZLWK model of planning in the Netherlands)? Whereas for fl exibility in the decision making process which might be useful for the use in the project. FLWL]HQV a project plan is more conformance based, – decisions around a network organization. strategic plan is more performance based Thereby needs to be noticed that ‘a process Strategic spatial planning approaches can (more focused on quality instead of quantity) solely dominated by experts and powerful be seen as a broad discourse, but which has (Albrechts, 2006). In fact the strategic spatial actors must be avoided’ (Albrechts, 2004: 754). proven to function as fl exible frameworks for planning approach of Albrechts can be best Allmendinger & Haughton (2009) type such integrated planning (Albrechts, 2004, 2006; compared with the third model of Faludi: ‘the areas as ‘soft spaces with fuzzy boundaries’, Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009; Salet & interactive-perspective model’. According to which ask for ‘soft planning’ mechanisms. The Woltjer, 2009) and seem to have the capacity Albrechts (2004, 2006) we might say in terms of description of this soft planning shows many to integrate a various network of actors, plans: master plan/land-use plans vs. strategic similarities with strategic spatial planning (Salet multi-level governance, complex spaces and plans; in terms of planning type: legal regulation & Woltjer, 2009). Strategic spatial planning other concepts and mechanisms such as vs. framework; in terms of governance type: seems to be the most suitable instrument for ‘transit oriented development’, public-private government-led vs. government-led-but- cross-border spatial areas where both local partnerships (PPP/PPS) or other fi nancial means Fig. 2.8 Schematic diagram of strategic negotiated form of governance. Or we defi ne as regional issues need to be integrated and such as a ‘regional fund’, and the possibility spatial planning tracks the differences - Albrechts drawing on Faludi (Albrechts, 2004) (2000):

68 2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts 69 2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts 2. Integrative concepts from theory

to deal with issues at both local and regional available for increasing the quality of the project partnerships may vary. According to the equity stakeholders which are not only public (e.g. level if it comes to regional cross-border and for the realization of unprofi table parts of stake, different options within public-private ProRail, which is a semi-public body). infrastructural projects with an adjustment of the project.’ (pp. 200). Promotion of competition partnerships can be formulated. spatial development. beholds the participation of stakeholders according to a bidbook; ‘concessions are Hales view on public-private partnerships is In terms of the case study this model of rendered to the applicant who can add the most interesting because he explains it from the 2.4.3 How to apply at the case strategic spatial planning could support the value to the project, or requires the lowest costs, perspective of transit oriented development, (alternative) spatial and institutional design given the programme of requiremens.’ (Priemus, which might be relevant for the case study area. study? (recommendations). For instance, when 2002: 200). According to Hale (2008), there are four options a model of TOD and certain degrees of within public-private partnerships for projects policy adjustments have been proposed or In the study on spatial planning in the of transit oriented development: As said above in this paragraph, complex recommended for the RGL project, the spatial Netherlands (appendix A) different procedures technological systems such as the RGL-project planning strategy defi nes what actions can be that function as investment models for the  Model A: ‘Government Sponsored’ require long-term processes of negotiation done – and when – to achieve this. It could realization of a project already have been (public party has slight majority between involved actors, which also counts for place the spatial and institutional models in discussed: (a) the construction claim model, (b) infl uence); the processes of implementation. Strategies and perspective and show their relations (not only in the concession model, (c) joint venture (Boelens, funding mechanisms belong to the possible by time). 2002; Needham, 2007). The latter refers to  Model B: ‘Developer Led’ (private party instruments to manage available recourses. public-private cooperation, within public- has slight majority infl uence); For the case study it can be investigated partnerships (PPP/PPS). what strategy, funding structure or planning  Model C: ‘Public Sector Project’ (public mechanism has been used. The focus within 2.4.2 Funding mechanisms party has major infl uence); this operational dimension is solution oriented: a strategic planning concept or funding  Model D: ‘Private Sector Project (private Where organization meets funding mechanism could be proposed as an alternative party has major infl uence). Funding mechanisms seem to have a strong for the current practice at the case study. Some relation with organizational structures. mechanisms: public-private Looking at the system of spatial planning of these models have been investigated in this Often interest is measured by investment, partnerships paragraph. For the case study these models it which possibly can be derived when taking What exactly are these public-private Netherlands, in the past is it was usual to work according to model C; where public agencies can be investigated how these models can be a close look at the organizational structure partnerships and in which degrees can they applied: – the relation between the actors – and their be applied? Partnerships can be seen as invested in the project and had major infl uence on the elaboration of the project. Nowadays (institutional) agreements. Such agreements cooperation mechanisms which are related 1. The possibilities of strategic spatial we are slightly moving to model A (see often incorporate fi nancial arrangements. An to a funding mechanism. Public-private planning concept of Albrechts with its appendix A), where the public agencies still example of this can be seen in the cooperation refers to the type of investor, or stakeholder four tracks (visioning, defi ning actions, have a major infl uence, but give more space to mechanism of public-private partnerships. But (public stakeholders are supposed to be stakeholder participation, involvement private investors and hand in infl uence. With fi rst the organizational structures and funding public agencies, private stakeholders can be of interest groups) at the case study the other degrees the private investors have a mechanisms are addressed separately. enterprises such as real estate companies, or area in terms of organization of spatial major say. In current times of economic crises individual investors). According to Hale (2008), policies and institutional structures. both can be linked through ‘equity fi nance’. public-private partnerships are supposed to Equity fi nance is a defi nition used in economic be a lucrative organization model (Muskee, 2. The possibilities of funding mechanisms Funding mechanisms theory and within real estate. The equity stake 2011). However, despite that PPP/PPS might be such as public-private partnerships Funding mechanisms can be organized measures interest according to investment of useful for a regional infrastructure project in (PPP/PPS) – how can such alliances be in many different forms. Within spatial stakeholders. This means that with a minimum the case study area, it might be argued if this organized? Which actors can participate planning discourse in the Netherlands several of 51 percent equity holding in a development cooperative construction is appropriate when it as stakeholders and with what purpose? approaches to funding mechanisms have of a project represents a major interest of an is compared to the actor-relational approach of been discussed, such as: the identifi cation of investor, and which makes that the stakeholder Boelens (2009). It has the following limitations: stakeholders (which can be done by ‘stakeholder has a major infl uence on the project. Hale because interest is measured by fi nancial mapping’ part of the approach of Boelens), explains that within partnerships, the project investment, it excludes stakeholders which do scope optimization (explained above), value partners are the equity stakeholders. A party not have enough fi nancial capacity to invest. So captering, and promotion of competition that does not invest money in the project does the model is not accessible for all the actors in (Priemus, 2002). Value captering is a funding not have a direct equity stake and is not within the region. In addition, interest should not only mechanism which can be applied within the partnership. If profi ts are to be made within be measured by investment, but also by other constructions of public-private partnerships. projects, the profi t can be shared according resources. However, the understanding of such According to Priemus, value captering contains: to the percentage of investment. Also risk can funding mechanism might be important for the ‘agreements made between and public and be shared according to this. So the relation case study because for the RGL-project fi nancial private actors so that the surplus profi ts remain between the stakeholders within public-private agreements have been made between various

70 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.4 Strategic planning and integrated funding concepts 71 2.5 The empirical assessment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

In the theoretical framework, the theoretical approaches and concepts have been Finally, the outcomes of this study should networks, the different modes of subsequently categorized according to the structuring theory of (a) Koppenjan & help in delivering a spatial design concept public transport, the history of spatial (or recommendations) which supports in the development, the spatial functions, Groenewegen (2005): technical (here considered as spatial), institutional and process design; adjustment of development within the region the public facilities, relations between but also to (b) the corresponding dimensions of Hartman et al. (2011); spatial, institutional and between the various transit nodes of the spatial development and functions and organizational. project (which support integration of transport and infrastructure, the transit nodes infrastructure and spatial development). and the relation between these transit nodes. For the studies regarding the transit nodes a radius will be used of 1200 meters (for the stations of Leiden In the theoretical framework the theories The questions are supported with different Research indicators and Gouda) and of 800 meters for the have been aligned according to the following studies, and indicators that need to make sure stations in between (drawing on the three discourses (based on the TIP-model of that the research delivers the right answers to  What are the spatial characteristics of conditions of ‘Stedenbaan+’ addressed Koppenjan and Groenewegen): the questions. The indicators are derived from the region: how could the form of the by Balz & Schrijnen, 2009). the concepts that have been addressed above physical environment at a sub-regional  3. Interviewing: Questions concerning The spatial dimension (spatial in this chapter. The studies are done by various and local level be described (e.g. spatial policies will also be raised development concepts/policies) research methods. Both the indicators and the the interface between the transport during the interviews with involved research methods are explained below. network and adjacent land uses), and  The institutional dimension (institutional actors of the project (which in particular what has been the effect of (national) development/capacity building) are intended for addressing the The latter two questions are combined in one spatial policies on the urbanization of institutional issues). study because they because it is expected that the region?  The operational dimension answers to both questions are to be found in (implementation instruments/spatial the study on institutional capacity – the different  What nodal typologies or station planning strategies/actor-relational dimensions are intertwined. environments can be found along the approach/cooperation & funding line? How are the nodes connected 2.5.3 Studies on institutional mechanisms) to other public transport modes capacity & process (multifarious nodes of interaction)? 2.5.2 Studies on spatial & What type of developments can be found around the nodes? What The related questions: 2.5.1 The purposes of the programmatic implications building heights do these buildings empirical research have? - How has institutional capacity being The related question: built up around the RGL?  How far do municipal plans for spatial These dimensions are linked to various studies, To what extent have the spatial development development do correspond with the - What mechanisms have been used to as part of the empirical research on the case implications of the transport infrastructure (RGL) conditions for nodal development (or realize the project? study area. The main purpose of this research been considered in the planning of the line? integrative infrastructure concepts) and is to address the spatial, institutional and with the agreements made within the The aim of this question is to (a) understand the operational issues at the case study area. The aim of this question is to understand project contracts of the RGL? institutional issues (legal power and attitude), Therefore a set of indicators and questions the geographical relations between the the degree of policy adjustment around the can be formulated according to some of the infrastructure and land-use in the region. In RGL project and within the region and (b) what theoretical approaches. The relevant research order to answer this question it is important instruments and mechanisms (also fi nancial) questions are formulated according to these to understand the spatial characteristics of the Research methods have been used. This can be the agreements three dimensions of space, institutions and region and to consider the effects of the RGL. that have been made, the partnerships, the process. This will be investigated on regional level and attitude of institutions, the type of resources, 1. Desk research: Observing the recent on the level of the project (RGL): the spatial the availability of the legal planning instruments data concerning the project, its region 1. To what extent have the spatial and programmatic characteristics of the various and the use of them, and the common interest and the project agreements. Notice development implications of the transit nodes and there relation. Subsequently it between the involved actors, and fi nally to what signifi cant sections and elements, which transport infrastructure (RGL) been is the aim to fi nd out what the effect of spatial extent different policies have been integrated. can be useful further in the research. considered in the planning of the line? policies on the spatial structure has been – the Special attention goes out to the scale of history of urban development. The spatial governance between provincial and municipal 2. How has institutional capacity being 2. Mapping: Geographical mapping level because of the expected institutional studies will be done from a qualitative point of of the spatial patterns of the region, built up around the RGL? view (without a large number of fi gures). capacity issues: the ‘regional gap’. This will be the morphological types of spatial investigated according to the indicators that are 3. What planning mechanisms have been development, the infrastructure formulated below. used to realize the project?

72 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.5 The empirical assessment 73 2.5 The empirical assessment 2. Integrative concepts from theory

Finally, the outcomes of this study should territorial/organizational) around the After the case study area has been investigated help in proposing an institutional structure project? by empirical research, after questions have been which supports a spatial design concept that answered, after problems addressed, and after integrates policies on infrastructure and land- alternatives have been presented into designs use. and strategies, it is worth to zoom out and look Organization: how the gained knowledge relate to the recent trends within the ﬁ eld of spatial planning.  In how far did the institutional Finally, some recommendations for further Research indicators organization around the project research and regional projects can be done. correspond with the various common institutional partnerships within the Legal power (instruments): region?  How far did the provincial government have sufﬁ cient legal power (legal capacity) to support the RGL project agreements? Research methods

 How far did the provincial government 1. Desk research: Observing the recent have integrative instruments which data concerning the project, its region facilitated adjustment of land-use and and the project agreements. Notice infrastructure, and how far did they use signiﬁ cant sections and elements, which them? can be useful further in the research.

2. Interviewing: Interviewing various involved institutions and actors: (a) the Responsibility and accountability (ambitions province, (b) some of the municipalities, and interests): (c) ProRail/NS, and (d) an actor of private interest (Chamber of Commerce  How far did the provincial government – KvK). The list of the involved have the attitude (administrative interviewees can be found in the culture) for integration of policies on appendix (E). The questions are based infrastructure and mobility (use of on the theory and on the ﬁ rst ﬁ ndings integrative instruments)? of the empirical research.

 What has been the provincial attitude 3. Mapping: The history of capacity towards lower authorities and (semi-) building in the region can be illustrated private actors or NGO’s within the and abstracted in a diagram. institutional structure?

 How far where the institutions transparent: was their clear communication between the involved 2.5.4 From case study to actors? alternative design, and further  How far did institutions (provincial government) have created spatial The gained knowledge from the empirical concepts, visions or stories that research and the theoretical framework support the adjustment of policies on should contribute to design alternatives for infrastructure and land-use, and bind the case study area (in spatial, institutional, regional actors? and operational terms, according to the TIP- model of Koppenjan & Groenewegen (2005)).  What has been the degree (integration/ Whether this could be a detailed design or coordination/cooperation) of an abstract concept or model, or just a few adjustment of policies (sectoral/ recommendations for the area, depend on the answers that the empirical studies give.

74 2. Integrative concepts from theory /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 2.5 The empirical assessment 75 3

Title The case of the RGL

About The Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL) forms the case study area of this research. This case study is analysed according to the empirical assessment formulated at the end of the theoretical framework (chapter 2). The studies are done by mapping of the region, interviews of involved professionals and by desk research on the project agreements.

The ﬁ ndings of the case study form the basis for (alternative) design recommendations, for future research of the case study and for future studies on integrated transport planning in the Netherlands.

Keywords Case study - Rijn Gouwe Lijn - Project agreements - Decision-making process - Planning instruments - Governance culture

Paragraphs #3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details #3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications #3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process

Fig. 3.1 Photograph: windmill Hazerswoude 77 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 3. The case of the RGL

Th e project of the case study area has been introduced in the introduction of this research made between public and semi- - There was the time of the fi rst (chapter 1). It has been explained that the east track of the Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL) will be public actors, the structure does not wave of decentralization regarding incorporate potential leading actors in railway lines: several railway tracks part of the research and how the empirical assessment of the case study will be done (chapter the region. where transmitted to the province 2). But there are more details around the project that need to be understood before the including the line between Alphen outcomes are described. With the details is meant a description of the project agreements Especially the way in how integration of policies a/d Rijn to Gouda (part of the RGL- (which have been published on the offi cial website of the RGL (Rijngouwelijn, 2011) that on mobility and land-use is agreed leaves east track). At the same time the does not exist anymore), the well-known diffi culties during the long-term process of decision questions; within the project agreements the national railway company (NS) was relation seems purely fi nancial. In the next been privatized and regarded this making and the organization. empirical studies on the case study these track as no longer profi table – the fi ndings are taken into account – results of company was not willing to bid in a the interviews can be compared with these new concession. observations for instance. 3.1.1 Project agreements Several notable issues appear in the project - The province was looking for her agreements and with the general contract own identity or raison d’être (there in particular. These are the most remarkable was a strong tension between For the project of the case study area – the fi ndings from the desk research on the 3.1.2 The crucial steps in the mayor cities The Hague and east part of the Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL) – various agreements: Rotterdam and the province) project agreements have been made between decision making the involved actors. For all the studies on  The project agreements do not - The municipality of Leiden realized every dimension (spatial, institutional and incorporate qualitative embedding The project has faced a diffi cult and long run the city centre needed an impulse operational), it is important to know what of spatial development related to the in terms of decision making. Based on the since it was losing competition agreements have been made in these contracts RGL. Spatial development is agreed in information of the former project website (e.g. connectivity) with their because the content is mostly multidimensional. quantitative terms – the agreements do (Rijngouwelijn, 2011) and on some of the neighbouring cities. not mention anything about location, interviews of the empirical research the most - The governments in the region During the process the general and various densities or mixture of functions. The crucial moments over time are presented below (northern part of the province of specifi c contracts have been made between the only arrangements made other than (fi g. 3.2). Zuid-Holland) concluded that the following actors: fi nancial are about the project scope infrastructure connections from per municipality, which concerns It is important to realize that different writers st east to west were relatively weak.  1 General project agreement (July, the distribution of tasks towards and interviewees have different conceptions 2005): Province of Zuid-Holland, on how the project is initiated and how it has implementation of the RGL (appendix - The level of public transport municipality of Leiden, Zoeterwoude, B). developed. Thus, the steps that are mentioned Oegstgeest, Alphen aan den Rijn, are at least confi rmed by more than one source. remained behind the national average. Boskoop, Waddinxveen and Gouda.  The project agreements are fi nancial agreements in particular. The content  1993/1994: Plans where initiated for nd  July 2005: The fi rst (general) project  2 Specifi c project agreement - the of the arrangements is mainly about a light rail connection through the city territory of Leiden (November, 2008): centre of Leiden by local entrepreneurs agreement for the eastern part have the distribution of tasks and the costs been made between province and Province of Zuid-Holland, municipality related to those tasks. in the city centre, represented by the of Leiden. Chamber of Commerce (Kamer van municipalities.  The funding mechanism is fi xed, Koophandel (KVK)). rd  2006: In Leiden plans where been  3 Specifi c project agreement (a) - based on subsidies and is not fl exible; the territory of Gouda (July, 2006):  Around 2000: Provincial government made to hold an (A/B) referendum fi nancial contribution is based on a because it was not sure yet which route Province of Zuid-Holland, municipality minimum quantitative program of (provincial deputy Marnix Norder) of Gouda. placed the project on its political should be chosen through the city spatial development per municipality. centre. Each municipality is committed to that agenda. The approach of the project  3rd Specifi c project agreement (b) - was more integral now because the contribution, despite the number of  2006: Former alderman of the portfolio the territory of Gouda (November, spatial development will fall out higher plan was covering the northern part 2010): Province of Zuid-Holland, of the province to a large extent: the ‘Traffi c’ (Alexander Pechtold) was or lower. The project agreements against to hold a referendum because municipality of Gouda. might not be capable to anticipate on eastern part of the line should be extended from Leiden to Gouda via this was a project of supra-municipal th changing conditions through time.  4 Specifi c project agreement - the Alphen a/d Rijn. There were several interests. territory of Zoeterwoude (July, 2006): reasons for the provincial government  The project agreements represent an  March 2007: Referendum was been Province of Zuid-Holland, municipality institutional structure which is public taking the responsibility for the project: of Zoeterwoude. hold in Leiden, not in (A/B) form but in and political; agreements have been (Yes/No). There was a lot of resistance

78 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 79 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 3. The case of the RGL

against the project: a majority voted would not go ahead (as intended in the 1DWLRQDO 3URYLQFLDO 0XQLFLSDO 'HFLVLRQPDNLQJSURFHVV5*/ against RGL-East. This would mean that project agreements). Instead, regional 7LPHOLQH the total project could not continue and local governments are now looking (the whole track). for alternatives of high qualitative ¶ VWLQLWLDWLYHV5*/ E\1+=UHJLRQDOSXEOLF public transport services (e.g. the HOV- WUDQVSRUWFRPSDQ\ FRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ  December 2007: Executive board of bus corridors). Also the frequencies on $OSKHQDG5LMQ FRDVWOLQH Leiden rejected the outcomes of the the existing railway lines in the region referendum and continued cooperation (between Leiden and Utrecht and with RGL, which was also the reason for from Alphen a/d Rijn to Gouda) will be ¶ a delayed second project agreement increased and several stations will be 5HVLVWHQFHIURP/HLGHQKLJKFRVWV WKUHDWWR (between former provincial deputy realized. ZDUGVRWKHUSXEOLFWUDQVSRUWIDFLOWLHV Atsje van Dijk and former alderman John Steegh of the municipality of On the basis of these events it can be seen that Leiden). (a) the project mainly was of political and public -XO\ administrative concern (which is common), VWSURMHFWDJUHHPHQW5*/(DVW E\SURYLQFH DOO  2007: Subsequently the municipal and (b) most of these issues took place at the FRQFHUQHGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVH[FHSW/HLGHQ council of Leiden (gemeenteraad) steps municipality of Leiden – while the project was of down because of the project. regional importance the decisions of one single

-XO\ municipality appeared to be crucial. UGSURMHFWDJUHHPHQW5*/(DVW E\SURYLQFH  2007-2010: The new elected *RXGD municipal council and executive board of Leiden rejected the signed project -XO\ agreements (opinion of political party WKSURMHFWDJUHHPHQW5*/(DVW E\SURYLQFH 3.1.3 The organization behind =RHWHUZRXGH VVD regarding the RGL changed). The Provincial Executive reacted by putting the RGL munici pality of Leiden under legal 0DUFK pressure to continue with participation 5HIHUHQGXP/HLGHQPDMRULW\YRWHGDJDLQVW5*/ An organization has been set up to steer the (DVW in RGL with a so called ‘proactive clue’ developments of the project (fi g. 3.3). The (proactieve aanwijzing). organization was dedicated with tasks as coordination and implementation. 'HFHPEHU  June 2010: Leiden started a committee ([HFXWLYHERDUGRI/HLGHQUHMHFWHGWKHRXWFRPHV DQGFRQWLQXHGFRRSHUDWLRQZLWK5*/QGSURMHFW (commissie Staal) to evaluate what The province of Zuid-Holland (Provincial DJUHHPHQWGHOD\HG E\SURYLQFH /HLGHQ would be the juridical and fi nancial Executive) was the client of the project, by consequences if it would refuse taking the responsibility and bearing the risks $SULO the obligation of the province. The etc. The provincial government had formed 1HZHOHFWHGPXQLFLSDOFRXQFLO/HLGHQUHMHFWLRQ committee concluded this would not RIWKHVLJQHGSURMHFWDJUHHPHQW a ‘steering group’ which was represented by be feasible: the municipal council came the municipal representatives (the alderman 3URYLQFLDO([HFXWLYHUHDFWHGE\SXWWLQJPXQLFL back from their decision and continued SDOLW\RI/HLGHQXQGHUOHJDOSUHVVXUHWRFRQWLQXH on the portfolio of transport) and a provincial ZLWKSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQ5*/ with the project. representative (the deputy of Mobility). The steering group was the body for negotiation. -XQH  April 2010: The new elected Provincial /HLGHQVWDUWHGFRPPLWWHHWRHYDOXDWHZKDW Council had different priorities and At the ‘board of directors’ the same participants ZRXOGEHWKHMXULGLFDODQGÀQDQFLDOFRQVHTXHQF took over the advice of the minister HVLILWZRXOGUHIXVHWKHREOLJDWLRQRIWKHSURYLQFH have been involved but than on administrative of Infrastructure and Environment to level. Also representatives of ProRail (exploiting simplify the implementation of the $SULO and developer of railway lines) have been 1HZHOHFWHG3URYLQFLDO&RXQFLOKDGGLIIHUHQW RGL and cut in the budget. Involved involved at this board – ProRail was the only SULRULWLHVDQGWRRNRYHUWKHDGYLFHRIWKHPLQLVWHU municipalities were concerned; contractor of the project which was not public RI,QIUDVWUXFWXUHDQG(QYLURQPHQWWRVLPSOLI\WKH they feared fi nancial losses because LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH5*/DQGFXWLQWKHEXGJHW but semi-public. Additionally the Water Board the project might go ahead. The and the Chamber of Commerce (KvK) where 0XQLFLSDOLWLHVDUHFRQFHUQHGWKH\IHDUÀQDQFLDO municipalities were bearing a fi nancial involved, but not as contractor. The Chamber ORVVHVEHFDXVHWKHSURMHFWPLJKWQRWJRDKHDG risk. 7KHPXQLFLSDOLWLHVDUHEHDULQJDÀQDQFLDOULVN of Commerce could be seen as a lobby group, representing the interest of local and regional  May 2012: The provincial government entrepreneurs. " offi cially announced the RGL project

Fig. 3.2 Timeline of decision-making process of the RGL (indication)

80 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 81 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 3. The case of the RGL

The participants or contractors of the RGL-East 3URYLQFH were the municipalities of Oegstgeest, Leiden, =XLG+ROODQG Zoeterwoude, Rijnwoude, Alphen a/d Rijn, &OLHQW Boskoop, Waddinxveen and Gouda. For the implementation of the project a project team was formed. This ofﬁ ce employed 3URYLQFLDO UHSUHVHQWDWLYH approximately twenty professionals.

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Fig. 3.3 Organizational structure around the RGL (indication)

82 1. Relevance /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.1 Rijn Gouwe Lijn: the details 83 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications The spatial and programmatic 3.2 implications

Th e RGL was a spatial and infrastructure of project of regional scale. In order to understand the embeddedness of the railway project it is important to understand its context: the region of which the line is taking part of. Th erefore it is worth to address the characteristics of the region from a spatial point of view fi rst, before the spatial and programmatic relations of the railway line can be explained. How diverse is this region? What type of functions can be found within the region and within the transit zones along the line? Finally, the results of another study are explained – a study which was intended to map the municipal plans for spatial development expansions of towns and villages along the line, and in how far such plans are located within the reaching distance of the transit zones.

3.2.1 The spatial characteristics distinguished according to a distinctions in infrastructural layers and by its patterns of the region (appendix C2) (fi g. 3.5) – based on some of the principles of Zandbelt (2011). This approach When addressing the regional spatial patterns learns that the network of car roads in the according theoretical model of Stead and region is multi-layered and high densed: the Meijers (2004) learn that, in general, the region is served by several regional corridors composition of spatial development within the and a local grid of car roads. With the mapping region as a whole can be typed as ‘dispersed’ of spatial development patterns together with and ‘polycentric’ (appendix C1): there are some the infrastructural characteristics can be seen major clusters of urban development defi ned that indeed, the linear spatial developments in by the various towns and cities in this region the region often correspond to the local grid of (e.g. Leiden, Alphen a/d Rijn, Waddinxveen and car roads. Gouda), which are surrounded with dispersed spatial development in the rural areas. Before the mutual and external spatial and programmatic implications of the RGL can A closer look at the morphology of the be addressed it also might be important to spatial development types – according to the have a picture of the way how the region has development options of Needham (2007) – grown geographically: how did urban and shows that these patterns of urbanization are infrastructure development evolve through mainly characterized by linear developments time and (roughly), what might have been the and some large town extansions dating from effect of some of the policy interventions that the last decades of the twentieth century (fi g. have been done by different levels of public 3.4). Especially these linear developments authority? draw attention because of their clear presence within the region. It seems that the linear In geographical terms, it can be seen that over development corresponds with the local grid time – since the start of the nineteenth century of car roads – which is a very clear example of – most urban growth in the region is related the direct interrelation between infrastructure to the development of hard infrastructure (fi g. networks and spatial development. This could 3.6) (appendix C3). Subsequently it has been be one of the indications that the rural areas infl uenced by waterways, railways and car in the regions are quite car dependent (which roads. Spectacular is the urban growth since the also very depends on the networks of public eighties of the twentieth century, where large transport in the area – it might be questioned urban extensions seem to take place around here if it is fi nancially effi cient to facilitate public all the towns in the region (Leiden, Alphen a/d transport regarding the type of development). Rijn, Waddinxveen, Gouda and Zoetermeer) together with the signifi cant development of The infrastructural morphology of hard especially regional infrastructure networks (e.g. infrastructure (e.g. car roads), can be provincial roads). Simultaneously, a rapidly increasing number of dispersed developments Fig. 3.4 Type of spatial developments in the region of the RGL (spatial morphology)

84 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 85 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 3. The case of the RGL

can be seen in the rural areas. The illustration Heart Growth Centres’ such as Alphen shows that this situation continued up till a/d Rijn, Gouda and Leiden almost present. But why did the spatial patterns of this doubled in surface. At the same time region changed so radically in a time spend of a urban development at the rural areas few decades? It is fair to say that this cannot be stayed limited. Maybe this is the effect infl uenced by the geographical relations only. of the strong spatial twin concept of ‘Randstad - Green Heart’ that was Here the bridge can be made to policies that introduced in the same period (urban have been introduced and how they possibly development should take place around infl uenced the spatial patterns in this region. the Green Heart). This is possibly And although the link between the (national) refl ected in the region, which is located and spatial patterns cannot be made directly in the middle of this Green Heart and (there are too much factors of infl uence which development is concentrated at the are hard to monitor), rough indications can borders around (e.g. Leiden). be found for the impact of the policies. First the possible impacts of national policies will  In 1988, the Fourth Policy Document be made since the national government has on Spatial Planning was introduced, produced several strong concepts over time followed up with the supplement ‘Extra’ (appendix A). in 1992 which is also called VINEX. The context for large areal development  The fi rst possible impacts can be seen was set; several cities where appointed in the introduction of the housing to extend with residential districts – law (woningwet) in 1901. One of the the VINEX locations. According this requirements and consequences was policy the developments should be that residential units needed to be concentrated in and around existing larger, thus it is not hard to realize that towns. In Zoetermeer (Oosterheem) (residential) buildings took more space. and in Alphen a/d Rijn (Oosterwijk) The fi rst city extensions (1900 onwards) such districts can be found. whereby it was needed to take the housing law into consideration can be  With the various national planning seen in particular around Leiden and documents that have been presented Alphen. But possibly because of the since 1988 the national government World War II period in between (1940- aimed several urban nodes and 1945), the urban growth remained for compact towns or cities (within relatively stable. drawn borders by red contours) and preservation of nature reserves  Partly because of the WWII, there (by drawing green contours which was a short of housing in the country. restricted those areas from urban In this post-war period the national development). Strangely enough it government came up with strong can be seen that from the nineties policies and concepts for spatial onwards the rural countryside did development (appendix A). With the not stay free warded from urban fi rst three national policy documents development. On the contrary, the on spatial planning between 1960 rural areas around the towns seem and 1987 the government used the to urbanize more rapidly than ever concept of ‘bundled de-concentration’ (regarding the dispersed patterns of (gebundelde deconcentratie) whereby the illustration). Nevertheless, despite several locations where designated that the national government aimed for as new ‘growth towns’ for spatial compact development last two decades development. Zoetermeer (left how can it be declared that dispersed underneath) was one of these towns. development could take place at Indeed a rapid urbanization can be the rural areas? Was this the effect seen between the sixties and nineties of local planning? Was the national of the twentieth century. Several ‘Green government loosening up control on lower authorities? Fig. 3.5 Conceptual represenation of infrastructure patterns in the region around the RGL

86 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 87 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 3. The case of the RGL

Regarding the explanations of Needham (2007) be said that urban growth around cities and which have been addressed in the study on towns has been determined by national (and Dutch spatial planning, this may indeed be possibly regional) planning policies. In contrast the result of local planning activities: local to towns and cities urban growth around authorities or planning agencies started to villages and on the rural areas can be seen as develop not only passively (to the level of a product of weak local planning policies, with conformance) but also proactively (to the level the absence of spatial principles and concepts of performance). This resulted in the situation (it is questionable if local authorities had aims of municipal planning agencies acting more or used strong concepts to support their as real estate developers (roughly said) by aims to address urban sprawl or uncontrolled participation with private actors: the agencies development). It can also be seen as a had a double agenda of (conformance, from weakness of the national government in spatial which they are ought to act accordingly) and planning, which has not been able to steer of (performance; the agencies used their legal local authorities in operating according to their rights to buy land, change destination of the spatial aims and concepts. land and sell the land afterwards which make land values increase). This legal ability made local governments relatively powerful, especially because higher authorities did not have enough 3.2.2 The spatial and legal instruments to steer the municipal land- use plans. programmatic embeddedness

This behavioral shift of local planning agencies of the RGL in using land use planning as an earning model might be a reason which explains the dispersed With understanding of the spatial characteristics development on the rural areas in the region of the region, it is worth to look at the spatial – local authorities often did not have strong and embeddedness of the RGL project in concepts (as the national government used) the region: its spatial and programmatic which facilitate spatial development. Secondly, implications. Before this can be studied it is according to several interviews that have been importance to notice the spatial project scope done for the institutional study as part of this (as far as there is) at the moment of the project research, it appeared the province has a clear agreements in 2005, and what have changed intention to prevent the rural areas within the since then. Green Heart from urban development by having spatial concepts for promoting development The general project agreement of 2005 has in the belt of the ‘Oude Rijnzone’ between been made for the east part (Leiden to Gouda) Leiden and Alphen a/d Rijn, and by using of the total project scope (Katwijk (coastline) the policy of red contours which are drawn to Gouda) – the west part was from Katwijk to around the towns. Apparently, the provincial Leiden. The focus of this study is on the east government also did not succeed in preventing part, thus, from Leiden via Alphen a/d Rijn to urban development at rural areas, despite of Gouda. Originally, the project should be a mix their measures (regarding the study of urban of ‘heavy rail’ and ‘light rail’: from coastline growth in the area). More recently experiments to the east part of Leiden the hybrid vehicles have been done with other types of spatial or (which would be specifi cally developed for areal development. Such approaches are more this project) would run on light rail (through integral, combining living and leisure (large Leiden’s city centre), and from the east part till villas surrounded with green spaces and parks) Gouda via Alphen a/d Rijn the vehicles should at areas which had potential environmental run on the existing railway lines (from Leiden qualities in terms of water or countryside. Such to Utrecht and from Alphen a/d Rijn to Gouda) approaches also might have contributed to (fi g. 3.7). With the general project agreement more dispersed developments. of 2005 several new stops had been planned (refl ected by the dots surrounded by black and What can we learn from this historical study? red circles, which can be seen in the illustration). Generally, in terms of spatial policy, it might

Fig. 3.6 Overview of historical patterns of urban growth in the region of the RGL

88 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 89 3. The case of the RGL

As has been mentioned in the introduction the frequencies; instead it focuses on the reach of the case study (chapter 1) since then the and adjustment of the networks. The study plans have dramatically changed: the ‘hybrid’ (fi g. 3.7) shows that, regarding the reach of the construction of light- and heavy rail has been network, cities, towns and large villages seem reduced to just a ‘regular’ railway project, which to be well connected (higher accessibility). means that the transport frequency will be Small villages and rural areas seem to be poor raised (…) on the existing railway track of Leiden connected (lower accessibility). Together with to Utrecht and from Alphen a/d Rijn to Gouda. the type of spatial development addressed This means that the project will not cross the above, and which is linear and dispersed, city centre of Leiden anymore. Hereby several it might be concluded that these areas are planned stations (regarding the agreements car-dependent. Regarding the adjustment of of 2005) have been cancelled (red dots). Some the (planned stations) on the existing public other stations are still on the agenda or are transport network it seems that with every currently being constructed (black dots). The station a modal transit is possible between the current stations are: different modes of public transport (train and bus). In that respect the stations are seem to  Leiden CS; be strategic located – they can be regarded as transit nodes.  ROC Lammenschans; The next studies are focused on the spatial  Alphen a/d Rijn CS; and programmatic confi guration in terms of diversity of the region and within the transit  Boskoop; radius of the stations. This can be done according a mapping method that shows the  Waddinxveen Noord; mix of functions in the region and around the transit zones, with:  Waddinxveen Centre;  the type of spatial function groups  Gouda CS. (commercial, industrial, residential, The current planned stations are: offi ces) (appendix C4), and;   Zoeterwoude Meerburg (depending the type of public facilities (town hall, on future spatial developments in the museum, shopping center, hospital/ area); health center, library, (music) theatre, primary school, high school, wo/  Hazerswoude; hbo/mbo, swimming pool, sports complex, cinema, hotel/camping,  Boskoop Snijdelijk; cultural landmark, recreation area, entertainment/horticulture) (fi g. 3.8)  Waddinxveen Zuid. (appendix C5).

In order to support the relevance for this Note that shopping centers are research the spatial analysis are focussed on considered as supermarkets in villages this new situation – the current plans including and small towns, and in large towns the stations addressed in the lists above. and cities regarded as shopping centers. For hotel/camping counts that, in rural The ﬁ rst step of the study was to see in how far areas, villages and towns this can be the located (planned) stations along the RGL do interpreted as campings and bed and align with the current public transport network breakfasts, in cities this can be regarded within the region and in how far the network as hotels. facilitates the region (roughly). Therefore the all the bus lines of the current operator of the According to these two studies several public transport concession in the region have characteristics at regional level can be noticed: been mapped. The mapping does not include

Fig. 3.7 Overview adjustment of regional public transport networks together with the RGL 90 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 91 3. The case of the RGL

 In terms of spatial program, the zones while there is a signiﬁ cant region can be typed as particularly number of residential program within mono-functional. This is expressed these zones. in the presence of mainly residential communities (commuter settlements).  Most libraries are situated within reaching distance of the transit zones.  The level of public facilities seems to be relatively high. Basic public facilities  Most shopping centers are located as schools, sport complexes and outside the reaching distance of transit supermarkets can be found in almost zones. every town or village. Large towns and cities comprise a wider range of public  Except for Leiden and Gouda, most facilities such as cinemas and theaters. museums are located outside the reaching distance of transit zones.  In terms of public facilities, the region can be seen as diverse. When  In general, most recreational facilities considered as a whole the region and landmarks are located outside the comprises a wide range of public reaching distance of transit zones. facilities.  Some leading private actors are  The northern part of the region above situated within reaching distance of Gouda and Leiden includes more transit zones. recreational facilities.

 The region facilitates a signifi cant number and diverse network of leading 3.2.3 The station typologies private actors, such as corporate headquarters, plants and trade centers. Some of them are located at strategic Drawing on the spatial and programmatic (accessible and diverse) locations, some implications (around stations), the station are not. environments within these transit zones along the line can be characterized according to At the level of the transit zones around the the nodal typologies of Balz and Schrijnen stations the following characteristics can be (2009) (chapter 2), in order to defi ne the noticed: spatial differentiation of the railway line and to support a proposal of a ‘tailored’ TOD concept  Most spatial functions within transit as an alternative for the current practice at zones are spatial residential, except the case study area: every type of node needs for station Zoeterwoude Meerburg another adjusted approach. As mentioned in (with in particular industrial program), the theoretical framework these typologies Hazerswoude and Waddinxveen Zuid depend not only on the combination of (with particularly greenfi elds at the transport modes or infrastructural networks and moment). functional program but also on more qualitative factors (environmental characteristics such  Small towns are less diverse compared as size of building blocks, building heights, to cities and large towns but comprise densities, cultural diversity, openness of space basic public facilities. etc.). A fi eld and photo study has been done on the station environments along the RGL project  Every village, town or city comprises done, based on the following criteria: building two or more educational institutions of heights, openness of space, location, size of the same degree within the distance of building blocks, station facilities – together transit zones. with the information of the studies on the programmatic confi guration of transport modes  In Alphen a/d Rijn most primary and of spatial functions addressed above. schools are situated outside the transit

Fig. 3.8 Overwiew of type of public facilities in the region and around the RGL 92 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 93 3. The case of the RGL

Fig. 3.9-1 Photo study of the nodal typologies along the RGL 94 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 95 3. The case of the RGL

Fig. 3.9-2 Photo study of the nodal typologies along the RGL 96 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 97 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 3. The case of the RGL

Of every station along the line two pictures are line and a highway (A4), together with fi rms). Small housing sites are planned enormous residential district at distance taken of each site, which illustrate the station residential developments (housing). At as expansions at the borders of the (Zuidplas polder). Except for this areal environment and at which the criteria such as the moment there are no public facilities village. The village seems autonomous: development public facilities in this area building heights can be seen. Accordingly, an and the area is poor accessible in terms public facilities are mainly concentrated are rare at the moment. Building heights attempt is done address the nodal typology of of public transport (one bus line is in the centre of the village – but located and densities are low (one or two each station (fi g. 3.9): crossing the area). approximately a kilometer from the levels) and building blocks are relatively station. Around the station a casino and large (industrial halls). At the moment 1. Leiden CS – City centres: It connects 4. Hazerswoude – Rural areas: This station a restaurant can be found, together with this area is poor accessible by public Leiden’s city centre (which contains a will be realized in the near future but at some open space for public parking and transport (probably one bus line). diverse landscape of high quality public the moment this location is surrounded some development sites (housing). The facilities such as museums, theatre by rural landscapes – at the middle of station area seems well accessible by 10. Gouda – Creative Cities: This station and cinema) with the neighbouring the countryside, at several kilometers other public transport modes (bus lines). area is connects the city centre of Gouda metropolitan clusters in the Randstad. distance of from the closest village with other cities in the Randstad: various This station is characterized by large Hazerswoude. Within the transit zone 7. Waddinxveen Noord – Small towns: railway lines come together. Also other building blocks, up to ten fl oors various residential neighborhoods (old This town is larger compared to its modes of transport can be found (a of height, mainly offi ces and high family houses) can be found together neighbouring village Boskoop. The place bus station), which supports regional quality services such as an academic with some small industries: building (around the station) is characterized accessibility. Public facilities such as medical centre and various university blocks are small and building heights with mainly residential communities small restaurants can be found, together faculties, large public open spaces, mix and densities are low (up to three levels). and the rustic appearance of a with a new town hall and some offi ces. of functions, station facilities such as Public facilities seem rare in this area. village as Boskoop cannot be seen at Building blocks are quite large (offi ces) a bus stations. Regional accessibility Accessibility can also be achieved by Waddinxveen: very little old buildings and building heights up to ten fl oors also through other modes of transport other modes of public transport – various can be found. The building blocks vary can be noticed. Building densities do not (busses in particular). bus lines are crossing the area. from small (family houses) to large seem extremely high: large public open (apartment buildings) which also counts spaces surround the station – some of 2. ROC Lammenschans – Outskirt of 5. Alphen a/d Rijn – Cities of the future: for building heights (three till ten fl oors). them waiting for new developments. cities: This station is located at one of The town Alphen can be characterized as Building densities seem relatively low. the outskirts of Leiden and separates a ‘cities of the future’ (although the term Public facilities are rare and clustered in a residential neighbourhood from future is not totally relevant) but also some small commercial centres located This observation show that the (station) an industrial estate at the outskirt. It touches the identity of a ‘small town’, within the residential neighbourhoods. environments vary – the region is diverse connects the area to the city centre because the town is easily accessible Around the station a public parking and differentiated by mainly spatial and and to the region between Leiden and (by car), mainly contains (new) low space can be found. The station area is infrastructural characteristics – although most Alphen. Building blocks vary from small dense housing areas, in the middle of also connected through a bus line. towns and villages share that they mainly exist (residential) to large (college building). the Green Heart. The public facilities out of residential communities (which might Very little public facilities can be seen in around the stations are limited, large 8. Waddinxveen Centrum – Small towns: suggest that these areas contain a relatively this in the area, which is characterized open spaces (waiting for development) This is a second station situated in large amount of daily commuters). In general by a residential green environment are still to be found. Building blocks vary the town. The station environment is it can be seen that urban areas (Leiden and but also by industrial expansions (local from large (offi ces) to small (housing). somewhat similar to the transit zone Gouda) follow rural areas (e.g. Hazerswoude, entrepreneurs). Low densities and Building densities and heights seem to around Waddinxveen Noord, except for Boskoop). This also means that pressure on buildings heights of no more than three be low (vary from three till six fl oors). the amount of public space: a green mobility varies strongly and depending on levels can be seen – except for a large The station area seems well accessible park with a lake and some greenfi eld the sort of settlement along the line (city or college building (ROC Lammenschans by other public transport modes (various sites waiting for spatial developments in village?), which makes it diffi cult to adjust the – approx. ten levels). The station is also bus lines and a bus station can be terms of housing (fi rst neighbourhood right transport frequencies for the whole trace. accessible through other modes of public found). has been built) can be found. Also this Also development locations vary from town to transport (bus lines). station area is connected through a bus town – at some locations as Alphen a/d Rijn, 6. Boskoop – small towns: The station can line. Gouda and Waddinxveen lots of open space 3. Zoeterwoude Meerburg - Business be found in a village, located in a rural can be found which means that program and sites: This station is supposed to be landscape. The village is characterized by 9. Waddinxveen Zuid – Business sites: A building typology need to be adjusted on the realized, depending on the amount a strong local economy – the presence of third station at Waddinxveen is planned type of station area or settlement. This study of spatial developments which will horticulture seems crucial in this village: but still needs to be developed. At the confi rms that a ‘tailored’ or adjusted version be realized in this rural area between small canals and local agricultural fi rms moment the location of this spot is of TOD is needed to the support of the area Leiden and Zoeterwoude in the near can be found everywhere. Building still a rural area, but also surrounded in terms of mobility and land-use. In the future. At the moment some greenfi eld densities are and heights are low (no with some small industrial estates. The (alternative) design proposal for this region developments are taking place. Offi ces more than three levels), and building future plans promote expansion of these these characteristics need to be taken into are to be planned along the railway blocks seem small (residential and small industrial activities, together with an consideration also (chapter 4).

98 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 99 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 3. The case of the RGL

3.2.4 The municipal plans for using more and more space of the adjusted (bus lines cross the (future) rural areas. This might be the result of stations of the RGL railway line). spatial development ‘liberal policies’ of municipal authorities Adjustment of the public transport in particular, because of having limited modes plays an important role the In collaboration with the foundation ‘Stichting or no spatial development concepts application of a TOD concept as a Deltametropool’, a broad study on the and policies for their jurisdictions, and possible design alternative for the area. municipal ambitions and plans for spatial because of insuffi cient adjustment development has been done – based on of spatial development between  The line of the RGL project seems the data presented at ‘De Nieuwe Kaart van the authorities in the region. Strong to cross a region which contains a Nederland’ by 2010 (appendix D). The aim (integral) and adjusted concepts and signifi cant differentiation in spatial for this was that it would be crucial to see policies (between authorities) might be environments (not in functional in how far spatial extensions of villages and crucial in order to counteract the spatial program) – the stations and transit towns within the participating municipalities implications of urban sprawl. zones along the line seem to have very are planned within reaching distance of the different characteristics, which indicates transit zones – a direct comparison with the  In terms of spatial morphologies, most that spatial developments around every agreed number of spatial development per of these developments also seem to line need to be ‘tailored’ and adjusted municipality in the general project contract was be linear, along car roads. This might on each other. This asks for application not possible, because that agreement does not indicate a high car dependency in the of a ‘tailored’ TOD concept whereby say anything about locations an names of plans area (although this also depends on station environments are taken into or extensions. the level and accessibility of public consideration. transport ) – at least it is a threat However, it is interesting to see that because it might not be lucrative for  Although the link between the especially within a small towns or villages as maintaining public transport networks infrastructure and land-use ‘Hazerswoude Koudekerk’ more than half of within areas of dispersed developments developments in the project the planned developments (‘Herziening Oude in the near future, because this can lead agreements is purely fi nancial (and Rijnzone’ and ‘De Nieuwe Hoop’) is considered to high operation costs. the fact that municipalities are outside the transit zones (appendix D). In how not encouraged or supported to far did the responsible municipality Rijnwoude  Residential neighbourhoods seem plan these developments around took the project serious? It is very unlikely to dominate the region, in terms of their stations because of weak that those extensions which are located far main function groups – living and (provincial) instruments or policies), from transit zones contribute to an increasing housing might be important themes, most developments are planned number of users of the line – these locations which could also mean that the area within distance of the transit zones. seem more car-dependent. This also raises the hides a relative large number of daily However, at some locations it might question in how far the provincial government commuters. For future developments it be questioned why the planned is able to steer or to adjust such municipal plans might be questioned if this should be developments take place outside or developments. housing, perhaps development of other these transit zones (e.g. Hazerswoude functional program is needed in order Koudekerk). At least it seems important to avoid monofunctionality but instead, that a higher authority promote to promote diversity in the region. developments around stations because this example shows that this does not 3.2.5 Conclusion of the spatial  In terms of public facilities the always happen. studies region seems quite autonomous – in most villages or towns basic public These conclusions will be taken into facilities are present (e.g. supermarket, consideration in the main conclusions and Based on the spatial studies on the project and education, health clinic). This also means in proposing improvements or alternatives its region, the following can be noticed: that communities are not completely (design) suggestions for the case study (chapter dependent on each other. 4).  In terms of spatial characteristics the spatial development patterns within  The level of public transport does not the region can be typed as dispersed seem to be very poor – at least in terms and polycentric forms of urban growth of accessibility: these networks (bus (Meijers & Burger, 2009). Especially lines) reach all towns and villages in the last decades (from 1980 onwards) the region. Also the different public of rapid ‘urbanization’ can be seen, transport modes seem to be quite well

100 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.2 The spatial and programmatic implications 101 The institutional capacity & 3. The case of the RGL 3.3 steering process

Th e studies on institutional capacity revealed several remarkable issues, especially at the level ‘The provincial government does not have Integrative planning instruments of provincial governance. Th e fi rst issue can be seen in terms of the available legal resources, the right resources to negotiate with lower From the perspective of one of the intentions or planning instruments (that support integration of policies). Th e second issue regards the authorities, namely money and property (land).’ – of this research – the integration of mobility representative B. and land-use – did the province have the attitude and (shared interests) of the involved institutions. Th is is followed by a distinction ability of integrative instruments for doing in type of policy integration and accordingly, to what extend the policy integration took Despite of this constraint the provincial so? It can be seen that provincial structure place (what degree). Th e paragraph concludes with the meaningful role of the regional government appeared to be the most visions allows such integration, but when it partnerships. powerful during the decision making process comes to the implementation of regional of the RGL (since it was able to oblige the projects an integrative approach does not municipality of Leiden to continue participation seem possible; the former (streekplan) in the project). Also with their legal spatial and the current ‘provincial land-use plans’ development policy red contours they are able (inpassingsplan) – also regarded as ‘spatial This study also includes elements which can be government. Next to the municipality also to force municipalities to expand within the regulation’ (Verordening Ruimte) – has a more regarded as the operational dimensions (such province and national government are now able drawn boundaries. Within these boundaries, specifi c purpose can only be used sectoral in for as the strategies or fi nancial mechanisms that to use some sort of zoning plan or imposed provincial government has relatively less to say; instance, the regulation of offi ce space: have been used) because they seem strongly land use plan (for municipality this is called municipalities seem to have more freedom for intertwined with the institutional dimension. ‘bestemmingsplan’, for province and national their development perspectives within these ‘The ‘Verordening Ruimte’ or ‘inpassingsplan’ is government this is called ‘inpassingsplan’). This borders by the use of their land-use plans. not integral, it is committed to one single sector. allows more regional coordination for a regional In the case of the RGL for this has been used to body - the ‘Provincial Council’ (Provinciale Additionally the province regarded themself support the implementation of infrastructure.’ – 3.3.1 The legal powers Staten), instead of the ‘gemeenteraden’ not able to implement quality guidelines for Representative B. (municipal councils). This has made it easier to spatial development around stations (e.g. mixed realize regional projects: use, densities) and which also counts for the This means that in the initiative phase of adjustment of numbers in functional program Regarding the enforced legal powers for regional projects sectoral ambitions (as ‘The new law on spatial planning (WRO) has at regional level (e.g. offi ces, housing), because higher authorities (national and provincial infrastructure and land-use) can be integrated made it easier for provincial government to it was not feasible in administrative terms – government), with the introduction of the land- by the use of ‘structuurvisies’, but in the phase realize regional projects.’ – Representative A. regarding the available planning instruments: use plans for these tiers of government the of implementation these are separated (with following questions arise: Did the province have the ‘Verordening Ruimte’ or ‘inpassingsplan’). If ‘…the former provincial land use plan integration of restrictive plans is a must in terms enough legal power to support the RGL project (streekplan) allowed the province to incorporate agreements? And second, did the authority of integrated planning might be questionable, Dispersed powers policies for quality guidelines (that managed it would rather be a question if the provincial have integrative instruments which facilitated Nevertheless, this does not mean the provincial minimal density, integrated parking in order to adjustment of land-use and infrastructure? government is able to steer development on government was not facing diffi culties regarding promote compact development) in their general the very local level (in order to achieve the the power of lower authorities. Where the policy for nodal development. But since the success of nodal development – by promoting provincial authority has most powers according former “streekplan” has been replaced by the development around stations). As has been to their planning instruments (legal resources), current ‘spatial regulation’ (Verordening Ruimte Instrumental changes discussed above, the answer to this would be municipal governments have strong powers – which more can be seen as a spatial law) such negative. Maybe it is more appropriate to speak The new law on spatial planning Wro (Wet because of their landholding in particular policies are not part of the instrumentation ruimtelijke ordening) introduced in 2008, not in terms of having but of using integrative (material resources). For higher authorities anymore, simply because the ‘Verordening instruments, or using the possibility to create has given the province more authority and the latter ability seems to be perceived as an Ruimte’ is too strict for such policies, while the has given the province stronger instruments. such instruments, which will be discussed in the obstacle in terms of negotiation – municipal new provincial structure visions are too soft next paragraph. Before 2008, the province had instruments to governments have strong stake in this because for this. (…) Currently such policies are now oblige lower authorities to work according to they can bargain with their material resources seen as the task of municipal governments.’ – In term of provincial legal power on spatial their plans – which were labeled as ‘proactive (the owned land). This issue is stated by several Representative B. planning, it can be concluded that the province indication’ (proactieve aanwijzing). However, interviewees: has the authority and ability of planning the province was only allowed to use this, if Thus, in terms of integration of policies, instruments that are powerful enough to restrict it had developed a ‘provincial structure plan’ ‘Although a regional partnership can make the instruments did not seem suffi cient to lower authorities act according to their policies (streekplan) (appendix A). In case of the RGL, more agreements in terms of spatial adjustment support spatial development around stations. (and which are also able to overrule the land the province has used both instruments against nowadays, they do not have the instrumentation This brings us to a deeper explanation of the claims of municipal governments). the municipality of Leiden. to enforce local development. The strong integration of planning instruments. municipal powers and landholdings make it One of the issues however, and which can be The current law on spatial planning is more diffi cult to achieve powerful agreements on argued, is that the province is missing a legal functional than the former WRO (Wet op de higher level.’ – representative C. framework (that beholds somewhere between Ruimtelijke Ordening) goes less out from the ‘Verordening Ruimte’ or ‘Inpassingsplan’ contradictions between different layers of

102 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 103 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

and the provincial ‘Structuurvisie’, regarding done with the purpose to stimulate external agreements on the RGL-East this never has been instruments and authority, but has an a degree of ‘restrictiveness’) which allows for communication of spatial ambitions of provincial done. (…) For the RGL-East it was more the case administrative culture which is not there to incorporation of specifi c policies. At the very government (appendix A). The provincial of the province having an ambition to develop invite NGO’s and private actors regarding such local level (e.g. around stations) the provincial government did not use the structure visions a certain number of functional program and projects. (…) And the province can have all government seems to have insuffi cient control according to this purpose: that’s it. Subsequently, in the provincial structure the powers an instruments, but administrative on spatial development, which does not mean vision and the former ‘streekplannen’ guidelines relations do not change from day to day.’ – the province cannot take that responsibility ‘Currently, the provincial government has a for development around stations have been Representative G. – it has the possibility to develop planning structure vision that is strongly based on the included, but constantly on a very general level.’ instruments that are able to do so, but they former “streekplannen”. During the time of – Representative B. ‘…the provincial government did neither exclude did not make use this possibility. Additionally transition, there has been discussion in the nor invite private actors directly (municipality it would have been possible to incorporate way how to develop the new structure visions. …which is refl ected in the original intentions of of Leiden involved its university). Currently such arrangements (regulation of the way how Eventually the former provincial executive the provincial government on the project: the province is more negotiating with regional land is used around stations) in their project decided to make the structure vision as less leading private actors (such as Heineken), agreements, but this also has not been done. progressive as possible, to fi t the document ‘Originally the RGL has been intended as a but that is also part of the provincial learning Would this then be the result of an attitude in the former ambitions. (…) Hereby has been public transport project in a classical form curve regarding regional projects; earlier the which is not there to stimulate integrated chosen to use the new planning document as a (without a link to spatial development), because province did not dare to involve such actors – development? sort of “interim policy” whereby ambitions for the province saw it as their task to maintain the maybe it would have been better if the province spatial development where postponed. (…) This public transport connection which was about to negotiated with private actors earlier in the is refl ected in the provincial structure vision, be abolished – the essence could be seen in the process (especially in terms of investment).’ – which is a good example of the integration fi nancial instruments to which the provincial Representative B. 3.3.2 The interests and of the various former “streekplannen”, but government was looking for in order to maintain where ambitions are hard to fi nd – the the accessibility of the region. (…) the linkage This issue feeds the discussion in how far ambitions document is simply not focused on the future.’ – of spatial development locations and public private actors need to be involved in the Representative B. transport has never been the original choice.’ – process, and in what role. One of the RGL Representative B. participants stated as follows: Regarding the project agreements, why is the arranged number of spatial developments A reason for this can be found in the ‘Private actors will always say that they want to between province and municipalities not been No administrative culture for spatial administrative culture of authorities in the be involved in a very early stage to develop their promoted around stations? Does the provincial regulation on local level region: product and to have infl uence on the process, in government use other instruments to promote Secondly there has been the absence of specifi c order to deal with the often high complexity of ‘…it also has to do with the steering philosophy this, or was it simply not the intention of the policies regarding the RGL. The provincial such projects. (…) Within the process of the RGL of the authorities (…) the provincial government province to concentrate the agreed number government had the intention to promote nodal it has been tried to involve leading private actors took responsibility for the infrastructure of of developments around stations – a matter development around public transport corridors, in the region for fi nancial contribution, but they the RGL, while the task of municipalities was of attitude an insuffi cient stories perhaps? and to keep the rural areas in the Green Heart will always appoint to the other fi rms in the area to take priority for the other subjects (spatial And subsequently, what has been the attitude by supporting urbanization in an axe called the and say why do they not contribute? – otherwise development was seen as their task) – the towards lower authorities and (semi-)private ‘Oude Rijnzone’. Nonetheless, this was a general they will benefi t from our investment: private provincial government simply has executive actors or NGO’s within the institutional policy and not specifi cally intended for the RGL: actors want to be involved only for own benefi ts structure? boards which are quite reserved in the use of and interests.’ – Representative D. ‘In 2003 the provincial government started to instruments that would steer development on the The interest and attitude (of mainly the incorporate the concept of nodal development local level, that is not part of the administrative In that sense it is likely that private actors let provincial government) are explained according in their former ‘streekplan Zuid-Holland West’ culture. (…) Instead, the relation between the themselves representing by a body that joints to the following issues: which shows the ambition to invest in public province and municipalities is built on trust.’ – the shared economic interests of regional transport corridors which have potential for Representative B. and local enterprises, which actually did spatial development. (…) But this is a generic happen with the involvement of the Chamber

policy, thus not specifi cally intended for the RGL.’ of Commerce (KvK). Within the RGL this Unintended use of provincial – Representative B. organization did only raised interest (right Restrained attitude towards (semi-) from the start – early nineties by representing structure vision the initiatives of the local entrepreneurs The fi rst issue can be seen in the provincial Also, specifi c guidelines for nodal development private actors in the city center of Leiden) but did not government having insuffi cient visions on for the RGL have not been embedded in Another aspect of this administrative culture contribute in fi nancial terms. Regarding the spatial development for their regions, which is provincial plans: was the reserved attitude of provincial form of participation (if involvement of private also refl ected by the use of their legal planning government towards the involvement (single) actors should take place in a public-private instruments. Regarding these instruments, ‘…within the project agreements on the RGL-West private actors (as stakeholders of the project): partnership or PPS), the same representative the replacement of the former ‘streekplan’ a reference to the currently valid planological stated the following: by the provincial structure vision was being framework has been included. For the project ‘…the provincial government has the right

104 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 105 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

‘For the RGL there was no public-private company was a very important player involved ‘The municipalities also did not cooperate According to the latter, the province also admits partnership, which has to do with the political at a very early stage (together they did tests) suffi ciently, and from an individual interest in that it should be more active towards the and administrative attitude of the province. (…) A and had the technical expertise which the particular. (…) The municipalities competed with regulation of spatial development. They also reason for this can be seen from the perspective province did not have, it is remarkable that the each other, they all wanted spatial development.’ want to do this by making more use of their that regional infrastructure developments are provincial government did not see ProRail as an – Representative C. restrictive planning instrument ‘inpassingsplan’ often so complex and abstract (especially in an equal developing partner. This also appeared (the provincial land-use plan): early stage) that PPS constructions are nearly out one of the statements of one of the According to the institutional relations of possible.’ – Representative D. representatives: governance this development of competing ‘If we did he project at this moment and in governments is very common (chapter 2). But the current setting, we would have used the An exception here can be made for the ‘Looking back on the project, it would maybe in this situation the role of a higher authority provincial ‘inpassingsplan’ more intensively. (…) involvement of ProRail, a semi-public actor have been better if an alliance between the becomes important. This brings us to the role This appears to be a powerful instrument which which has the technical expertise on the province and ProRail, instead of the relation provincial government. helps to decrease the administrative pressure.’ – implementation of the railway and the stations. client-contractor (and automatic contractor). In Representative A. For the project ProRail also represented various that sense benefi ts for both parties could have other interests; of ‘NS reizigers’ (the national been investigated; how the project could have But in that case the provincial government railway company ‘Nationale Spoorwegen’ has been done better than both institutions operating Conformance or performance would be more restrictive to lower authorities, a division for real estate ‘NS Poort/Stations’ separately.’ – Representative E. Thus, did the provincial government take its which is something the municipalities do not and a transport division ‘NS Reizigers’ – steering role seriously, in order to get the prefer: ProRail normally is responsible for the railway municipalities on board for the project? And infrastructure) and the interest of DB Schenker should the government – despite of their ‘The provincial government acted extremely Rail (a rail freight transport company), which Competing interests administrative culture – take more responsibility restrictive, because it had the most fi nancial made ProRail an important player – of other Another important constraint can be found in by being more restrictive or more facilitative resources and was bearing all the risk. We would importance than for instance a ‘Heineken’ which the strong interest of municipal governments regarding these issues? rather have seen that the provincial government an actor of economic regional importance, but which compete with each other for spatial acted more as a mediator.’ – Representative F. not on technical expertise. The NS real estate development: ‘The province should show more administrative devise (NS Poort/Stations) was not involved power, they should be able to make both ‘The province should have acted less restrictive in the project because it appeared to have ‘Personally I experienced that municipal horizontal and vertical alliances and should but more to the role of performance – insuffi cient interest – the company owned land governments had strong individual interest inform other participants better in what their stimulating.’ – Representative E. around stations but did not act as a developer, because of their potentials for spatial interests are or should be.’ – Representative G. it rather would sell the land. Nevertheless, for development. (…) Everyone was considering their This dialogue shows that it is likely that lower the project ProRail was assigned as a contractor, own interest more important than the shared ‘The provincial government should have the authorities want higher governments to be less not as a stakeholder. The company always had interest. (…) The province had high ambitions aim to have more infl uence within their chosen restrictive, while the provincial government is diffi culties with this position, or at least in the for the project and needed regional commuters; system; they should steer more intensive and now having the intention to be more active and way how the province considered their role – spatial development was needed, this could make better use of their instruments. But this restrictive in their role of steering municipalities there was no mutual trust between both parties: not be realized without the municipalities – in should have been done form a more integral in development. Thus whether the provincial that sense the province was dependent on the perspective – and focus one thing. With too government should be more restrictive or more ‘The collaboration between the province municipalities.’ – Representative E. many ambitions you cannot focus. The provincial facilitative is diffi cult to say. and ProRail was one without trust. (…) This government should also imperative that focus: is mainly because the province did not have ‘In my opinion there have been some jealous and warned municipalities in the meanwhile, suffi cient technical expertise regarding such relations between municipalities – do I get if they want to develop somewhere else.’ – projects, and did not want to give ProRail the enough spatial development compared to my Representative C. Provincial compromises room for contribution; they hired expertise neighbouring municipality?’ – Representative E. municipalities from other consultants to control our input.’ – ‘In my opinion, the provincial government was During the process however, the province Representative E. ‘It was a project wherein everybody thought it not capable enough to take its responsibility for succeeded in getting all the municipalities on could realize it aims but the aims where not a project as the RGL.’ – Representative C. board (except for the municipality of Leiden – The reason for ProRail participating as a corresponding. Eventually the project became which had more an internal confl ict because of contractor can be seen in the fact that the the aim itself and not the instrument anymore to ‘Slowly on both the Provincial Council and the complications of their referendum, and not RGL project could not be labelled as ‘regional’ achieve the aim.’ – Representative C. Deputy are wondering why lower authorities with other participants – there have not been (which would mean that the province could do not succeed in the adjustment of spatial serious constraints between the municipalities do the concession) but national, because the ‘The interventions of the municipalities were very development and accordingly, if they should (they all supported the RGL rail project). vehicles would partly run on existing railway limited – non-interventions. Each municipality act more enforce their role as a director Regarding the following representatives the lines which means that the concession goes had a strong individual interest. The cohesive for adjustment of spatial development.’ – problem better can be seen in the way how the automatically to ProRail. Thus, the province element however was created by the province.’ – Representative B. province dealt with the regulation of spatial had to cooperate with ProRail. But because the Representative G. development around the line, which can be

106 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 107 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

seen in the following: with the province than with each other: been the ambition, vision or reason behind the no shared interest in terms of spatial RGL was or everybody tells a different story – developments. Such communicative ‘If a real estate company wants to develop on ‘The municipalities had more contact with the there is no shared vision, no shared ambition.’ – tools possibly also would have helped a particular location but not around a station, provincial government than with each other. The Representative C. to decrease the matter of completion a municipality does not like to refuse such a province played an important role in the project between municipalities. Additionally, developer, because when such a company is and acted as a director. In global lines we knew ‘With such a long-term project the original strong concepts could have supported rejected by municipality A it goes to municipality what the plans of other municipalities where, but motives disappear to the background, in that the integration of policies on mobility B, which has land-use plans that offer more often we did not know how far they were in their sense it is hard to say for me what these original and land-use. space for development – thus it has to come plans.’ – Representative F. motives have been.’ – Representative F. from the market. The only thing you can do Altogether, it can also be argued if the about this is to invest in spatial quality and ‘Originally there was almost no mutual Strong concepts or stories can function as a municipalities were aware of the spatial and in good accessibility around stations to make correspondence between the municipalities on facilitator for integrative planning approaches programmatic implications of (each other’s) spatial development more attractive at these the RGL, on the assumption that the province and for organizational structures for project plans and agreements around the nodes.’ – Representative C. would do the communication.’ – Representative implementation of these projects. For the RGL RGL (which increases mutual dependency). C. this could have supported the integration of The issues addressed above might play a role ‘Within the municipality of Zoeterwoude there infrastructure and spatial policies. This did not in the sense that there was very little mutual was a discussion how the contribution to the ‘The communication between the involved actors happen. Additionally, even the organization communication (and transparency) between RGL could be paid. In those days agreements should have been better and should have been around the project was not created to support municipalities, partly because of the provincial have been made for development on new started in an earlier stage.’ – Representative D. integration of both spatial and infrastructure role in the project (ambitious in realizing greenfi eld areas at the southern part of the policies: their aims) by doing all the communication village “Zoeterwoude-Dorp” (Swetterhage) – This constraint could have been addressed by between the involved actors whereby mutually which is located several kilometres from the better communication during the process and ‘We now see that the project and its competing municipalities where not informed railway station – in order to pay the contribution more interactively so that municipalities realize organizational structure was strongly oriented on each other’s plans and developments – it as agreed in the fi rst general agreement.’ – what consequences their interventions have for towards traditional infrastructure: the project might be questioned in how far the province Representative G. others. offi ce for instance had as strong focus on was transparent in its communication to other technique, old and new railway tracks but not on actors. It is remarkable that the province accepted the areas around the stations.’ – Representative developments (fi nancially linked to the B. railway project) that where located far away Absence of supporting visions and from the transit zones of the railway stations. concepts for the RGL According to the results of the study above 3.3.3 Sectors, territories and The province did even go a step further The fi nal and most agreed issue is that the most remarkable issues in terms of attitude can by facilitating such developments and by provincial government had no clear supporting be seen in: organizations loosening up their policy of ‘red contours’ concept, vision or story for the RGL, in order to around the village – which can be seen as a inform and to bind the participants:  The restrained attitude of the provincial compromise of the provincial government government towards (semi-)private As explained in the theoretical framework to the municipality Zoeterwoude, in order ‘There has neither been a good supporting stakeholders. Especially the relation (chapter 2), two discourses can be seen in terms to guarantee the realization of the project. story for the RGL nor a good concept – never. between the province and ProRail of policy integration: (a) sectoral integration, Contradictionally however, such compromises Interests can be told as strength for instance, was weak; there was no trust between territorial integration and; (b) integration, can work out negative: and as stories that bind. Both the province as the both parties, while they were strongly coordination or cooperation. Both dimensions municipality of Leiden never succeeded in this. dependent on each other. relate to each other when the following to ‘The number of expected commuters had to be Leiden never had an integrative approach to questions are raised: downgraded, what was caused by the provincial transport.’ – Representative C.  The way how provincial restricts government not restricting municipalities spatial development at the local level.  What needs to be integrated (or when they continued with development in the ‘...often a strong story behind a development Apparently, they do not act according coordinated, or cooperated)? – sectors/ Green Heart instead of around the stations. The location (node) is missing. A strong spatial story their own policies; they change red territories/organizations province has never been restrictive towards their contours as a compromise for getting for the project is that we want to keep the Green  To what extend or degree do sectors, own spatial policy.’ – Representative C. Heart free form urbanization.’ – Representative B. the municipalities on board for the RGL project. territories or organizations need to be Especially for long term projects a strong ‘integrated’? – integration/coordination/ concept or vision is important, because  The absence of strong spatial concepts cooperation Insuffi cient communication participants often lose the original intentions of and visions that support and facilitate the project. Because there was no good Thus, in order to fi nd an answer on the Subsequently their also was the issue of the project during the process: predominant question to what degree policy insuffi cient communication between authorities. story, participants eventually forgot the ‘Almost nobody can explain anymore what had original intentions of the project and integration took place at the case study area, Apparently, the municipalities had more contact this more distinctive approach is considered for

108 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 109 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

the assessment – the situation of the case study  Territorial integration (concerning policy 3.3.4 The degree of operation: At the case study area it can be seen that cross- is subsequently assessed according to both integration between different territories sectoral integration took place at the level of discourses. According to the fi rst question on and is seen to minimise the negative integration, coordination or cooperation; the steering group (and project what needs to be integrated (or coordinated, or impacts of policy in the context of inter- coordination? offi ce), where formed according to traditional cooperated) the options for the case study area territorial (cross-boundary) working infrastructural conditions (‘integration of can be considered as followed: and encourages complementarities) modes’ – Curtis & James, 2004). Spatial between the public authorities each For the case study, it can be indicated to what development did not belong to the portfolio  Sectoral integration (the ‘joining-up’ responsible for their own jurisdiction extent integration of the policies described of this steering group, and there was no clear of different policy domains and their (vertically and horizontally) – above took place – based on the information link and adjustment between infrastructural actors within a particular territory) adjustment of national, provincial and which has been gathered with the interviews and spatial policies (at least there was little can be considered as the integration municipal governments; these policy fi elds (table 3.1). The degrees to transparency between both policies, there between departments within one integration are cooperation, coordination and was just a dialogue between them), which is authority or as the integration between  Organizational integration (necessary to integration. Although these degrees have been confi rmed by interviews with the province – (semi-)public, private sector and encourage the strategic and operational introduced above (in chapter 2), it is worth to within this steering group there was no cross- voluntary agencies. As mentioned in co-operation between actors that give a short overview of their characteristics sectoral integration. the theoretical framework sectoral is critical to effective delivery) can before the situation of the case study is integration can be subdivided in two be considered as the alignment of explained (according to Stead & Meijers, 2004): What also became clear is that in terms of inter- divisions, namely cross-sectoral and linked strategies or of related delivery agency integration there was a very diffi cult inter-agency integration. For the case mechanisms. Also herein a distinction  Cooperation – at the lowest level, relation between the provincial planning study area this is expressed as follows: can be made, for the case study area which simply implies dialogue and agency and ProRail. This company was the this is expressed as follows: information; only contractor of the RGL at provincial level - Cross-sectoral integration: between who was not public. It was a company with provincial departmental policies - Strategic integration: between  Coordination – implies cooperation other interests. However, this company was (refl ected in the steering group) – linked strategies, programmes plus transparency and some attempt the automatic contractor (as explained above adjustment of policies on spatial and initiatives – alignment of of to avoid policy confl icts (but do not in this section) and had the technical expertise development and mobility or provincial and municipal structure necessarily imply the use of similar in terms of infrastructure which the province infrastructure; vision plans/strategic spatial goals); did not have. Despite they were dependent on visions and spatial concepts each other there was no trust between both - Inter-agency or stakeholder  Integration – includes dialogue and parties and little commitment, there was little integration: between (provincial) - Operational integration: between information (as in policy cooperation), transparency and there have been confl icts authority and (semi-)public, private related delivery mechanisms – transparency and avoidance of policy which not have been avoided; this inter-agency sector and voluntary agencies – alignment of decision making and confl icts (as in policy coordination) but relation took place at the level of cooperation. adjustment of Provincial planning fi nancial mechanisms/agreements also includes joint working, attempts agency, ProRail and Chamber of to create synergies between different In terms of vertical territorial integration there Commerce (KvK); sectors (win-win situations) and the use was a strong relation between the provincial of the same goals to formulate policy. and municipal governments – as said above in this chapter they needed each other (in

Degreeofpolicyintegration Formofpolicyintegration Expressionatcasestudy Expression Integration Coordination Cooperation SECTORALINTEGRATION CrossͲsectoralintegration Adjustmentof(provincial)policyareasonmobilityandlandͲuseinsteeringgroup X ThesteeringgroupoftheRGLwasbasedontraditionalinfrastructurepolicy(theydidnothavespatialpolicies) InterͲagency(stakeholder)integration Adjustmentof(provincial)authorityandProRailorKvK X RelationbetweenprovincialplanningagencyandProRail(onlynonͲgovernmentalcontractor)wasweakͲnotrust TERRITORIALINTEGRATION Verticalintegration Adjustmentofprovincialandmunicipalgovernment X Provincialgovernmentwassteeringtheprojectandkeepingcontactwithmunicipalities Horizontalintegration Adjustmentofmunicipalgovernments X StrongcompetinginterestsbetweenmunicipalitiesonspatialdevelopmentͲverylittleformalmutualcommunication ORGANIZATIONALINTEGRATION Strategicintegration Alignmentofstrategicspatialvisionsorspatialconcepts(provincialdepartments) X NostrategicapproachwhithinprovincialstructurevisionsͲsectoralpolicies/planshavebeencombinedbutnotadjusted Operationalintegration Alignmentofdecisionmaking(sectorallegalplanningdocuments) X Sectoralplanningdocumentsoftheprovincehavenotbeenintegratedorwelladjusted Alignmentoffinancialagreementsormechanisms X Financialmechanismhasbeenagreedandadjustedbutallowedtolittlefreedomandflexibilityformunicipalities Table 3.1 The degrees of policy adjustment in terms of sectors, territories and organizations

110 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 111 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

fi nancial, geographical, procedural and legal The same provincial representatives also development (chapter 2). In that sense this Especially the general partnerships (which terms). Government at both tiers made announced that it was not possible to integrate institutional and operational policy structure are all ‘WGR’ regions – appendix A) can be adjusted agreements (refl ected in the general sectoral legal planning documents which are fails, not able to deliver a successful nodal regarded as meaningful clusters because project agreement) regarding the amount of more restrictive and which are used to the development. they deal with issues of different sectors (not development, the stations, the investments level of conformance (e.g. ‘inpassingsplan’ only of spatial but also of social or economic etc. The policies where not joint (and there was or ‘Verordening Ruimte’). Such planning importance) that ask for an inter-municipal the attempt to avoid policy confl icts between documents can be seen as instruments which approach. Additionally, these partnerships province and municipalities) but adjusted: the belong to the policy type of operational 3.3.5 The role of the regional sometimes have fi nancial resources (e.g. relation between province and municipalities integration. Because such legal planning Holland Rijnland, that has a ‘regional can be regarded as the degree of coordination. documents are completely sectoral and not partnerships investment fund’ subsidized by the participating The discussion on whether the provincial intended to avoid policy confl icts (which often municipalities – which can be regarded as government should take more leadership, take place with the use of these instruments) Eventually, with the study on the institutional bottom-up investment) that is useful in be more restrictive towards municipalities or the degree of operation can be considered as and operational structure became clear negotiations of regional projects between just more facilitative or stimulating does not cooperation. that the role of regional partnerships has different clusters, and by raising interest; mean that the provincial government had no potential in terms of negotiation. But what is bringing a project on a higher agenda (which As mentioned in the fi rst paragraph of this coordinative role. the importance of such partnerships? What can be seen as some sort of lobbying). Thus, the chapter the fi rst general project contract of explains the presence of these partnerships fi nancial resources make it possible for these As mentioned above in this chapter, there the RGL contained agreements on fi nancial in this region? Another study is been done to partnerships to function as a stakeholder and was a lot of competition between municipal contribution per participant to the project. investigate these regional partnerships and to strengthen their interest within such projects. governments – especially in terms of spatial These fi nancial contributions were linked to other institutional relations in the region. Both Finally, these partnerships function as a sort of development. Every municipal participant the agreed number of spatial development are explained below. ‘knowledge institute’ for small municipalities; wanted to have spatial developments within per municipality. Despite a municipality would the partnerships have the expertise in, for their territory. Thus there were a lot of realize more or less than the agreed number The study on the regional partnerships instance regional infrastructure projects, where competing interests. It also became clear that of development, the contribution was fi xed. (appendix C7) – a diagram which is based the municipal governments sometimes do not there was very little (formal) communication Eventually municipalities seem not be able to on the list of public partnerships in the have enough ‘intellectual resources’ for: between municipalities regarding the realize what has been agreed (because of crisis), northern region of the province Zuid Holland, spatial developments (no transparency) – and were stitched to the high bills of investment published by NRC Weekblad (2010), and ‘The regional partnership acts as a sort of municipalities roughly knew about their in the line. This fi nancial mechanism (the which corresponds to a large extent with the platform for discussion for municipalities. It plans, but not about the stage of those plans. amount of investment in infrastructure linked institutional structure of 2005 when the general can be regarded as a knowledge institute for Communication only mainly took place by the to expected number of spatial development project agreement has been made – shows small municipalities that are have less expertise provincial government. This horizontal territorial and benefi ts) can also be seen as a form of three general partnerships with general tasks in certain aspects. (…)They have a regional relation took place at the degree of cooperation. operational integration. The fi nancial agreements (e.g. adjustment of spatial program as housing, investment fund where all municipalities deposit have been adjusted with the intention to avoid offi ces, industrial and commercial functions, money, which offers room for negotiation In terms of strategic integration the provincial confl icts; this can be considered as a degree infrastructure projects, youth care services in at certain arenas of decision making. The structure vision can be considered. The of coordination. However, these arrangements and education), surround with specifi c inter- partnerships are always involved in the initiation representatives of the provincial government where so fi xed that they are little adaptive or municipal partnerships engaged with economic, phase, where they can function as a lobby group mentioned in interviews that their provincial fl exible to unexpected changes. Possibly it environmental or planning activities: in order to encourage a shared interest between structure vision was a document where all would have been better if these arrangements different actors. Thereby it helps if such a former sectoral policies (housing, infrastructure, would be more fl exible and if the participants  Economic relation: promoting partnerships has own money, which they can use environment etc.) where collected or stitched were less dependent on each other, what regional economic activities and local to do a fi rst bid.’ – Representative C. together with little adjustment and which made supports the argument for a degree which is entrepeneurship such as offi ces and the document sensitive for sectoral policy more oriented towards cooperation. industries (e.g. Oude Rijnzone); Again, this shows that in this way interest is confl icts. This made the structure vision too built from bottom-up – municipalities bring comprehensive, very unclear and not oriented Overall, considering all the types of policy  Environmental relation: promoting their own money. But this statement is a desire, towards the future (representing very little integration and their degrees of operation it nature reservations, ecological main a reaction on something that did not happen ambitions) – the government did not have been can be seen that there is an institutional and structure (EHS), recreation areas or at the moments when the former project selective. However, the representatives admit operational policy structure which is more landscapes and heritage (e.g. Stichting agreements where made because municipalities the document could have been more integral oriented towards cooperation, than to the Land van Wijk en Wouden); had to bring their own money. when those policies where joined. The degree level of integration. It does not mean that all of this strategic alignment can be considered as policy areas should take place on the level of  Planning relation: promoting areal In the diagram that refl ects the study on coordination. From the perspective of strategic integration, but the idea that most policies development: residential in particular regional partnerships it can be seen that the integration at provincial level also different are more touching the degree of cooperation (e.g. Regionale ontwikkelingsorganisatie institutional structure which was needed for the regional public transport concepts such as Rnet does not seem to be desirable in the context Zuidplas). RGL project is one of the scars organizational and HOV-net are running parallel to each other of integrated planning or of transit oriented structures that have a relation between all and are far from integration.

112 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 113 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 3. The case of the RGL

the three general partnerships (next to the provincial government to decide whether they for change – they can be seen as an example partnership also (with the same argument). organization around the RGL only the economic delegate authority to such partnerships). As of governance Type II (which also counts for This example shows that municipalities are relation ‘Oude Rijnzone’ does an appeal on mentioned above the province and municipal the steering group and the project offi ce of willing to cooperate as long as they can all the partnerships). It might be argued here governments have most legal powers – the the RGL, which were represented by different enforce their political power, but with keeping that the relation needed for the RGL project provincial government because of their legal authorities and were temporary). their democratic legitimacy at the same time. was not common – most of the relation require instruments, the municipal government because Because the institutional structure around cooperation of municipalities of not more than of their landholdings in particular. Especially for the RGL calls on the municipalities instead of two different general partnerships. Because higher authorities the latter ability seems to be partnerships the issues around collaboration these partnerships have strong interests for perceived as an obstacle in terms of negotiation 3.3.6 Governance culture might have another cause. Possibly because what is the best for their region, the required – municipal governments have strong stake the project was the only connecting element structure for the RGL might have been ‘fragile’ in this because they can bargain with their of the municipalities in the region, it might be and sensitive to competing interests. ‘material resources’ (the owned land). This issue argued that there was not enough commitment is stated by several interviewees: In the study on the institutional relations between them (and not as with general Having the importance of general partnerships of the regional partnerships (appendix C7) partnerships, often established to counteract in mind, it is remarkable that all municipalities ‘Although a regional partnership can make became clear that the institutional organization various cross-border issues and in different were involved in the project agreement more agreements in terms of spatial adjustment around the project did not correspond with sectors (e.g. youth care and safety) which individually, which could have encouraged a nowadays, they do not have the instrumentation the common institutional partnerships in the ultimately can lead to more commitment). ‘fragmented fi eld of interest’ or ‘tragedy of to enforce local development. The strong region. But why might this have contributed commons’ (simply because more actors are municipal powers and landholdings make it to operational issues around decision-making Another argument might be found in the involved and with insuffi cient control of the diffi cult to achieve powerful agreements on between partnerships, but also between ambitions and interests of the province. As province in case of the latter). Anyway, this did higher level.’ – representative C. municipalities in particular? Does this have to explained at the start of this chapter the not happen, at least not to this extent: only do with the governance culture of authorities project has become an important project for the municipality of Leiden appeared to be ‘The provincial government does not have in the region? – some other empirical studies the province – perhaps a little too important: the municipality with confl icting interests (as the right resources to negotiate with lower (interests and ambitions) indicated that involved (private) actors were kept at distance (relation mentioned above) – with crucial consequences, authorities, namely money and property (land).’ – authorities (province and municipalities) did not province – Pro Rail), but also lower public however. representative A. have the governance culture to collaborate and authorities (whether municipal partnerships or to the support of policy integration. But this single municipalities) have been insuffi ciently Possibly it would have been better if the However, as became clear out of the analysis brings the following question: why? Perhaps involved in the initial phase (especially in provincial government involved the regional on the regional relationships it can be argued conclusions of both studies show the relation of terms design and defi ning the portfolio) – partnerships (representing the shared that the institutional organization around the these issues around the governance culture. the operational approach or intention of the interests of the municipalities) into the project project did not correspond with the common provincial government cannot be typed as agreement instead of the municipalities institutional partnerships in the region; the Partly, this could have something to do with ‘collaborative’. This is also refl ected in the individually – in order to facilitate negotiation organization called on new intergovernmental the history of cooperation in the area: some communication of the provincial government and adjustment of different interests around the relations. This could have contributed to the of the regional partnerships have a long towards other participants: the province was project: diffi cult and long run during the project, with tradition and some have less (and some of the having a defective integral (regional) vision municipalities (part of different clusters) having partnerships have been established by own where project and region were aligned. This ‘The RGL East does no appeal on the diffi culties to adjust their spatial policies and (bottom-up) interest, and possibly some have situation made it diffi cult for municipalities and partnerships, but on the municipalities. The having competing interest in this. been established by higher levels of authority other participants to realize the aims and in fi rst project agreement has been made between (province) (top-down) – the provincial has the being aware of the implications of the project all municipal governments individual, which In general, the dialogue between regional possibility to oblige municipalities to establish – also the participants had little to say at the required a relative comprehensive steering partnerships and provincial government (with and collaborate a WGR partnership. Because early stage in this approach which was far from group. This can be seen as one of the issues the partnerships representing the municipalities the research did not involve studies on the collaborative. Possibly, as part of the strong regarding the institutional structure on the RGL- in their interest and with the province having the institutional history at the region it is diffi cult orientation of the province on the project, the East.’ – representative C. capacity for coordination and implementation) to prove such developments. However, in case municipalities became less communicative and is interesting because it beholds at the level of of the Holland Rijnland partnership it can be more reactive instead of proactive. Nevertheless, as has been mentioned above the ‘regional gap’. This gap can be addressed by argued that this has been established around in this section the involvement of general regional partnerships that have (a) the expertise 2002 by shared ambitions and interests of In the next chapter of conclusions and partnerships does not mean that the role of the on large scale issues, (b) represent and promote neighbouring municipalities, and that this recommendations some suggestions to these province becomes less important. The general interests of lower authorities and (c) bring them partnership draws on the integration of two issues are done (chapter 4). partnerships do not have legal resources – on the agenda of the provincial government. former collaboration in the area: the ‘Duin- en they do not have legal instruments to steer Such partnerships are created voluntary and Bollenstreek’ and the ‘Leidse Regio’ – mainly or facilitate other authorities (the fact that can change from structure (municipalities can with the purpose to strengthen decisive wefawe these are WGR regions does not say that these move between partnerships), which make power. More recently, in 2008 one of the partnerships have legal authority – it is on the these organizations dynamic and adaptive ‘Rijnstreekberaad’ joined the Holland Rijnland

114 3. The case of the RGL /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 3.3 The institutional capacity & steering process 115 4

Title Conclusions & recommendations

About This secƟ on contains the main results of the empirical research. Accordingly, recommendaƟ ons are done for the case study area, which are translated in a process, spaƟ al and insƟ tuƟ onal design. The ﬁ ndings are also placed in perspecƟ ve within the context of the case study: integrated transport planning in the Netherlands. Finally some recommendaƟ ons for future research are done.

Keywords Institutional capacity - governance culture - TOD - Design - Future research

Paragraphs #4.1 Conclusions case study #4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study #4.3 Recommendations to similar projects in the NL #4.4 Recommendations for future research

Fig. 4.1 Photograph: station area Alphen a/d Rijn 117 4.1 Conclusions case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

Th e purpose of the research was formulated in two main research questions; one problem environments (not in functional Institutional and operational addressing and one solution oriented question. Th e following question should address the program) – the stations and transit dimension zones along the line seem to have very Related questions: issues: different characteristics, which indicates that spatial developments around every What are the issues of governance between local planning agencies, around the integration - How has institutional capacity being line need to be ‘tailored’ and adjusted built up around the RGL? of sectoral polices on mobility and land-use and around the implementation of a transport on each other. This asks for application infrastructure project such as the Rijn Gouwe Lijn at regional level? of a ‘tailored’ TOD concept whereby - What mechanisms have been used to station environments are taken into realize the project? consideration. The conclusions are:  Spatial development implications of The question represents the general aim of the (integral) and adjusted concepts and the RGL have not been considered in  The provincial government had research in addressing the issues at the case policies (between authorities) might be the planning of the line; the project suffi cient legal power; they had study according to three dimensions: space, crucial in order to counteract the spatial agreements pay little attention to appropriate instruments for policy institutions and process. For every dimension, implications of urban sprawl. the location of spatial developments making and for conformance of plans sub-questions have been raised. According to (guidelines for spatial quality) and there made at lower levels of governance. these questions, the conclusions of the case  In terms of spatial morphologies, most was no legal support to achieve spatial If the provincial government does study are presented in two headings: the spatial of these developments also seem to development objectives. Although not have the right instruments they dimension, the institutional and operational be linear, along car roads. This might the link between the infrastructure are technically able to develop such dimension. The latter two dimensions are indicate a high car dependency in the and land-use developments in the instruments because of their legal combined because it appeared that these issues area (although this also depends on project agreements is purely fi nancial authority, defi ned by law. intertwine. They conclusions are based on the level and accessibility of public (and the fact that municipalities are evidence; the results of the empirical research transport ) – at least it is a threat not encouraged or supported to  In terms of integration of policies the (desk research, interviews, mapping). because it might not be lucrative for plan these developments around available instruments are not always maintaining public transport networks their stations because of weak suffi cient: the provincial legal plans within areas of dispersed developments (provincial) instruments or policies), (inpassingsplannen) can only be in the near future, because this can lead most developments are planned applied sectoral. In terms of planning Spatial dimension to high operation costs. within distance of the transit zones. policies on local level the provincial Related question: However, at some locations it might government did not see possibilities to  In terms of public facilities the be questioned why the planned incorporate local planning regulations To what extent have the spatial region seems quite autonomous – in developments take place outside (that guarantee mix of use, densities development implications of the most villages or towns basic public these transit zones (e.g. Hazerswoude etc.) in their legal framework. transport infrastructure (RGL) been facilities are present (e.g. supermarket, Koudekerk). At least it seems important considered in the planning of the line? education, health clinic). This also means that a higher authority promote  Integration of policies (on infrastructure that communities are not completely developments around stations because and land-use) is possible in an early The conclusions are: dependent on each other. this example showed that this does not stage (on abstract level) with the always happen. use of the provincial structure vision  In terms of spatial characteristics the  The level of public transport does not which is open to integration. This spatial development patterns within seem to be very poor – at least in terms  It seems that the provincial government instrument is also suitable for external the region can be typed as dispersed of accessibility: these networks (bus did not have strong (integral) concepts, communication of the provincial and polycentric forms of urban growth lines) reach all towns and villages in visions or binding story to support ambitions. However, the province did (Meijers & Burger, 2009). Especially the region. Also the different public the project and align stakeholders not use the instrument in this way: the the last decades (from 1970 onwards) transport modes seem to be quite well (insuffi cient transparency and attitude and administrative culture of of rapid ‘urbanization’ can be seen, adjusted (bus lines cross the (future) communication between participating the provincial government was not using more and more space of the stations of the RGL railway line). actors). This also may explain why strategic or selective, not there to rural areas. This might be the result of Adjustment of the public transport agreed spatial developments (linked facilitate integration of policies (on ‘liberal policies’ of municipal authorities modes plays an important role the to the investments in the RGL infrastructure and land-use) and not in particular, because of having limited application of a TOD concept as a infrastructure) do not always take pro-active because of limited ambitions or no spatial development concepts possible design alternative for the area. place around transit zones spatial for future (not presented in their vision and policies for their jurisdictions, and developments: this is not very well document). because of insuffi cient adjustment  The line of the RGL project seems promoted and supported by provincial of spatial development between to cross a region which contains a government.  The establishment of a ‘fl exible’ project the authorities in the region. Strong signifi cant differentiation in spatial organization (with a steering group

118 4. Conclusions & recommendations /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 4.1 Conclusions case study 119 4.1 Conclusions case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

and an offi ce for implementation under pressure – since they had to operational approach towards discussion – it seems that stakeholders did not of the project), formed by various downgrade their ambitions because of stakeholders was far from have been encouraged enough to participate representatives (provincial and the fi nancial and economic crisis. As collaborative: lower public through for instance, interactive scenario municipal governments, but also said above, there have been insuffi cient authorities (whether municipal making or planning support tools such as ProRail and Chamber of Commerce legal regulation mechanisms that partnerships or single gaming (e.g. Sprintstad). – KvK) can be considered positive encourage developments around municipalities) have been because this offi ce could have been stations. Together with the pressure insuffi ciently involved in the initial able to deal with the high complexity on these municipalities – because of phase (especially in terms design of the project. This construction also the heavy fi nancial agreements – this and defi ning the portfolio of the corresponds with models from theory would stimulate municipalities to build project). (chapter 2) of fl exible governance and on greenfi eld sites (because benefi ts inter-governmental agreements. are higher when developing on such - The provincial government locations). was having a defective integral  The provincial government did not (regional) vision wherein project have the attitude towards adjustment Taking these issues into consideration, the and region are aligned. They and regulation of spatial development degree to which policy adjustment (sectoral, did not communicate with other at local level (they did not have the territorial and organizational) took place most participants through a strong intention to steer spatial quality around approximates a form of cooperation: there was integral vision, which could have stations that promote mix of use, little alignment between provincial departments, encouraged participation and densities etc.), but let municipalities little alignment of province and (semi-)private engagement. free in how they want to develop within actors, little alignment and communication the drawn red contours. between public authorities at the same level - The strong focus of the provincial of governance and little alignment of planning government in realizing the  The provincial government had a instruments. project and in their insuffi cient restraint attitude towards actors who communication might have were not public (ProRail) – there was According to the empirical studies, these issues brought municipalities into a no trust between both parties, despite also might indicate that involved authorities more reactive position instead the fact they were highly dependent (province and municipalities) did have no or of proactive, informed and on each other (province the authority, little governance culture to collaborate and communicative. ProRail the technical expertise on the to support policy integration. This raises the rail infrastructure). They did neither question of why? How can this be explained? Taking all the issues into consideration, the refuse nor invite such actors for This can have a few causes: project in its intentional form (the hybrid participation of the project. construction of a light rail vehicle running on - Possibly because the project was a heavy rail) might have been too ambitious.  Project organization was not oriented the only connecting element of The expertise of participants on such projects towards integrated transport planning the municipalities in the region, it appeared to be defi cient. In particular the such as TOD, but more based on might be argued that there was amount of stops; it would be doubtful if enough traditional infrastructure concepts not enough commitment between pressure could be created on these stations, in (which consider the infrastructure them (and not as with general particular because developments around these in particular) – this structure did not partnerships, often established to stations did not have been enough promoted facilitate the integration of sectoral counteract various cross-border because of insuffi cient policies and policy- policies on mobility and land-use. issues and in different sectors adjustment. This also counts for the station (e.g. youth care and safety) which environments, which seem to be not well  The fi nancial mechanism around the ultimately can lead to more considered in terms density, building heights project was fi xed and not fl exible for commitment). and program. Maybe, and partly because of change (adaptive): within the project the level of public transport in the region, agreements the fi nancial contribution - (Private) actors were kept at where most towns and villages do not seem of the municipal stakeholders was distance. The relation between poor accessible, the project was not completely defi ned by a proposed number of provincial government and Pro oriented towards the needs of the region – and spatial developments per municipality. Rail was far from communicative, probably was more the result of an ambition Whether a municipality decided to there was no trust. Pro Rail was not which did not meet with the changing needs develop more or less than the agreed considered as a partner. over time. Also, it appeared to be diffi cult number, the contribution stayed fi xed. to create commitment because of ‘passive’ This has put participating municipalities - The provincial attitude and participation and the absence for a platform of

120 4. Conclusions & recommendations /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 4.1 Conclusions case study 121 (Design) recommendations for 4. Conclusions & recommendations 4.2 case study

Th e issues and their underlying causalities raise questions of how it could be done also. stations in their project agreements provincial government improved For example: How could the provincial government steer municipalities in their plans and was able to use a legal framework bias for negotiation by involving that supported such qualitative regional partnerships instead with or ambitions, in order to foster spatial developments (which are part of the RGL project developments within the transit zones. all the municipalities independently. agreement) around stations? How can diff erent (transport) transport modes or networks These conditions could be formulated This would have eased the decision- being adjusted on each other create enough transport value for the line? What organizational by all participants in for instance, an making process simply because fewer of institutional framework is needed to facilitate this? In terms of clientship: who takes arena or platform for discussion. participants would have been involved, responsibility? and because some municipalities in  The project agreements have shown the region miss the expertise for such that investment in the infrastructure complex projects (which the regional was linked to a key distribution of partnerships have). spatial developments per municipality. This allowed very little fl exibility. Better  Drawing on the subject of Both the theoretical and the empirical research organized by several project agreements with a adjustment in payment mechanisms communication, it might be argued appeared fruitful (e.g. degrees on integration fi nancial link between infrastructure and land- (which anticipate on economic if the institutional structure around of policies, station typologies, strategic spatial use developments, and in a supporting project changes) might have increased the the project (e.g. steering group) planning approaches); knowledge which organization with representatives of the involved chances for legitimacy of the project: did create the right conditions for can support the project at the case study, authorities). the provincial approach to spatial achieving commitment – basing on but also seems useful for similar transport planning could be more strategic in the interviews. If an atelier, arena of infrastructure projects in the Netherlands at From the perspective of this research, how using mechanisms such as ‘transfer platform for discussion and interactive regional level. An attempt is done to provide would the project have more legitimacy? Or is development rights’ (TDR), which communication was established, some recommendations for the case study this not possible because of governance culture allow for land trade-offs (between this might have facilitated more area, which ultimately can be translated to which does not support the project? Or would it municipalities). A second opportunity commitment between participants. (alternative) design suggestions. Before several have been possible to create more commitment can be seen in the contribution or This also gives opportunities to recommendations and a design are presented, with an open or shared vision, through investments of pension funds, which ‘test’ if there is the right governance the second main research question requires interactive participation like scenario making or have large fi nancial capacity. First culture to continue with the project. attention: gaming? Some suggestions are given below: signals of such developments in the In such arenas communication would What planning mechanism could address issues  Some of the interviewees have indicated Netherlands can already been seen not only take place vertically (by of governance, facilitate integration of policies that if the provincial government had a in participation of pension funds in provincial government), but also more and support the implementation of such a strong (integral) vision and concept for national infrastructure (NOS, 2012). horizontally (between municipalities the project, but open for adjustment or regional partnerships, but not project?  (participation), and one which facilitates The interviews as part of the empirical without supervision of the province) The answer on the main research question integration of infrastructure policies and research have shown that in terms and more interactively – workshops should be found in the mechanisms that land-use around transit zones – which of public-private partnerships, there could have been a good platform provide a (better) alternative. This question can be found in a concept as ‘transit was little trust between public and to realize such interactions because solution is oriented; it is focused on the delivery oriented development’ (TOD) – this (semi-)private actors. If the provincial they stimulate participation, mutual of a planning mechanism which anticipates on could have led to more transparency government was more open to (semi-) awareness and raise interests for the the issues which were at present in the case and commitment between stakeholders. private actors – in terms of the relation project (when the regional partnerships study area. Now these issues have become between the province and ProRail it were involved it would also have been clear, it is worth to look further in order to make  Because by the studies done on the could have been helpful to start an possible to organize such workshops). some suggestions. spatial differentiation of the region, alliance (a public-private partnership Examples of this can be found at atelier it became clear that this region was instead of client-contractor relation) ‘Zuidvleugel’ as part of the Stedenbaan There is of course, no single answer to this diverse; the line is crossing various for better integration of expertise, project, or the planning support tool question. However, in this paragraph an towns and villages with different investments and responsibilities. ‘Sprintstad’ (a game that facilitates attempt is done to give a possible answer characteristics. This means that if a TOD Also pension funds could become participation through interactive with the input of (a) the Dutch planning concept would be applied, preferably stakeholders in such alliances. scenario making). Such platforms have system, (b) the theoretical models and (c) the these characteristics should be been addressed in this thesis and are  fi ndings on the case study area. With this input considered. The results of the empirical research translated into the design alternatives some recommendations can be made. These have shown that the provincial below. recommendations may help in proposing an  Based on the concept of TOD (chapter government involved all municipalities improved institutional, spatial and process 2), the provincial government could independently during the whole The planning recommendations are elaborated design for the case study area (which until have formulated or stimulated process which required complex in a multi-dimensional design proposal for now – as far as you can speak of a design – conditions (e.g. mixed use, densities) a complex organization for doing the area that allows integration of different have been plans for a ‘classical’ railway project, for spatial development around communication. Possibly the concepts (from spatial, institutional and

122 4. Conclusions & recommendations /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 123 125 nance. fi ne the long- fi nancial capacity) could be nancial capacity) fi nancial capacity to invest in invest to nancial capacity fi documents to ease communication documents to with possible participants/stakeholders. & short-term 2 (Long-term Track actions) – Subsequently the provincial can de government and short-term actions. They can and short-term draw further TOD on the concept of the policies on by adjustment of mobility and land-use, their internal (the departments),organization their planning instruments, and a legal framework that facilitates implementation. participation) – 3 (Stakeholder Track for the project Because the initiative started that in Leiden, it can be stated stakeholders contact between potential once a clear However, started earlier. vision and concept has been elaborated on board. get other actors it is easier to This does not mean that the vision is not open for change, after the vision participants which has been presented, adjustment can create get on board which facilitates in a platform or arena participatory planning interactive scenario making. Accordingly (authority) can institutional structure Because the project. around be created number of a large crosses the RGL to it might be better municipalities with the existing regional negotiate the interest partnerships that represent ease to in order the municipalities, of negotiation. Besides, of the process such partnerships the expertise have of which the smaller projects large-scale do not have. (rural) municipalities The contact with (semi-private) facilitate dould be made to actors knowledge, expertise of integration this could For the RGL and investments. government mean that the provincial should start an alliance or public- partnership with ProRail, private relation. a client-contractor of instead Because public administrations often miss the also projects, infrastructure large-scale collaboration with pension funds (which high have in seen as a potential    4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study for 4.2 (Design) recommendations 4. Conclusions & recommendations 4. uence each other fl g. 4.2): fi rst an because this gives fi exible and need strong exible and need strong fl Track 1 (Long-term vision) – Once the 1 (Long-term Track decided to government provincial for a regional the responsibility take (the initiative as the RGL projects governance, started of at lower levels a higher agenda, to to brought but are other ambitions) to it is linked where their vision by a it can expressed concept (one that integrative strong supports land-use and of integration and support this - TOD) infrastructure vision with clear diagrams and structure rst proposed design, strategic spatial spatial design, strategic rst proposed fi  exibility in planning. This makes phasing of phasing of exibility in planning. This makes fl frameworks that allow and steer a high degree a high degree frameworks that allow and steer of highly important. projects long-term Therefore that the the design contains four tracks (note tracks in is not linear, process 4.2.1 planning spatial Strategic (process) The design. as process planning can be regarded on the principles stated The design is based (2004, 2006). As has been by Albrechts mentioned in this report, the institutions have be selective, to they have act strategic; to collaborative, operational theories). The multi-dimensional on the TIP is based for the area design proposal and Groenewegen Koppenjan ‘framework’ of a technical that next to (2005), who state design, an institutional and process (spatial) or model is needed for complex projects for the case The design proposals systems. to according also suggested are study area design these dimensions. Although the process designs for other facilitate to has the capacity – it is not fully integrated dimensions, they are However, not a meta-model which is presented. the designs do not stand on their own; most design is multi-dimensional. A process content will be suggested overview phases and because the different of the other designs. Note steering of its capacity suggestions and represent that the designs are been done if how it could have a situation of was restarted. the project and sometimes run simultaneously), according the theoryto ( Albrechts of

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Drawing on the fi nancial mechanisms 4.2.2 Transit oriented 3. Distinction in the hierarchy of stations important role. This would be crucial because around the project, it has been (according to the theory of Balz and of the spatial differences in the regions – concluded that the agreements development (space) Schrijnen (2009), or at least train stops as the empirical research has shown these between the participants where fi xed, and stations (with transit possibilities to characteristics seem vary according to the place and did not leave room for change. As has been addressed at the fi rst stage of other railway lines). the stations stops (e.g. the spatial environment These fi nancial agreements could have the process design, it is important that the of Boskoop is different from its neighbouring been supported with a mechanism provincial government makes use of a clear 4. Presenting the railway line in relation to town Waddinxveen) (fi g. 4.3 - next pages). In called ‘transfer development rights’. spatial and integrative concept that stimulates other modes of networks – the whole of order to apply such ‘tailored’ approaches of One mechanism for example, is participation of other actors and supports public transport networks in the region. TOD, the nodal typologies of Balz and Schrijnen one that allows exchange of spatial adjustment of policies regarding the project. In (2009) could be used. development rights between this respect transit oriented development (TOD) 5. Assimilation of spatial ambitions of municipal governments when they could be considered as a useful concept for the lower governments in the document Another recommendation to develop spatial are not able to develop the agreed RGL., with only when the characteristics of the (expansion areas) and placing this in design is that in an early stage, it might number of developments due of different station environments are taken into relation to the provincial ambitions. be important to keep the vision ‘open’ for unexpected changes. For instance, consideration. adjustment. These adjustments could be done when municipality A cannot build as 6. Presenting the locations of main according to the interests of participating much houses as agreed (and is not First it is worth to mention that the province function groups (offi ces, housing, stakeholders – the story should be built up able to pay the related contribution for would have benefi ted from acknowledging industry and shopping). together. Such a participatory planning process the realization of the infrastructure), and recognizing the spatial and programmatic with interactive scenario making could have municipality B can get the development qualities and its driving forces of the region. 7. Providing conditions for development encouraged more commitment and awareness rights of municipality B (together with In other words, the province has to address around station and presenting this in a between the participants. the related contribution of the line). the spatial characteristics of the region; they framework where recommendations for could have had a good story for the line if they mixed use of functions and for building Especially for the latter a ‘planning support  Track 4 (Basic process with citizens) – linked the concept of TOD to their concept for heights and densities (promote higher tool’ might be useful. The foundation In case of the RGL, the municipality of spatial development in the region of the RGL, density around stations). ‘Deltametropool’ has developed a corridor Leiden paid attention to the interest of and presented both concepts together on a simulation game, where municipal plans can For the legitimation of the project, it seems their citizens by holding a referendum vision document (fi g. 4.3 - next pages). Thus, be introduced. The software links the fi gures of important for the authorities to investigate (with negative results). It might be next to the RGL, the document should represent spatial development to the transport frequency spatial and programmatic characteristics in argued if this was the right instrument ambitions for the region, which places the on the railway infrastructure, places this in time their towns and villages, especially around for civil participation. Maybe it would project in perspective of the region. This means and presents the outcomes in variable diagrams the (planned) stations. Also densities, mix have been better if interest of citizens that the regional qualities should be addressed which are not hard to read – the software is of functions and building heights play an would have been paid in a more and mapped. The vision document contains interactive and open for adjustment (fi g. 4.4). consultative form (participatory or several aims and some conditions for station ‘open’ planning); invite neighbourhood developments (Boskoop and Waddinxveen used committees and citizen interest groups are used as an example): around the table – not in the latest stage but preferably earlier in the 1. The provincial government had the process already. This also counts for intention to keep the Green Heart free economic and environmental interest from spatial development as much as groups such as the KvK (who were possible by promoting development not able to do a fi nancial contribution in an axe from East to West called the in the project), the water boards or ‘Oude Rijnzone’. This can be linked ‘Natuurmonumenten’. to the concept of TOD, because the transport corridor follows this axe. The (parallel) steps that have been suggested Spatial development could be promoted in terms of process are further elaborated in a within the transit zones of the stations process diagram, which is explained in the next along the line. paragraph (4.3 – ‘Recommendations for similar projects in the Netherlands’). 2. Promoting spatial developments within the transit zones can also be supported with ‘green buffers’ or corridors between the station areas – discourage linear development.

126 4. Conclusions & recommendations /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras Fig. 4.4 Interface of planning support tool game Sprintstad (by Deltrametropool) 127 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

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128 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 129 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

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130 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 131 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

The involved participants of the RGL could became clear that with light rail (trams, subway) important because of its regional potential. strengthened, which may be useful in strategic have used this software in order to get clear it is usually the case to invest in accessibility However, it might be argued, such types of planning. understanding of the mutual programmatic fi rst and where after spatial development will development are unlikely to support a concept implications of the individual plans. This could follow. With heavy rail (train) however, it is more as TOD.  In terms of cross-sectoral relations have led to better and more fl exible adjustment likely to start with spatial developments (or the steering group (created by of developments around the line. Additionally, simultaneously with railway infrastructure) in What can be learned from this development? representatives of the involved this tool could have encouraged participation order to create pressure on public transport – That lower authorities are fl exible and creative institutions) should be oriented to both because actors are involved actively and results otherwise public transport will not be feasible or enough to change their plans. But more policies on mobility and land-use, and are directly visible – it can be regarded as a benefi cial and political support will be diffi cult. important that the agreements between endeavour adjustment of these policies strong communicative tool, which supports province and municipalities where so fi xed in order to support the concept of transparency between stakeholders. The latter can be seen in a development which that an opposite situation occurred; where a TOD. Therefore it would be desirable takes place at a neighbouring municipality of station normally is needed to fulfi ll the need for that different provincial departments This instrument incorporates a little of all three the case study area (Zoetermeer), where similar connectivity, here the arguments for a station integrate their policies. the dimensions of Koppenjan & Groenewegen; agreements (as the RGL) have been made changed during the process, which led to a it deals with the technical/spatial issues, between the province and the municipality for type of spatial function that would not have  In terms of inter-agency relations the supports institutional capacity building and realizing an extra station (heavy rail) together been there without the original plans – the actors could operate together more has a steering role in the process by interactive with a town expansion (Nederpel, 2012). The station became the aim and was not considered intensively and acting as one authority. communication between participants. Therefore province required the municipality to realize anymore as the instrument to achieve the aim. The provincial planning agency and it might be argued that the instrument would a certain number of spatial developments; ProRail in particular because it has have been a very appropriate planning tool otherwise it would not get the station. Because become clear that they are very for the RGL. Unfortunately I was not able to of the crisis, the municipality realized that dependent on each other. They can elaborate on this planning tool within this they were not able to accomplish the required 4.2.3 Institutional framework start an alliance or public-private research – it would have taken too much number of developments and considered partnership to adjust their policies and time to invite all stakeholders and organize themselves compelled to change plans in order (institutions) share their expertise and authority in workshops. to get the new station; they came up with the order to support the concept of TOD. This is a form of integration. idea to realize an outlet centre instead of a From the perspective of institutional capacity it residential or offi ce location – large enough is worth to take a look again at the degrees of  In terms of vertical territorial to attract a number of visitors from the region policy adjustment. In the empirical research a Improving connectivity or which is needed to get the station. Despite of integration, here considered as table has been used for ‘measuring’ the degree the interaction between provincial stimulating economic activity? the resistance from local entrepreneurs in the of integration, regarding several fi elds of city centre – fearing a backdrop of commercial government and lower public Regarding the concept of TOD it is worth to policies. The same table (table 4.1) can be used administrations, should take place give attention to the discussion whether railway and economic activities – the provincial to show what the relations should have been government recently approved the plans for the according to the level of coordination – infrastructure or its stations should be build instead. In the strategic spatial planning design territorial governments do not have to fi rst or if functional program such as housing, outlet centre and the new station. The province (process) the indications for the new degrees acknowledged the possible commercial and integrate (which would be a bridge too offi ces or commercial functions instead. From have been given already, but here follows an far for only the project as RGL, because the interviews of involved participants it economic decline in the centre of Zoetermeer, overview on how it was and of how it could be but considered the new outlet centre more governments also have other tasks in

Degreeofpolicyintegration Formofpolicyintegration Expressionatcasestudy Suggestedalternative Integration Coordination Cooperation SECTORALINTEGRATION CrossͲsectoralintegration Adjustmentof(provincial)policyareasonmobilityandlandͲuseinsteeringgroup X X RGLsteeringgroupshouldintegratepolicyareasonmobilityandlandͲuse(useconceptofTOD) InterͲagency(stakeholder)integration Adjustmentof(provincial)authorityandProRailorKvK X X StakeholderalliancebetweenprovincialgovernmentandProRail TERRITORIALINTEGRATION Verticalintegration Adjustmentofprovincialandmunicipalgovernment X Provincialgovernmentshouldcoordinateregionalpartnerships(insteadofsinglemunicipalities) Horizontalintegration Adjustmentofmunicipalgovernments X X Betteradjustmentbetweenmunicipalities(moretransparencyincommunication) ORGANIZATIONALINTEGRATION Strategicintegration Alignmentofstrategicspatialvisionsorspatialconcepts(provincialdepartments) X X Betteradjustmentbetweenprovincialsectoralvisions Operationalintegration Alignmentofdecisionmaking(sectorallegalplanningdocuments) X X Betteradjustmentofsectorallegalplanningdocuments Alignmentoffinancialagreementsormechanisms X X Moreflexiblefinancialarrangementsbetweenparticipants X=currentdegreeofintegration X=suggesteddegreeofintegration Table 4.1 Institutional design: proposed degree of policy adjustment

132 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 133 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 4. Conclusions & recommendations

their portfolio), but have to adjust their can be seen as a potential, because policies. exchange of municipal development rights (attached to the amount of  In terms of horizontal territorial contribution) break up the fi xed 0XQLFLSDOLW\ 0XQLFLSDOLW\ integration, here considered as the fi nancial agreements and allow for /HLGHQ =RHWHUZRXGH interaction between participating unexpected changes. municipal governments, could take place according to the degree of Another suggestion for an institutional design coordination; the municipalities should can be done in the way how the project 0XQLFLSDOLW\ 0XQLFLSDOLW\ be aware of their plans and actions, organization or authority is constructed. *RXGD 5LMQZRXGH communicate this with each other and Drawing on the issues of commitment adjust their policies where needed. The between participating authorities (of too 3URYLQFH same as for vertical integration counts much authorities being involved), and can =XLG+ROODQG here that integration between the be proposed that in terms of collaboration territories would be a bridge too far for the province could involve the partnerships the RGL only. in the authority or steering group, instead 0XQLFLSDOLW\ 0XQLFLSDOLW\ of all the municipalities independently (fi g.  As the suggested spatial design 4.5). This could ease the negotiations, and :DGGLQ[YHHQ $OSKHQDG5LMQ proposal (regional vision document) organization around the project. However, already showed, the provincial it has to be said that this construction is not 0XQLFLSDOLW\ government should communicate their without any risk; this construction makes it %RVNRRS policies and strategies by bringing more diffi cult for local authorities to legitimize them to the level of integration the project. As mentioned above a project (strategic integration). They could authority in the form of a public private-private integrate their sectoral (supported by partnership or alliance could be established various departments) concepts and with representatives of participating public and policies within the provincial structure private actors and NGO”s, in order to create a vision document, or in a strategic vision platform for discussion and a body that takes for the region in order to support the responsibility for the project. project and the concept of TOD.

 In terms of operational integration the provincial government could align 3URYLQFH their legal planning documents to the level of coordination, which are =XLG+ROODQG currently sectoral and not adjusted. For instance, the provincial land-use plans ‘inpassingsplan’ and various infrastructural policies can be better adjusted in order to support the concept of TOD – full integration of legal instruments would possibly be a bridge too far because some of these policies are generic. 3DUWQHUVKLS 3DUWQHUVKLS +ROODQG5LMQODQG 0LGGHQ+ROODQG The fi nancial mechanisms that have been used around the project could have been more fl exible. The empirical research has clarifi ed that participating municipal governments were facing diffi culties regarding the ambitious and fi xed fi nancial agreements for the line. Adding more fl exible mechanisms such as ‘transfer development rights’

Fig. 4.5 Inviting regional parternships instead of municipalities indepentently (and incorparate private actors by establishment of an PPS alliance) 134 4.2 (Design) recommendations for case study 135 4.3 Recommendations to similar projects in the NL Recommendations to similar projects 4.3 in the Netherlands

With the input of both theory and practice (of the empirical research on the case study area) the system of spatial planning of the Netherlands can be considered again, in terms of regional integrated infrastructure projects. It is not the intention to call the system into &RRSHUDWLRQ question, but just to show a personal understanding of the relations of infrastructure projects within the Dutch planning context, based on this research. What can be learned from the case study and what does this mean to other transport infrastructure projects within the Netherlands that ask for policy integration and regional, cross-border governance? 3RWHQWLDO VWDNHKROGHUV /RZHUDXWKRULW\EULQJV ORFDODXWKRULWLHV VXEMHFWWRKLJKHUDJHQGD VHPL SULYDWHDFWRUV 1*2V What needs to be realized is that these large (because in general, higher authorities have scale projects seem context sensitive: the more institutional, legal and fi nancial capacity). characteristics of the region play a crucial In terms of regional projects it would be likely $FWLYH 5HJLRQDO role – in spatial and socio-economic terms, that this would be done by the provincial SDUWLFLSDWLRQ 7UDQVSDUDQF\ DXWKRULW\ but also in political terms: local governance, government. After initiative has been taken over 3URYLQFH the governance culture and the institutional at provincial level, it can create an ‘open vision’; 2SHQYLVLRQ structures (the key actors in the region). This open in the sense that potential stakeholders means that the recommendations for this such is involved territories (municipalities, project do not count for all of such projects – at regional partnerships, water boards) but least not literally. Instead, a free interpretation also private actors and NGO’s could be part of the most crucial lessons can be given which of a participatory planning process through might be of importance when considering active participation which makes adjustment ,QWHUDFWLYH similar projects. Secondly, it turned out that of the vision possible. This supports mutual 3ROLF\ VLPXODWLRQ these projects are so complex because of such transparency between the actors, and creates DGMXVWPHQW 3ODWIRUPIRU a wide range of potential infl uential factors possibilities for an integral vision and for GLVFXVVLRQ (social, economic, political forces). This means policy adjustment. This could be done in a that recommendations always need to be project atelier or arena which functions as a interpreted from the context of the research. platform for discussion, and where interactive simulation can take place to study the options The understandings of such projects can be the of different scenarios., which could be done *RYHUQDQFHFXOWXUH best explained according a ‘generic’ process according to ‘planning support tools’ such as design (not completely of course, but only 3URMHFW 5HVSRQVLELOLW\ :LOOLQJWRFROODERUDWH" the game ‘Sprintstad’ as has been explained based on elements which regional transport above. The interactive process might lead DXWKRULW\ infrastructure projects seem to have in common to more commitment between participants. up to a large extent). This diagram (fi g. 4.6) Also, by creating this platform, governance explains a process for integrated transport culture can be ‘tested’: are these actors projects at regional level, according to some 3ODQQLQJ willing to collaborate? If this seems possible $JUHHPHQWV of the recommendations for the case study. /HJDO LQVWUXPHQWV a project authority can be established, with IUDPHZRUN The process recognizes and provides answers representatives of (semi-)public and private to the question of how local governments actors and NGO’s – preferably managed by (municipalities) can be guided and involved in an independent person or offi ce because these large infrastructure and spatial planning 0RQLWRULQJ of integrity. The project authority could be projects, and how this could be organized (who delegated with the tasks and portfolio around takes responsibility and who has the authority). the project, and with most responsibilities around policy-adjustment and collaboration. As happened at the RGL, the initiative for a Also the project agreements could be made and (part) of the project was taken at local level; coordinated by this temporary organization. a local authority or actor has the ambition It seems crucial that during the process the for a project and brings this to the agenda project (also in initiative phase) is constantly of a higher authority. The higher authority monitored by the authority, in order to support could take this project in its agenda, extend the legitimacy of the project and to learn from ,QWHJUDWLRQ the project portfolio and take responsibility the process.

Fig. 4.6 Proposed process of integrated transport planning at regional level

136 4.3 Recommendations to similar projects in the NL 137 4.3 Recommendations to similar projects in the NL 4.4 Recommendations for future research

This process shows how (policy) adjustment Th e research was multi-disciplinary, involving spatial content, institutional structures and and collaboration in a situation of divergent planning approaches. Th is also means that the research delivers a lot of new questions for interests where actors cooperate parallel could slowly reach the level of integration. Of course future research; within the fi eld of integrated transport planning, but also for the project of this process is not generic, but it shows what the case study area which is still subject to change. seems crucial for complex projects and what did not happen at the RGL project: creating commitment between (potential) stakeholders and creating a project which is integral by involving policies on mobility and land-use. The research on the case study area was interactive adjustment of mutual spatial mainly focussed on the plans agreed in 2005. developments and with transport Although new developments have been taken frequencies. into consideration also, the project still changes. In order to facilitate such processes within the Recently the provincial government has decided  For future research on the subject of spatial planning context – the daily practice to cancel the RGL project, but continues with integrated transport planning (in the of planning in the Netherlands – a shift in parts of the former project (e.g. new railway context of Dutch spatial planning) governance culture might be needed towards stations, new transport frequencies, new public it might be interesting to further a more collaborative form of planning, wherein transport concessions) to keep the region investigate resilience and adaptability provincial governments should take the lead, accessible by public transport. The knowledge of institutions on the uncertainty in and where local authorities could follow. which is gained during the process of decision- long-term planning – especially in making will be useful with future (cross-border) these times of economic crisis, where projects in the region. fi nancial capacity, demands and behaviour of actors seem to change  For further elaboration on the rapidly. It would be useful to investigate (leftovers) of the RGL-project it in how far there are fl exible planning seems very important that clear mechanisms that can anticipate on communication takes place between environmental changes (cultures, norms the involved institutions. Actors are and values) and support legitimization not transparent in their behaviour for long-term projects, such as ‘transfer so how can they be persuaded to development rights’ (TDR) might share their knowledge and expertise be helpful. For example, it could be regarding the project in order to create fi gured out how fi xed agreements commitment between participants? It is regarding spatial developments, likely that en environment needs to be linked to investments in transport created where actors trust each other. infrastructure can be broken up and Because developments change rapidly, how the development rights can be interactive communication seems to be redistributed by exchange between crucial. Therefore it might be worth to participating stakeholders or public study the possibilities of the corridor administrations. simulation game ‘SprintStad’ developed by the foundation ‘Deltametropool’  Another recent issue in terms of fi nance and to apply this on the project. This and feasibility of large infrastructure ‘planning support tool’ is not only projects is that public authority seems technical but also very communicative. to have less fi nancial capacity for The game studies scenarios of such projects. As has been mentioned integrated transport planning by in this report, public authorities are linking fi gures of spatial developments looking for new investors and are per municipality to transport doing experiments with participation frequencies interactively and requires of pension funds, which often have high active participation of potential actors. fi nancial capacity. It can be investigated This might enhance the chances for a what the role of these pension funds successful project; more transparency can be in terms of integrated transport in communication, improvement of planning – positively and negatively. institutional cohesion, better and more

138 4. Conclusions & recommendations /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 4.4 Recommendations for future research 139 5

Title Bibliography

About This chapter contains the references of the all the consulted sources for the research of this thesis. For the bibliography a distinction is made between literature resources and illustrations.

Keywords Books - Journals - Newspapers - Internet - Websites - Weblogs - Images

Paragraphs #5.1 Literature #5.2 Illustrations

Fig. 5.1 Photograph: ﬂ ora building Boskoop 141 5.1 Literature 5. Bibliography

Th is paragraph contains the list of all the consulted literature. Th is can be scientifi c literature Tool to a Normative Agenda. European FALUDI, A. (2000) The Performance of Spatial as books or journals, but also sources of daily practice like newspapers and websites. Planning Studies, 11:8, 979-999. Planning. Planning Practice & Research, 15:4, 299-318. DE BOE, P., GRASLAND, C. & HEALY, A. (1999) Study Programme on European Spatial FALUDI, A. (2005) Polycentric territorial cohesion Planning Strand 1.4: Spatial Integration, policy Town Planning Review, 76:1, 107- [Online]. Stockholm: Nordregio. Available: 118. AIDT, T. S. (1998) Political internalization of BAUD, I. S. A. & HORDIJK, M. A. (2009) Dealing www.nordregio.se/spespn/Files/1.4.fi nal. economic externalities and environmental with risks in urban governance: what pdf [Accessed 12 July 2006]. FALUDI, A. & VAN DER VALK, A. (1994) Rule policy. Journal of Public Economics, 69, can we learn from ‘resilience thinking’. and order: Dutch planning doctrine in 1-16. In: IFOU, ed. The New Urban Question DE GIER, A. A. J. (2011) Kan het tij worden the twentieth century. Dordrecht: Kluwer - Urbanism beyond Neo-Liberalism. gekeerd? Essaybundel over decentralisatie Academic Publishers. AKAÇ, R., DAALHUIZEN, F., PIEK, M., PIETERSE, Amsterdam and Delft. ruimtelijk beleid, 3-10. N. & VAN DER WAGT, M. (2005) Het FILION, P. (2009) The mixed success of nodes gedeelde land van de Randstad. Den BOELENS, L. (2009) The Urban Connection: DE GRAAF, K. & KLEIMAN, G. (2012) as a smart growth planning policy. Haag: Ruimtelijk Planbureau. An Actor-Relational Approach to Urban Bottom-up aan de macht! [Online]. Environment and Planning B: Planning Planning. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers. Gebiedsontwikkeling.nu. Available: http:// and Design, 36:3, 505-521. ALBRECHTS, L. (2004) Strategic (spatial) www.gebiedsontwikkeling.nu/actualiteit/ planning reexamined. Environment and BERTOLINI, L., LE CLERCQ, F. & KAPOEN, verslagen/bottom-up-aan-de-macht/ FLEISCHER, A. & TSUR, Y. (2009) The Amenity Planning B: Planning and Design, 31, 743- L. (2005) Sustainable accessibility: a [Accessed 20-10-2012]. Value of Agricultural Landscape and 758. conceptual framework to integrate Rural-Urban Land Allocation. Journal of transport and land use plan-making. Two DE VOLKSKRANT (2012) Crisis is niet de oorzaak Agricultural Economics, 60:1, 132-153. ALBRECHTS, L. (2006) Shifts in strategic spatial test-applications in the Netherlands and van leegstand. De Volkskrant, 19-12- planning? Some evidence from Europe a refl ection on the way forward. Transport 2012. FRANZEN, A. & LUIJTEN, A. (2011) Vrienden and Australia. Environment and Planning Policy, 12, 207-220. maken op de Provada: Overheid en markt A, 38, 1149-1170. DE VOR, F. & DE GROOT, H. L. F. (2010) zoeken nieuwe samenwerking [Online]. BIERMANN, F. (2007) ‘Earth system governance’ Agglomeration externalities and localized Gebiedsontwikkeling.nu. Available: http:// ALEXANDER, E. & FALUDI, A. (1996) Planning as a crosscutting theme of global change employment growth: the performance of www.gebiedsontwikkeling.nu/actualiteit/ doctrine, its uses and implications. research. Global Environmental Change, industrial sites in Amsterdam. The Annals verslagen/vrienden-maken-op-de- Planning Doctrine, secial issue of Planning 17:3-4, 326-337. of Regional Science, 44:3, 409-431. provada-overheid-en-markt-zoeken- Theory, 16, 11-61. nieuwe-samenwerking/ [Accessed 20-10- BONTIS, N., DRAGONETTI, N. C., JACOBSEN, DEPOORTER, B. (2006) Horizontal Political 2012]. ALLMENDINGER, P. & HAUGHTON, G. (2009) K. & ROOS, G. (1999) The Knowledge Externalities: The Supply and Demand Soft spaces, fuzzy boundaries, and Toolbox: A Review of the Tools Available of Disaster Management. Thirty-Sixth FRASER, E. D. G., DOUGILL, A. J., MABEE, W. metagovernance: the new spatial To Measure and Manage Intangible Annual Administrative Law Issue, 56:1, E., REED, M. & MCALPINE, P. (2006) planning in the Thames Gateway. Resources. European Management 101-125. Bottom up and top down: Analysis of Environment and Planning A, 41, 617- Journal, 17:4, 1-20. participatory processes for sustainability 633. indicator identifi cation as a pathway DIELEMAN, F. & WEGENER, M. (2004) Compact COX, J. C. M. (2005) Repertorium van de to community empowernment and City and Urban Sprawl. Built Environment, ANP (2012) ‘Grondbezit nekt vijftien procent Stadsrechten in Nederland - ‘Quod sustainable environmental management. 30:4, 308-323. gemeenten’ [Online]. Architectenweb.nl. Vulgariter Stratreghte Nuncaptur’. Den Journal of Environmental Management, Available: http://architectenweb.nl/aweb/ Haag: VNG Uitgeverij. 78, 114-127. redactie/redactie_detail.asp?iNTypeID=- DÜHR, S. & LAGENDIJK, A. (2007) The performance of spatial concepts in 1&iNID=27994 [Accessed 11-01-2012]. CURTIS, C. (2009) Implementing Transit Oriented GONZÁLEZ, S. & HEALEY, P. (2005) A regional-level planning policy text and Development through Regional Plans: A Sociological Institutionalist Approach to maps in the Netherlands. Regional AMATI, M. & TAYLOR, L. (2010) From Green Case Study of Western Australia. Farnham: the Study of Innovation in Governance Studies Association International Belts to Green Infrastructure. Planning, Ashgate Publishing Limited. Capacity. Urban Studies, 42:11, 2055- Conference: Regions in Focus? Lisbon: Practice & Research, 25:2, 143-155. 2069. CURTIS, C. & JAMES, B. (2004) An institutional Spatial Strategies and City Regions. BALZ, V. & SCHRIJNEN, J. (2009) From Concept model for land use and transport GRAHAM, S. & MARVIN, S. (2001) Splintering ESQUIVEL, V. (2010) The Informal Economy to Projects: Stedenbaan, The Netherlands. integration. 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Finland: Track 12: Victoria Transport Policy Institute Economy of Environmental Regulation RUBINTON, B. J. (2011) Crowdfunding: Mobility: Transport Planning and Policy. Available: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/ and Reform. Tulane Law Review, 73, 845- Disintermediated Investment Banking. tdm45.htm [Accessed 16-07-2012]. 921. In: ERRUNZA, V. (ed.) Advanced Finance TROUW (2001) Overaanbod kantoren in Seminar. McGill University. randstad dreigt. Trouw, 18-05-2001. WARTOFSKY, M. W. (1979) Models: Representation and scientifi c RTV RIJNMOND (2012) Grondexploitaties gevaar VAN BOXMEER, B. (2011) Samenwerken op understanding. Dordrecht, The voor gemeente [Online]. RTV Rijnmond. regionale schaal. Utrecht: Procap. Netherlands: Reidel. Available: http://www.rijnmond.nl/ nieuws/28-09-2012/grondexploitaties-

146 5. Bibliography /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 5.1 Literature 147 5.3 Illustrations

Th is paragraph contains all the references of the illustrations in this thesis, which are not made by the author.

Fig. 0.2: GOOGLE EARTH (2012) Adapted Fig. 4.1: WEGMAN, W. (2010) satellite image of landscape between http://www.wimwegman.wordpress.com Leiden & Gouda. Google. Fig. 5.1: STEDEBOUW & ARCHITECTUUR (2010) Fig. 0.3: ROCCO, R. (2012) Portret Jasper Bras www.stedebouwarchitectuur.nl for graduation studio Complex Cities. TU Delft. Fig. 6.1: BIKEPC (2012) Fig. 1.1: ABSPOEL, P. (2011) http://www. http://www.toerpraat.blogspot.com vrijspraak.wordpress.com Fig. A.1: PUMA, M. (2012) Fig. 1.2: MINISTERIE VAN INFRASTRUCTUUR http://ronaldpuma.wordpress.com EN MILIEU (2011) Ontwerp Structuurvisie Infrastructuur en Ruimte: Nederland concurrerend, bereikbaar, leefbaar en veilig. Rijksoverheid.

Fig. 1.4: VAN WEEZEL, T. G. (2011) ‘Randstad groeit razendsnel’. De Volkskrant, 11-10-2011.

Fig. 1.5: VAN KEKEN, K. (2011) ‘Voorstel superprovincie dit jaar op tafel’. De Volkskrant, 19-10-2011.

Fig. 1.6: WEEL, I. (2011) ‘EU tikt Nederland op de vingers over natuurbeleid’. Trouw, 18-10-2011.

Fig. 1.7: GOOGLE EARTH (2012) Adapted satellite image of landscape between Leiden & Gouda. Google.

Fig. 1.15: CBS (2011) Figures based on data CBS. www. cbs.nl

Fig. 1.16: CBS & EDUGIS (2011) Figures based on data CBS. www. cbs.nl & www.edugis.nl

Fig. 1.17: CBS & EDUGIS (2011) Figures based on data CBS. www. cbs.nl & www.edugis.nl

Fig. 2.1: MINDERHOUD, M (2012) www. wikipedia.nl

Fig. 3.1: WIKIPEDIA (2008) www.wikipedia.nl wefawe

148 5. Bibliography /// Thesis /// Jasper Bras 6

Title Appendix

Paragraphs #A Spatial planning in the Netherlands #B RGL project agreement: financial distribution #C Empirical analysis of the case study area #D Anaysis SprintStad (Deltametropool) #E List of interviewees #F Reflection

Fig. 6.1 Photograph: lift bridge Waddinxveen 151 A

Title Spatial planning in the Netherlands

About One of the supporting sub-questions raised in the introduction of this research (chapter 1) was: How does spatial planning work in the Netherlands? The question supports a study on the planning system, in order to get a basic understanding of the Dutch land use planning. This spatial planning environment can be considered as the arena of regional planning projects; the context of the case study, where and how decisions are made and what factors play a role in this.

Altogether this study should help in understanding the planning language, the governmental structures and available planning instruments which can be used in both the theoretical and empirical research. The study is done according to some elements, such as: the principles, the concepts and policies, the legal authorities (planning agencies) who are in charge of the spatial planning system, and the resources and instruments they use. An important additional question for this exploration is: what inﬂ uences the integrated planning process of a regional infrastructure transport project in the Netherlands, at regional level?

Most of the content of this study is based on the literature of Needham (2007) because the message of this study is rather explorative than taking a position in the ﬁ eld of land use planning. The work of Needham is characterized with its comprehensive but explicit overview of the Dutch land use planning – similar kinds of sources which give a total description of the complex system of Dutch spatial planning are very limited. It is therefore necessary to use some of his explanations.

At the end of this study some recent trends and debates that play a role within the daily practice of spatial planning within the Netherlands are introduced. These trends might have an inﬂ uence on integrated planning projects at regional level, and through this play a role at the case study.

Keywords Authorities - planning agencies - spatial concepts - legal power - instruments - coordination - trends

Paragraphs #A1 The content of Dutch spatial planing policy #A2 The public bodies involved in spatial planning #A3 The power of the planning instruments #A4 Intergovernmental relations #A5 Practices within Dutch spatial planning #A6 Learning lessons & conditions for research

Fig. A.1 Photograph: singel of Gouda The contend of Dutch spatial planning A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands A1 policy

It might be said that the process of spatial planning in the Netherlands is internationally Zonneveld (2012). The national government will be done (roughly) to see the infl uence of famous because of the ‘clear’ spatial concepts and policies which have been produced, does not seem to use strong spatial concepts (national) concepts and policies over time have to canalize urbanization anymore. Also spatial on the spatial and urbanization patterns in the especially on national level. Th is can be seen as an indication that public authorities and differentiation lost its priority at national region around the project. Also the extent to planning agencies had strong intentions and ambitions of how to deal with the land – within level – supporting concepts are missing. Thus, which municipal governments in the region this environment of spatial planning, it might be argued, the creators of the policies feel such principles can no longer be seen as the were willing to cooperate in order to realize the responsible for the use of the land. It might be questioned here which policies and concepts intention of the national government to steer project will be investigated. have been created and why? What are the purposes of spatial planning in the Netherlands? spatial development; such principles now more depend on the attitude of lower authorities (e.g. the provincial governments). A1.2 The history of spatial A1.1 The principles relationship between various activities concepts & policies in an area. Housing, schools, shops, Implementation of the principles employment and recreation must The national principles mentioned above are In order to communicate the principles and Over time, several principles have been used interrelate and close to each other. not always realized on the ground because ambitions the national government presented which can be considered as the rules behind the of confl icts of interests between national land their future spatial visions for the country development of concept and policies, the rules  Spatial differentiation. This principle use policy and local land use policy. It can be in a series of national planning documents: that impose how to act in land-use planning. comes out of the wish to avoid argued that this is partly the result of differing ‘National Policy Document on Spatial Planning’ uniformity and monotony, from another principles of the national government and the (Nota Ruimtelijke Ordening) (table A.1). Within perspective; attractiveness should provincial and municipal government – who these documents the planning principles were be created and maintained by a high do not always follow the principles of national often supported with strong spatial concepts Principles of the national differentiation of activities and a clear government but have own principles instead. (Hajer & Zonneveld, 2000; Lambregts & government distinction between countryside and Zonneveld, 2004; Dühr & Lagendijk, 2007). That the Dutch government has high ambitions historical town centres should be Provincial and municipal governments can Offi cially, the following documents have been in term of spatial planning can be seen in maintained in terms of density and be enforced by the national government produced: the principles formulated by the national characteristics. to implement their national policy, but its government. In an analysis of the policy of the powers were not always strong enough to  1960: ‘First Policy Document on Spatial national government since the fi rst Ńational  Spatial hierarchy. In order to sustain the do so (for specifi c purposes however, such as Planning’ (Eerste Nota Ruimtelijke Policy Document on Spatial Planning´ in viability of towns and cities and realize infrastructural policies, the national government Ordening); 1960, the Scientifi c Council for Government spatial differentiation and facilitate a has obtained more legal power recently – partly Policy ) Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het high level of services the principle of since the law on spatial planning has been  1966: ‘Second Policy Document Regeringsbeleid – WRR, 1998) claimed to be spatial hierarchy contains the relation changed). Besides, provinces and municipalities on Spatial Planning’ (Tweede Nota able to identify fi ve ‘basic principles’ of that of size and grade of facilities. The make land use policy in the interests of their Ruimtelijke Ordening); national policy. These are the following (WRR, bigger the centre, the higher the range own citizens. This will pass the revue further in 1998). of facilities. For instance, it makes this thesis.  1974: ‘Third Policy Document sense that an airport is situated near on Spatial Planning’ (Derde Nota  Concentration of urbanization. This Amsterdam rather than close to a small Ruimtelijke Ordening); principle is an expression of the wish to town. avoid urban sprawl and aims that urban Results on the ground  1988: ‘Fourth Policy Document development should take place in or  Spatial justice. In order to avoid It is interesting to notice the impact of such on Spatial Planning’ (Vierde Nota around existing towns and cities so deprivation and living conditions below policies and to see the results on the ground. Ruimtelijke Ordening); the open country and the agricultural the minimum standards it is aimed that It appeared to be very diffi cult to address  land stays free of urban development. people should have access to good the spatial implications as a result of certain 1992: ‘Fourth Policy Document on At the same time this should lead to facilities and services (work, schools, policies or institutional structures – which is Spatial Planning Extra’ (Vierde Nota high quality services in towns and shops) in their direct environment. being acknowledged by Zonneveld (2010). It is Ruimtelijke Ordening Extra: VINEX); cities, reduce the need for mobility but therefore that there is hardly any clear research It cannot be concealed that these principles  2001: ‘Fifth Policy Document on Spatial sustain public transport instead. to be found. In his work Needham (2007) change over time; it is questionable in how far gives a few statements away from which one Planning’ (Vijfde Nota Ruimtelijke  Spatial cohesion. In order to avoid these principles still hold, especially since the is quite relevant to the subject of this thesis: Ordening); mono-functional development – which national government is transferring powers ‘Cooperation between municipalities in order to  2004: ‘National Spatial Strategy’ (Nota contributes to long journeys between to lower authorities recently. Two of the basic make and realise land use policy at the regional Ruimte); different activities – it is aimed that principles, ‘concentration of urbanization’ and scale is still scarce and problematic’ (Needham, there should be a good geographical ‘spatial differentiation’ have disappeared, argues 2007: 52). Within the case study, an attempt A1 The content of Dutch spatial planning policy A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

National Policy Document on Spatial Planning Policies Concepts Philosophy  2011: ‘National Strategy on Heart was more refi ned to the level of large- 1960 Eerste Nota Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling ANTI-SPRAWL: COHESION: Infrastructure and Space’ (Structuurvisie scale conurbations and megapolis (Lambregts 1966 Tweede Nota Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling Central open space (CORs) Randstad/Green Heart Spreading welfare and Infrastructuur en Ruimte). & Zonneveld, 2004) the country was divided 1974 Derde Nota Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling (measures targeting and urban Bundled deconcentation relocation over regions towards by Western, Southern and Northern Wings, development and housing expansion) Ring Central Netherlands perhipheral areas Probably the most famous concept that connected by an extended urban system that 1988 Vierde Nota Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling Urban Nodes Mainports returned in (and survived) several of the was considered as the ‘Urban Ring Central 1992 Vierde Nota Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling Extra (VINEX) ABC-locations SPATIAL COORDINATION: national documents is the twin concept of the Netherlands’ (Dühr & Lagendijk, 2007). Ecological Main Structure (EHS) Deltametropolis/Randstad Holland ‘Green Heart’ and the ‘Randstad’ (Lambregts 2001 Vijfde Nota Ruimtelijke Ordening City-region COMPETITIVENESS: 2004 Nota Ruimte Spatial quality Compact towns & Zonneveld, 2004). This concept was meant Subsequently, in 1988, the national government Regions on their own strengths Mixed land use Urban networks for the west part of the country, where most presented the ‘Fourth Policy Document on 'Layers approach' Decentralization economic and spatial activity takes place. In Spatial Planning’, that contained a more 2011 Structuurvisie Infrastrastructuur en Ruimte Mainports/greenports/brainports ?? general this should prevent the heart of the compact concept of urban nodes spread Decentralization area (qualitatively regarded as the area where over the country: public investment was to Table. A.1 Overview of National Policy documents, policies and concepts of spatial planning most natural or cultivated landscape could be concentrated on these nodes so private be found, in the west part of the country) investments should follow (Needham, 2007). from spatial development by supporting With the ‘Fourth Policy Document on Spatial development in a shape of a ring around the Planning Extra’ (VINEX) in 1992 In 1988 a trend center. Note that a large part of the case study break followed, with the concept of compact area is located in what used to be the area of town: lower authorities should build within or as the Green Heart. near as possible within their existing towns and cities, that were well accessible by high quality But over time, also other strong spatial planning public transport and near to employment and concepts have been presented by the national recreational facilities (Needham, 2007). documents. The national government wanted to prevent the country from uncontrolled Also, since the ‘Fourth Policy Document dispersed development or urban sprawl, on Spatial Planning’ presented in 1988, the since suburbanisation was seen as one of idea of cohesion has been replaced by the the major threats in the post-war period (fi g. provocation of spatial competitiveness (since A.2). Similarly, there was the fear of strong then regions have to compete and build on urban concentration (Dühr & Lagendijk, their own strength) (Dühr & Lagendijk, 2007). 2007). Accordingly, the government wanted The Randstad should function as a polycentric to prevent the pressure on the Randstad by metropolis in order to compete internationally promoting prosperity over the whole country. with other agglomerations (e.g. London or Therefore, the national government promoted Paris). In the ‘Fifth Policy Document on Spatial cohesion by spreading welfare and relocation Planning’ this ambition was translated to towards peripheral areas during the fi rst three the ‘Randstad Holland’. Eventually (also by national planning documents between 1960 the ‘National Spatial Strategy’ of 2004), the and 1985. One of the most famous anti-sprawl concept of urban networks was introduced: concepts in this period was the concept of polycentric model would be supported with bundled de-concentration (promoted by the the connection of city-regions and wings by third document): ‘development should take eight identifi ed urban networks. Within this place outside the existing towns and cities, document also the concept of compact town but ‘bundled and not dispersed.’ (…) people was enforced with policies as red contours and jobs should be actively moved out of (that where drawn around towns and cities the Randstad, to small towns which would where spatial development should take place) be greatly expanded.’ (Needham, 2007: 55). and green contours (for areas that should be Possibly, the effects of this concept are also prevented from urban development) (Needham, visible in the case study area, since a town 2007). The National Spatial Strategy of 2004 as Alphen aan den Rijn (located at the case also contained policies as mixed land use study area) was dedicated as one of the (stimulating multiple spatial functions in an generously sized grown towns that should area), the ‘layer approach’ and the ‘Ecological be well accessible by car. In the second and Main Structure (Ecologische Hoofdstructuur – third ‘Policy Document on Spatial Planning’ of EHS) which are explained further in this section. 1996, the twin concept of the Randstad-Green

Fig. A.2 History of the spatial policies, spatial development and infrastructure in the Rands- A1 The content of Dutch spatial planning policy A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

Because of the idea that networks became more The document contained a policy for ‘bundled The municipal policies are expressed in local that town centres are attracting people for their important (concept of urban networks), the deconcentration’. This means that “development land use plans which are legally binding. Most residential activities the subsidiary centres are latter National documents where dominated by should take place outside the existing towns of all the municipalities want to grow and not a threat. another concept that could ‘…encourage inter- and cities but ‘bundled’ and not dispersed.” make land use plans for new housing and municipal collaboration between core cities (Needham, 2007: 55). Thereby employment employment areas abutting the towns and as surrounding suburbs and communities, to and housing should be taking place outside villages and thereby refuse the national policy pursue both economic and spatial aims (Dühr the Randstad and be concentrated around of concentrated development. The national Policy for rural areas & Lagendijk, 2007: 14): spatial coordination small towns (groeikernen). With the ‘Fourth government has the power to make the land In the Netherlands governments always have (chapter 2). National Policy Document on Spatial Planning’ use plan invalid. However these plans often had relatively strong policy for rural areas. And (Vierde Nota) of 1988, the policy changed already have been made and contain a building as mentioned above land always has to be With the most recent planning document, the to concentrated development where public capacity. When the national government wants used, which also counts for rural land – whether National Strategy on Infrastructure and Space investment should take place around urban the municipalities to change those plans this it was for agricultural use or for recreation. But it seems that the decentralization process nodes (stedelijke knooppunten). The policy in could bring big claims because the land owners what happened and what is left from this rural (which has been introduced with the National the ‘Supplement to the Fourth National Policy will ask for compensation of development landscape? What sort of policies do the Dutch Spatial Strategy of 2004) has been intensifi ed Document on Spatial Planning’ (Vinex) of 1992 value. have for rural areas? (De Gier, 2011). Furthermore it supports a more supported the ‘compact town’. New housing integrative approach to sectoral policies on was concentrated in seven regions, defi ned by The provincial policies are different from each Because the surface of the Netherlands, which infrastructure and space. However it can be three criteria: the amount of houses that can be other. Some provinces have loose policies to is relatively small compared to other countries argued if the most recent planning document built within existing built-up areas; the amount avoid confl icts between different actors. Others – commuting distances between town and contains clear concepts that concern the of houses that can be can be built abutting the have very strict policies for the protection countryside and the cities are relatively short – national level of spatial planning. From the existing area; the remaining supply should be of open space. One of the policies which are ‘the whole country is a potential development fi rst national planning document to the most developed as near as possible to existing towns being used is called ‘allocating house building location’ (Needham, 2007: 77). Given this recent it can be seen that the orientation of and cities and be connected to high quality contingents’ which tells how many houses each situation whereby building land has a higher these documents has slightly shifted from public transport and nearby green facilities town or village is allowed to build the next ten value than agricultural land, the temptation concentration to a focus of deconcentration on for recreation. This policy was accompanied years. Another policy provinces are working for farmers to sell the land for development is spatial development. with another strong policy for the protection with is expressed in ‘red contours’, which has often relevant. Therefore, it is not strange that of the countryside. With ‘Fifth National Policy been described above. there is a long tradition of policy making for The national planning documents contained Document on Spatial Planning (Vijfde Nota) of rural areas. various other spatial planning policies. Besides, 2001 the lower authorities got more freedom spatial policies also have been developed at for spatial development but where obliged to The policies for rural areas are often related regional level. This means that the policies can do this within strict conditions such as ‘red and Policy for towns and cities to the function of the rural landscape, which be subdivided between the different layers of green contours’: ‘red contours where drawn One policy in the category towns and is often being used in different ways: for government. Additionally, policies are made around existing settlements and new building cities which is worth to mention; it restricts ‘public utilities’ (infrastructure, fl ooding areas at different departments (sectors). It might be must remain within those contours. Green competing developments outside the city for water), as ‘a playground for urbanities’ worth to take a look at how the various subjects contours were to be drawn around rural areas centre. According to the principal of spatial (the inhabitants from the cities use the rural of planning policies have been developed at which were to be strictly protected and where hierarchy mentioned above shops could only landscape for recreation), as a ‘historical different scales, regarding: no development was to take place. The rest of be built within the built up area. ‘Peripheral’ park’ full of monuments, or as a landscape the country was called ‘balance areas’ where shopping centres (PDV) where rarely allowed with ‘traditional’ natural functions with a  policy for the location of new housing; small developments were to be permitted if and only with a limited amount of shop. Due of rich biodiversity (mostly natural reserves) – they improved the countryside.’ (Needham, the pressure of property investors since 1993 dedicated as ‘cultivated landscape’. It may be  policy for towns and cities; 2009: 56) The ‘National Spatial Strategy (Nota it is permitted to build ‘large-scale’ shipping clear that a location cannot fulfi l all of those Ruimte) of 2004 contains six ‘concentration centres (GDV) bigger than 1500 metres, functions and that these often confl ict with  policy for rural areas. areas’ around existing settlements. The details on the location of urban nodes (stedelijke each other, which also counts for the related policies for those functions. Some of these Each of these policies change over time and are for development where left to the provinces knooppunten), and only if the province gives policies are relevant for the project, and are different can be described through the changes and the municipalities. Municipalities with approval. However, most of the municipalities being explained below. in time and being explained from national, small towns and villages where allowed to did not want competition with their own town provincial and municipal level. build according to their own ‘natural growth’ centres so the development of big shopping (natuurlijke bevolkingsaanwas). In the most centres is still quite limited. Because residential As mentioned above the Green Heart can be recent national planning policy ‘The National areas have been built further away from seen as the most famous spatial policy concept Strategy Infrastructure and Space’ (Nota the town centres and in lower densities the of Dutch planning (fi g. A.3). Nevertheless, the Infrastructuur en Ruimte – MIenR, 2011) is inhabitants have become more car dependent. concept always remained relatively abstract; the Policy for the location of new drawing further on this line by focussing on Therefore subsidiary centres have seen the national government never really succeeded in housing the main (economic) regions (mainly in the light. These are big centres located along public elaborating the concept into specifi c policies for The national policy for the location of new Randstad), by giving lower authorities more transport nodes and contain mostly big retailers preservation of the area (Akaç et al., 2005; Kooij, housing was fi rst expressed in the ‘Third room for spatial development and allowing less (furniture shops, for instance) and are tightly 2006). In the nineties of the twentieth century, National Policy Document on Spatial Planning’. concentrated development. planned according to market demands. Because and especially with the ‘National Spatial A1 The content of Dutch spatial planning policy A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

Agency, the Dutch Association for the A to B, between work and living. Therefore Conservation of Natural monuments, the locations of houses and workplaces or the provincial nature management are dispersed. In his work Needham (2007) agencies); comes up with the following question which gives a good direction, concentrating on the  leaving the land in private ownership relationship between land use planning and (usually farmers); traffi c: ‘…what should be the content of land use policy, so that people are able to make  through normal land use planning the trips they want to, without causing the regulations. problems (…) as noise and pollution from traffi c, congestions and traffi c jams, crowded trains Rural areas can also be protected from urban together with a vulnerable public transport development because of a great historical network, a landscape cut up by motorways value. Therefore policies for landscape have and railway lines…?’ Some policies are worth to been introduced. One of the policies is called mention: ‘Belvedère’, which is applied for areas from some of which are included in the ‘UNESCO  ‘Fairly intensive development’ World Heritage List’. Rural areas have been (concentration of development) with designated as ‘national landscapes’, ‘provincial fair distances for trips on foot, by bike landscapes’ and as ‘national parks’. Also some or by bus. of the areas function as ‘green buffers’ which prevent region between towns and cities from  ‘Policy for intensive development’ which urban sprawl but preserve opportunities for did not work out because most Dutch open-air recreation instead. cities have been built in low densities.

As mentioned earlier towns and villages want  ‘ABC-location policy’ which is a to grow in terms of housing and employment policy that defi ne different types of (according to natural growth of the local workplaces in order to reduce transport population) and are allowed to do so (by activities – (A) near to high quality national policy – ‘National Spatial Strategy). public transport, (B) accessible by In addition these areas are confronted with public transport and by car, and (C) Fig. 2.3 Supposed contours of the green heart a moving out of local services and facilities accessible only by car. The types of (the school, the bakery) and a changing social accessibility where interlinked to types composition (elderly people from the cities of land use and function with (A) as Strategy’ of 2004 the concept has been more spatial qualities should be more imbedded in move to countryside). Policies for the viability of the most intensively used, dedicated refi ned in different quality zones with: (a) ‘urban regional visions – did the provincial government rural areas have been introduced for that. to offi ces and with (C) as the less landscapes’, (b) ‘experience landscapes’, and (c) do this? intensively used, and dedicated to ‘cultural historical landscapes’. This approach Because of the diffi culties to deal with all the industry. However this policy failed to did not last long (the current national spatial But there are more rural policies worth separate policies for separate land uses which succeed. strategy of 2011 does not pay attention to this mentioning. For the protection of the has led to ‘messiness and fragmentation’ anymore). It would be interesting to see what biodiversity policies for nature are being the need for integrated visions for the rural  ‘TOD’ (transit oriented development) the impact of this concept has been on the case introduced. Four types of protected areas landscape where increasing. Therefore which is a policy that is to intensify study area (which is located in the middle of can be distinguished: nature reserves integrated rural development has seen the development around nodes of public this former ‘zone’): was the national concept (natuurbeschermingswetgebieden), areas under light. The rural areas should be planned in transport (together with a higher strong enough to prevent the area from the European policy ‘Natura 2000’ (Containing an integrated way. Mostly provinces work frequency and capacity of the public urban development? One of the interesting the European bird directive and the European according to such a planning policy for rural transport network). recommendations that can have been made habitat directive) and areas under the national areas. and which might be useful for the empirical policy for an ‘ecological main structure’ (EHS) – In the course of time the impact of the research can be found in a report of the ‘Spatial some of these areas overlap. The protection of In terms of accessibility, mobility and traffi c European Union has become bigger. EU policies Planning Offi ce’ (Ruimtelijk Planbureau – PBL) the areas can be done in three different ways: it might be argued that the Netherlands is a have become more infl uential on the way the (Akaç et al., 2005). The report concluded with country of commuters. Because of its small land is used in the Netherlands. As has been an advice that for a successful elaboration of  acquiring the land and putting them size but with a high concentration of nodes said above the ‘Natura 2000’ has been a very the concept of the Green Heart, it should be into the ownership of a specialist (in the west) – located within small distances infl uential policy, but also air quality guidelines more worked out on regional level. Hereby organization (the National Forestry from each other – people often move from – quite often Dutch planning authorities seem to struggle with such policies. The public bodies involved in spatial A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands A2 planning

Spatial planning has been addressed by its purpose and by the concepts and policies which which deals with spatial planning was WGR(+) Regions & regional are created to steer the land-use, or spatial development. Such concepts and policies are called ‘VROM’ – Volkshuisvesting, partnerships developed by institutions, which are legally authorized by law to operate within the daily Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer There (have been) some regional bodies (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning – different cooperating municipalities – practice of spatial planning. Actors involved in spatial planning can be public bodies, and Environmental Policy) but this institutions, governments or their departments of spatial planning (spatial planning agencies) with regional planning tasks. This was has recently being changed into facilitated by the ‘Joint provisions act’ (Wet but also semi-public bodies, such as the transport authorities as NS or ProRail. the ‘Ministerie van Infrastructuur en gemeenschappelijke regelingen – WGR). In Milieu’ (Ministry of Infrastructure and 1994 this law have been empowered: the Environment). municipalities had to give away some of their powers to the new regional governments It often happens that the executive body or relevant provinces. The powers of the decides formally to make a statutory plan A2.1 The planning agencies it. This policy is called ‘dualism’. For regional government was expressed in a under the guidance of someone of the municipalities it is not obliged by law to regional structure plan, whereby the regional executive body: the alderman (municipality), have a department of spatial planning. governments became planning agencies. There In the Netherlands there are three tiers the deputy (province) or the minister (national always has been a lot of tension between of governance (national, provincial  Province the ‘Provincial Council’ government). When fi nished, the (draft) plans regional and municipal authorities, whereby and municipalities), each with its own (elected representatives) and the are waiting for provisional approval by the the latter did refuse the policies of the higher responsibilities and statutory powers (for ‘Provincial Executive’ (the Crown’s elected representatives. The plan will become authority. The regions were identifi ed from a making statutory plans) (fi g. A.4). In terms of Commissioner and the ‘deputies’) are legally valid if the elected representatives higher level. spatial planning the term ‘planning agency’ is working according the same policy of decide to adopt the plan. The public may have being used. In his work Needham describes ‘dualism’. For provinces too it is not any objections (a formal appeal) against the Since 2006 WGR+ regions have seen the light. planning agencies as followed: ‘The term obliged by law to have a department adoption of such plans. The regional bodies where now longer planning ‘planning agency’ is used to refer to a body of spatial planning. The role of the agencies – only the municipalities instead. The of the public administration which has the Next to the planning agencies with statutory province can be considered very provinces are able now to oblige a group of statutory task and responsibility of preparing powers there are many more public and semi- important since the national authority municipalities to work together (cooperate) and executing land use policy for its area, and public bodies involved in spatial planning, but is transferring its powers to lower if a regional planning approach for housing, which has been given statutory powers to they do not have a formal responsibility for authorities and is less concerned employment locations, transport, recreation or do that.’ (Needham, 2007: 122) (drawing on spatial planning. with spatial planning. The provincial urban open spaces is desired or required. This Alexander & Faludi, 1996). government can be seen as the is also expressed in a structure plan, in rules intermediate authority, dealing with The powers and responsibilities are for the for economic development and policies for regional issues (e.g. infrastructure, industrial estates, offi ce locations and shopping planning agencies are determined by law, adjustment of spatial functions) A2.2 The ‘regional gap’ defi ned by: centres. In fi nancial terms there must be rules which are not important enough for for dividing the costs of infrastructure and of national government, but are too  National planning agency: Dutch In the Netherlands there is no public land development between the municipalities. complex for municipal governance Therefore it could be questionable why the area Constitution (article 21) because such issues cross-borders administration at the ‘regional level’. The country is too small for a permanent fourth of the case study, the Rijn-Gouwe Lijn (RGL) and because of mutual competition never has been classifi ed as a WGR+ region.  Provincial planning agencies: Act between municipalities. The provincial level of government. The problems here are regulating municipalities (article 108) arising because ‘municipalities are often too government therefore might play a Additionally it can be mentioned here that next very important role at the case study. small to tackle problems as public transport,  Municipal planning agencies: Act to WGR(+) regions also ‘regional partnerships’ The roles of the provincial authority are transport planning, housing and local economic regulating provinces (article 105) deal with regional issues (such as adjustment explained further in this thesis. policy (…) provinces do not have a strong tradition of decisive power.’ (Needham, of functional program, or development of Within each layer of government various organs regional infrastructure). In that respect regional  National government the ‘Cabinet’ 2007: 125). Another important issue is that have a role in spatial planning. It is important to partnerships are similar to WGR regions except (executive body with members municipalities are often ‘jealous of their understand these relationships because of the for the important factor that they do not have chosen by the political parties in the autonomy and refuse to give up any powers legitimacy of large development projects, which legal authority (in terms of spatial planning) majority) and the ‘Parliament’ – the to the provinces’ (Needham, 2007: 125). It also counts for the case study area. Within the: – regional partnerships are often voluntary Second Chamber (directly elected might be argued however, that the role of the provincial government in addressing regional based, and can be regarded as (temporary)  Municipality the ‘municipal council’ representatives) and the First Chamber and dynamic or fl exible forms of governance, (indirectly elected representatives) issues is changing – they are ought to take (elected representatives) has the more responsibility and to play a more serious of different municipalities working together. responsibility for the general content have the responsibility for the general Regional partnerships represent the interest content of the policy. The ‘Ministries’ role in this, which is explained further in this of the policy and the ‘executive board’ thesis. of mutual dependent municipalities who feel (mayor and aldermen) for working (civil servants) work out the policy committed and feel the need to strengthen out that policy and implementing (and implement it). The ministry their region. Such partnerships also have A2 The public bodies involved in spatial planning A3 The power of the planning instruments

Public bodies The water boards are public bodies – the oldest bodies with public powers in the National Th e bodies of public administration (not the semi-public bodies) have certain responsibilities Netherlands, older than any other body of in terms of spatial planning. To carry out those responsibilities they are allowed to use public administration – in the sense that they are responsible and accountable for water instruments – plans or documents – by law. It might be argued that these instruments defi ne management and thereby, should serve the to a large extent the legal powers of an authority – the legal resources. But how much power interest of the public. These water boards have do the agencies have? Th e diff erences between these plans are described in this paragraph. Provincial a long tradition in water management and have an indirect infl uence on spatial planning because they are able by law to make water management plans, which statutory planning agencies have to take into account when making A3.1 Statutory plans planning agencies on higher levels their own spatial plans. Therefore water boards only had indirect infl uence on land are an important player if it comes to spatial use, because only the municipality planning. The areas for which the water boards Spatial plans which are regulated in the was allowed to make a land use plan). are responsible for often do not correlate with Spatial Planning Act (Wet op de ruimtelijke Municipalities want full control so they the municipal and even provincial jurisdictions ordening – WRO) are called statutory plans. The have made plans which cover their (cross-border). This sometimes brings forward planning agencies are allowed to use planning whole jurisdiction. Besides guidelines instruments (spatial plans) according to this for allocation, land use plans contain Municipal diffi culties in arrangements and the making of new spatial plans. law. Since 2008 the law has been replaced by a lot of regulations (such as building the New Spatial Planning Act (Wet ruimtelijke regulations). ordening – Wro). With the introduction of the Wro planning agencies have seen new planning Since 2008 the municipal land use plan is still in Semi-public bodies instruments appearing and disappearing. charge but currently a serious debate is going Important semi-public bodies can be found in Thereby the power of a planning agency on to replace the municipal structure plan by a the public transport sector. The biggest railway increased or decreased. The trend is that so called ‘environmental law ’ (omgevingswet) Fig. A.4 Tiers of government company in the Netherlands are the NS - higher authorities (planning agencies on the – complex integration of various laws that and levels of planning agency ‘Nationale Spoorwegen’ (National Railway lines) provincial and national level) get more power concern spatial planning – which is more – a semi-public fi rm. They are public in the sense due of these changes in the instruments they fl exible (gives more possibilities especially in are allowed to use, especially if it comes to expertise (e.g. regarding complex, large scale that they have a similar responsibility (they are terms of regeneration), but is appearing to be the implementation of projects (fi g. A.5). The projects such as infrastructure) which small responsible and accountable for the service and weaker than the current land use plan. Hereby changes will be mentioned also (former plans participating municipalities sometimes do facilitation of public transport and thereby serve the trend of a decreasing power for the lower are grey coloured, new replacing plans are black not have. In some cases regional partnerships the interest of the public. They are semi-public authorities and an increasing power for the coloured). First the total plans (comprehensive, have created a ‘regional fund’ which allows because they have to make profi ts since they higher authorities will be continued. containing several subjects and sectors) are for negotiations and bids around large scale been privatized by the national government. described, followed by the plans with a specifi c  Municipal structure plan projects, and for bringing such projects on The national government still holds shares in the purpose (as the name says, with one subject (structuurplan): For a municipality it the agenda of a higher authority (chapter 3). company. During the privatization the national such as water or infrastructure). The latter will is not obligatory to make a structure At the case study area the RGL-project, ‘does railway company has been split up in two fi rms not be explained into detail. plan. A structure plan is used by the an appeal’ on three regional partnerships each with their own responsibilities: ProRail municipality to set out the desired (Holland Rijnland, Midden-Holland, and the (which is responsible for the railway lines), and future development and could be seen Rijnstreekberaad). It will be interesting to see in the NS (which facilitates the public transport as a framework for the investment how far these partnerships have played a role in by making use of these lines). Within this plans of the municipality, and as a the project and what the relation between them construction both companies have to cooperate. Municipal plans framework for coordination of various has been (more than just a connection by the Together they are responsible to everything sectoral plans as housing, transport RGL). what has to do with railway transport planning.  Municipal land-use plan Thereby they have a signifi cant (in)direct (bestemmingsplan): A municipal land and employment. In terms of power the infl uence on spatial planning. Direct because use plan is extremely powerful because municipal structure plan is very weak together they have a lot of land property (along the municipality (before 2008) is the because it does not contain a lot of restrictions. A2.3 Public and semi-public railway lines) – land ownership gives a lot of only one who can make these types rights in terms of spatial planning. Because the of plans. The land use plans is legally Since 2008 the municipal structure plan case study concerns a transport infrastructure binding and is the only type of plan bodies has been replaced by a so called ‘municipal project (railway line) it is expected that such wherewith a building permit can be structure vision’. The ‘independent project semi-public bodies as NS and ProRail played a issued. This makes that municipalities In the Netherlands there are (other) public procedure’ has been replaced by a ‘project plan’. signifi cant role in decision-making around the (where) in the exclusive position to and semi-public bodies which do not have the line. infl uence land use directly (and thereby responsibility for spatial planning but do have a signifi cant infl uence on that planning. Some of these bodies are mentioned below. A3 The power of the planning instruments A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

 Municipal structure vision allowed to make to make ‘provincial imposed (structuurvisie): According to article land use plan’ and a ‘project plan’. 124 of the Constitution municipalities are now obliged to make a structure  Provincial structure vision vision for their jurisdiction. The (structuurvisie): For here the same differences between a structure plan counts as for the municipalities: the and a structure vision on municipal structure vision replaced the structure level are minimal. The structure visions plan, but than on provincial level. The are indicative just like the structure difference is that a provincial structure plans but give more direction towards plan had more legal power than the the structure of fi nancing. municipal structure plan. The provincial structure vision seems to be less  Project plan (projectplan): Where restrictive than the provincial structure the municipality was allowed to make plan. exceptions (or where the land use plan could be changed afterwards) for  Provincial imposed land-use plan its own land use plan for important (inpassingsplan): The power of the projects that did not stroke with the provinces in spatial planning has latter, they could make use of an increased since they are able to make ‘independent project procedure’. The the land use plans. This makes that 1DWLRQDO 1DWLRQDO 1DWLRQDO ‘project plan’ (which does not seem provinces are able to issue building VWUXFWXUHYLVLRQ ODQGXVHSODQ SURMHFWSODQ to be different) will replace this. The permits too, where formerly only LQSDVVLQJSODQ :DER policy is extremely powerful because municipalities where allowed to do so. it is able to break with the land use Provinces are able now to infl uence the plan. Since 2010, the project plans are land use directly. incorporated in the so called ‘Wabo’ regulation (Wet algemene bepalingen  Project plan (Wabo): With the omgevingsrecht). introduction of the project plan for municipalities the power of the provinces increased even more. Also 3URYLQFLDO 3URYLQFLDO 3URYLQFLDO here counts that where fi rst only the VWUXFWXUHYLVLRQ ODQGXVHSODQ SURMHFWSODQ Provincial plans municipality was allowed to make LQSDVVLQJSODQ :DER (some kind of) project plan, now also the province is allowed to do so. When  Provincial structure plan a project plan on provincial level is (streekplan): The planning agencies on being made, a municipality has no provincial level were expected to make possibility anymore to block or delay similar structure plans (as municipalities the proposed project. do), with the same purpose of setting 0XQLFLSDO 0XQLFLSDO 0XQLFLSDO out the desired future development of VWUXFWXUHYLVLRQ ODQGXVHSODQ SURMHFWSODQ the area. However, provincial structural LQSDVVLQJSODQ :DER plans are heavier than the structure plans of the municipality because they National plans

/HYHOVRI SODQQLQJDXWKRULW\ are ‘self-binding’: ‘it binds the province  A national spatial planning key /HJDOSRZHURIVWDWXWRU\ to act in accordance with its own plan, decision – PKB (Planologische SODQQLQJGRFXPHQWV but it does not bind others (…) with its structure plan, the province regulates Kernbeslissing): The spatial planning how it will give or withhold approval.’ policy of the national government (in relation to the municipal land use (was) expressed in several ways (and approved according to the same /RZSRZHU +LJKSRZHU plan) (Needham, 2007: 134). formal procedure) – the national KLJKÁH[LELOLW\ ORZÁH[LELOLW\ Since 2008 the instruments of the provinces spatial key decision (PKB). A national have been extended. The provincial structure policy document (nota) is expression plan has been replaced by the ‘provincial of this policy worth to mention. This Fig. A.5 The legal instrumentarium of planning agencies structure vision’. In addition, the province is now could be seen as a national spatial A3 The power of the planning instruments A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

plan containing projects of national for line infrastructure (national roads, for rural areas. Where a municipal land- importance. In a key decision says what railways, canals and other waterways). use plan prevents the land from change the national government intends to do, The Trajectory Act (tracéwet) was being (passive), the land-re-adjustment and how this needs to be implemented. used for these types of infrastructural schemes are made to change the land A key decision also helps in the projects. Nowadays the national use in rural areas (pro-active). The law coordination of the actions of various government presents a ‘multiple year for the land re-adjustment recently national government departments. program of infrastructure and transport‘ changed into ‘Wet Inrichting Landelijk In the form of a project of national (Meerjarenprogramma Infrastructuur, Gebied’ – WILG. importance a key decision has direct Ruimte en Transport – MIRT) every year. consequences for the provinces and Projects within this program are worked municipalities concerned. out together with regional authorities and get national or regional priority. A3.2 Less spatial policies, Since 2008 the PKB’s have been replaced by In addition, fi nancial arrangements the ‘national structure vision’ and the ‘project (often with subsidies from higher more legal power of national importance’ by the ‘project plan’. governments) between the concerned Together with the provinces the national levels of authority are made for the In general terms, basing on the change of planning agency is now allowed to make a land implementation of those plans. It is policies a trend can be seen that (despite of) use plan too: a ‘national imposed land use plan’. expected that such policies have a national government is having less policies major infl uence on projects such as and less concern for spatial organization  National structure vision within the case study, because involved (structuurvisie): The national structure considering the ‘whole’ area of the Netherlands municipalities have very little to say (except for some areas of national priority). vision seems to have the most from if an infrastructural project becomes the ‘national policy document (nota)’ Contrarily, another trend can be noticed that MIRT-labelled (when it gets priority of due of these instrumental changes (of planning – which is one of the expressions of national government). the PKBs – as explained above. The instruments, since the introduction of the new planning law in 2008 and regarding the vision contains the areas with national  Water: Both the planning agencies ongoing changes in legal reforms within public importance which should grow in and other public bodies – the water management) higher authorities obtain more future. boards as explained earlier – make legal powers (with the national government water management plans for the in particular) – they now have the authority to  National imposed land use plan country, for parts of the country, develop land-use plans, where originally only (inpassingsplan): Also the national regional or local. Some of them municipalities where allowed to do so. This planning agency is now allowed to a made by public bodies: ‘National tendency of higher authorities obtaining more make a land use plan like municipalities water management plans’ (Nota legal powers but simultaneously having less and provinces. Hereby they have Waterhuishouding), ‘water management spatial concern by retreatment of policies and appropriated similar powers for land plan’ (waterhuishoudingsplan), concepts does not sound very logical, it even use planning. ‘management plan for river basin’ can be argued if this makes sense. Nevertheless, (stroomgebiedbeheersplan), a reason for this development might be found  Project plan (Wabo): Project plans ‘management for parts of river basin’ in higher governments wanting to have more made by the national government (deelstroomgebiedsvisies), ‘management powers to guarantee the implementation of are similar to the ‘projects of national of rivers and deltas with national (infrastructure) projects (such as the national importance’ now have been replaced. responsibility’ (beheersplannen freeways) with a specifi c purpose and with Also here counts when a project plan rijkswateren), local water management ‘national priority’. Also for the case study area on national level is being made, neither plans. Some of them made by the this shift in powers and policies regarding the municipality nor province has no water authorities: ‘management infrastructure projects might be infl uential. possibility anymore to block or delay plans’ (waterbeheersplannen), ‘plans the proposed project. for managing water defence works’ (waterkeringsbeheersplannen).

 Land re-adjustment schemes A3.3 Non statutory plans Plans with a specifi c purpose (landinrichtingsplannen): The municipalities are the only planning Next to all the statutory plans which have to  National plans for line infrastructure authorities which are allowed to be made according to law, there are many (trajectnota’s) / MIRT: The national make ‘land re-adjustment schemes’ other plans that are being made by all planning government has the responsibility (landinrichtingsplannen). This happens authorities but which are regulated by statute law. This can be plans for such as: fl ying kites, infl uencing public opinion, attracting investors. A4 Intergovernmental relations A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

An indication has been given of the power which diff erent planning instruments (spatial are the spatial policies by each of the three tiers used in practice for horizontal coordination, plans) give to the planning agencies and other public bodies. However, the relations between of government which are different but are being however these are intended for national level. applied for the same area. Within this structure A more useful mechanism – and relevant for those still have been undescribed. Next to these ‘vertical’ relations between diff erent levels of the municipal government has the strongest the case study area of this research – is the government there are also ‘horizontal’ relations between diff erent policies, between diff erent policies – they have active planning policies horizontal coordination between transport and bodies and diff erent stakeholders running and operating parallel to each other. A distinction whereby they are taking new initiatives. spatial policies; there are various mechanisms between coordination and cooperation can be made here: the word coordination can be used to coordinate these policies on different scale for the organization of policies and cooperation can be used for process of working together. The highest authority (national government) levels (international concepts such as Transit can always win from lower authorities, but then Oriented Development (TOD) are quite popular might expect claims of land owners (which at the moment). have powerful rights) due of unexpected devaluation of their land when spatial plans One other mechanism worth mentioning is the The relations will not be described in detail due of rapid changes in economy, society and of lower authorities are blocked. In general formation or regional bodies (on regional level) here; appropriate models will be discussed in politics it can be argued if this polder model we see that project plans (explained above) WGR(+) which have been mentioned above. the theoretical framework, and practices in the is still relevant, especially in terms of spatial give a higher authority the capacity to oblige Here horizontal coordination is diffi cult because empirical part of the thesis (case study). For planning. In the analytical part of the thesis, a lower tier of government to adept their plan a large number of municipalities have to work the region at the case study area it would also within the case study area this debate will pass or policy to that. In that sense project plans are together. This practice is often accompanied extremely powerful and have a high level of with vertical coordination between different be interesting to fi gure out what the history of the revue again. ‘coordination’ is in the area – if there is a culture implementation. tiers of government. of policy alignment and of working together. A study on the degrees and distinctions of Consultation between the different tiers of Not only coordination between spatial policies operational forms or policy adjustment (the government often took place in the past. is taking place, it also counts for policies of extent to which policies are integrated) in order A4.2 Coordination However, it might be argued that the climate other public bodies like the water policies of the to assess the case study, is explained in chapter of the polder model – the willingness for water boards. (2). consensus to serve the public interest – is The process of spatial planning as practiced changing and gets more a juridical character in the Netherlands works according to several with different tiers of government involved in types of coordination (fi g. A.6). Three types law cases. ‘Diagonal’ coordination of coordination can be distinguished: vertical, The mechanisms for vertical and horizontal A4.1 The ‘polder model’ horizontal, and diagonal coordination (from coordination are part of the structure of the which the latter can be seen as a combination of planning system. There are also theories the vertical and horizontal coordination). Before the ways of coordination and Horizontal coordination on ‘diagonal’ coordination, which implies cooperation can be explained the ‘polder Next to vertical coordination Needham a combination of horizontal and vertical model’ needs to be mentioned. Internationally also describes horizontal cooperation in his coordination (this comes close to the regional the Netherlands always have been famous for book: ‘Horizontal coordination refers to the bodies WGR(+) or regional partnerships, this model of consultation. The polder model Vertical coordination coordination between policy sectors within one explained above). However, for this type of Needham gives a defi nition for vertical draws its name for the fact that the Dutch government level.’ (Needham, 2007: 146). So coordination there are many other expressions coordination: ‘Vertical coordination refers to have a long tradition in managing polders. The this refers to the different ‘sectors’ (ministries – for instance, the type II governance of the coordination of spatial policy between the water boards (as explained earlier) where the or departments at one tier of government) Hooghe and Marks (2003) and the theory of various levels of government levels.’ (2007, pp. fi rst public bodies supported by civil society, which accommodate different ‘facets’. At the Transit Oriented Development (TOD) which 142). imposed with the task to reach consensus out lowest tier (the municipal level) the cooperation could also be seen as a model of diagonal of different interests for one bigger purpose: between the different policies of the different coordination because vertically and horizontally The public administration of the Netherlands departments is the easiest: the structure participants are involved. These diagonal preventing the land from fl ooding (which was can be described as a ‘decentralized unitary the shared public interest). of the bodies is not complex because their constructions are often temporary, fl exible state’ (gedecentraliseerde eenheidsstaat): small scale. At the highest level (the national and used for large projects (which also counts hereby the public powers are distributed over This process of consultation instead of fi ghting government) coordination is the most diffi cult for the case study area of this research – and three levels of government. out a confl ict has been embedded in Dutch because the large ministries legally operate therefore these constructions could be a serious independently (it has to be said that they often option). The different expressions of ‘diagonal’ society. It often has been the purpose to ‘get However, this is not a strict hierarchical system cooperate). On national level there have been coordination will be discussed in chapter (2). win-win-situations’ with compromises between where national government determines alliances (meekoppelende belangen) between concerned participants to achieve that. This also everything what happens and where lower different ministries. Nowadays the trend is has been the case in terms of spatial planning. authorities only carry out the aims of a higher that ministries are merged together (to reduce With the polder model, it often takes a lot of authority. There is a general policy which counts the number of ministries and to stimulate time and effort to achieve a broad level of for all tiers of government, but more important support (consensus building). However, perhaps coordination). There are different mechanisms A4 Intergovernmental relations A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

A4.3 Cooperative mechanisms so that the company is not subject to the procurement rules of the EU. The company has the task to of acquiring Cooperative mechanisms, it might be argued, land in the plan area, servicing it, and refer to the operational structure – of how disposing of it. different bodies (with strong personal interests) work together to realize a project.  Concession model: the land is Such organizational structures can however, acquired, serviced, and built upon by represent degrees of coordination or one or more commercial developers. integration as described above (because within The municipality cooperates on such structures often (sectoral) policies need condition that the developer to be aligned). In practice cooperation takes cooperates: and vice versa. place between different public bodies (planning agency and water boards), between public and In theory different forms and different semi-public bodies (planning agency and the expressions (or just other names) of PPS, other national railway company), and between public than the models above can be found. These bodies and private actors (public agency and theories and different conceptual models of real estate company). Within this thesis the PPS as well as models which are closely related focus is on the latter option of cooperation to PPS – such as Transit Oriented Development (between public bodies and private actors) – (TOD), wherefore alliances can be made to this understanding might be useful for the case support this concept – will be discussed in the study area, were also semi-public bodies (e.g. theoretical framework (chapter 2). ProRail) have been involved in the project. An ofﬁ cial model for public-private cooperation practiced in the Netherlands is ‘Public-private partnerships’ (PPP/PPS). When different actors operate within one partnership or alliance it might be regarded as a form of ‘integration’ (chapter 2). In order to introduce such alliances or public-private partnerships the models according to Needham (2007) are explained.

Public-private partnership (PPP/PPS) In his book Needham (2007) addresses three types of public-private partnerships (pro-active Fig. A.6 Vertical and horizontal coordination planning) practiced in the Netherlands: with or without regional level of authority?  Building claim model (bouwclaimmodel): commercial developers buy land in the plan area and then sell it, voluntarily, to the municipality.

 Joint-venture model: a private limited liability company is set up by developers and municipality together (a ‘land development company’ or (grondexploitatiemaatschappij). The shares in the company are divided between the various partners, sometimes under the condition that the municipality owns less than 50 percent, A5 Practices within Dutch spatial planning A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

roles and responsibilities of planning agencies has become the important mediator of both only have taken place in the fi rst decade of planning process and policy between different Now the daily practice or mechanism of spatial planning in the Netherlands have been the twenty-fi rst century (Mastop, 1991). Due levels of authority – especially in the case of of changes in instruments and legal authority regional issues that cross municipal borders. explained, it would be useful to see what developments change this mechanism, or the use related to spatial planning practice, a shift of it – what are the current trends and within the fi eld of spatial planning, (how) do these of power between planning agencies can be Regarding several articles that have been developments change the context or perception of spatial planning, and what could this mean noticed. This has resulted in new actor relations written before the very recent developments for integral transport planning? Although some of the changes already have been introduced and in new responsibilities. The fi rst signals (Mastop, 1991; Hajer, 2003; Salet, 2006), it might above (instrumental and legal changes) they are part of some of the discussions within the were given by the national planning documents be expected that this process of devolution of presented by the national planning agency that powers by national government brings new arena of spatial planning. showed that new national policies were drawing challenges for lower authorities (at provincial less on the spatial principles and supporting and municipal level). With a retreating national concepts (addressed above). Secondly, the government as a director and facilitator of recent reforms in the national law on spatial planning policy and practice lower authorities planning in 2008 (Wet op de Ruimtelijke have become more dependent on each other The following discussions are recognized from such as the increasing demands for housing Ordening ‘WRO’ became the Wet ruimtelijke – spatial planning slightly has become more the perspective of this research: and infrastructure (Faludi & Van der Valk, ordening ‘Wro’) and the continuous reformation decentralised. Simultaneously, due of budget 1994; Needham, 2007). These nationwide process on public has given lower authorities cuts on public government, local governments  The shift of power between planning spatial issues asked for a national approach to more power and responsibility in daily practice in particular are struggling with the increased agencies; spatial planning. Subsequently, the national of spatial planning. Especially the provincial pressure on their daily activities (Zeilstra, government took its responsibility, seeing it as 2012; VNG, 2012); municipalities have limited  The changing attitude of planning planning agencies are now delegated with a serious task to provide answers. Therefore its capacity to deal with a wider range of tasks. agencies; tasks that originally were taken into account by national planning agency reinforced power in national authority (De Gier, 2011). The province In order to support regional adjustment on order to carry out nationwide spatial planning  Changing structures of operation; is now expected to act as a facilitator of the urban development and to enhance operation policies on housing and infrastructure. Since planning process and is expected to behave as capacity, provincial and municipal governments then, the role of the national planning agency  Changing development initiatives; the major composer of spatial planning policies. are dealing with questions whether they always remained particularly strong compared But also municipal agencies are dedicated should coordinate or integrate. At the moment to planning agencies at lower levels (province  The insuffi cient use of the spatial with new specifi c planning tasks from which changes in public management can be seen and municipality). The national planning agency structure. they do not know how to deal with or have at local level, where (an increasing number always produced clear national policies which enough capacity for. We might speak here of of) municipalities decide to integrate with These discussions are recognized because they have been represented in a series of planning a devolution of powers which has been put neighbouring municipalities in order to deal might (have) infl uenced the project together documents that relied on strong spatial in motion by national government – at this with issues (e.g. youth care, environmental with its organizational structure and the principles and concepts (Faludi & Van der Valk, moment the national authority preferably safety, adjustment of housing: tasks that ask decision-making process at the case study area 1994; Van der Valk, 2002). considers areas and projects which are of for a regional approach and which are relatively – at least it the understanding of the current ‘national importance’ as their portfolio. It new for them – because earlier this was the task This does not mean that agencies at lower levels debates helps to place the issues in perspective. might be argued that regarding these high of higher authorities) (Rijksoverheid, 2012c,d). had nothing to say: while spatial policies mainly The themes are described not only according priority projects the national government has At regional level changes in public management belonged to the domain of national planning through the recent changes; historical appropriated some of the powerful instruments are is expressed in for instance the role of agencies, the legal structure (laws) allowed developments are explored also. which originally belonged to the exclusive responsibility at provincial governments, who municipalities a lot of freedom in daily practice domain of municipal authorities – now both tend to take their role as a director more of spatial planning. The municipalities were national and provincial planning agencies have serious – they try to coordinate participation authorized to deal with land-use; they had the the right to use an ‘inpassingsplan’ (land-use of municipalities in regional projects that cross capability to use legal instruments (for instance plans), with similar legal capacity as a municipal municipal borders (Van Boxmeer & Vliegenberg, A5.1 The shift of power a ‘bestemmingsplan’ or ‘land-use plan’) to act ‘bestemmingsplan’ (land-use plan) (Needham, 2011). If governments are capable to do so or in as a merchant in land-use management. This between planning agencies 2007; 2011; De Gier, 2011). how far they succeed in this need to be fi gured gave municipal planning agencies an extremely out with the project of the case study. powerful position within the daily practice of In general, considering both the changing The observations on the system of spatial spatial planning, while at the same time these attitude of the national government’s attitude Thus, for regional infrastructure projects such planning in the Netherlands show that there is where the agencies that often acted with the to spatial planning (obviously represented by as the railway project in the case study area the a strong relation between the different levels absence of a strong spatial concept or policy their national planning documents) and the role of the provincial might be crucial. of public authority – or in terms of spatial (Needham, 2007). reformation process on legal powers (changing planning; between levels of planning agencies. laws) it can be stated that spatial planning  Are they capable to manage or At the beginning of the nineties gradually But relationships between levels of authority content (policies, principles and concepts) has coordinate such project that crosses a discussion started on what role provincial change. become business of lower authorities, while various municipal borders? planning agencies should play within spatial legal power has been obtained and enforced A shift of power can be seen in the post- planning practice, especially in concern of at higher levels of authority (De Gier, 2011).  Do they have the right legal powers or war period after the WWII, when public regional issues. However, real changes in the Within this process the provincial government instruments? authorities where facing major challenges A5 Practices within Dutch spatial planning A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

A5.2 The changing attitude of strengthen qualities within their region. villages, towns, cities or region should develop. A5.3 Changing structures of The agencies are expected to think about their planning agencies In the Netherlands, planning agencies have future (orientation) and to act according to their operation access to a wide range of planning instruments ambitions. Therefore they have to be strategic In public management governments at all layers that have different degrees in terms of legal and selective, think in terms of qualities and Planning agencies manage and regulate the are delegated with a wide range of tasks and power (as illustrated above in this study). potentials, and need strong concepts and spatial developments within their jurisdiction with associated responsibilities (from social care Regarding their degree of legal power and visions to encourage potential stakeholders. (as mentioned above in this study). What also to education facilities). In order to deal with restriction, it can be argued that some of these Thus, where public authorities usually work has been addressed is that in general, the these sectoral responsibilities governments are instruments better fi t the profi le of conformance according to the principle of conformance agencies steer these developments by policies subdivided in several departments or ministries. and some support the attitude to performance. (with their land-use plans) these current and concepts, driven by ambitions (which gets The departments that deal with issues related According to the themes of conformance and developments mostly refer to the profi le of less priority at national level at the moment to spatial planning (the planning agencies) performance a distinction can be made in performance. but becomes of bigger importance for lower are operating according to legislation – they project plans (or blue-print plans) and strategic authorities). are expected to regulate spatial developments plans (Faludi, 2000; Albrechts, 2004; 2006). This In that respect, it can be argued that the focus and facilitate processes that are needed to can be translated to the instruments of the of public authorities (their agencies) on the When a planning agency wants to develop at achieve these developments. Planning agencies Dutch planning system (generally): aspect of performance has become more a certain location or initiates an infrastructural participate and try to resolve the social, important. It can be expected that, together project for instance, the agency has the  Conformance (conformance based / economic and spatial issues that appear within with the trend of the devaluation of powers ability to decide how they want to develop comprehensive / land-use planning / their jurisdiction and that cross their path – they of national government – and the weakening this project. It can choose between different government-led / regulation plan) act passively (Needham, 2007). This role of national principles and concepts on spatial fi nancial and organizational structures (which planning (Zonneveld, 2012) – lower authorities often are closely related to each other – chapter planning agencies can be seen as the attitude Instruments of Dutch planning such as provincial and municipal governments 2). In general, these structures can be seen of conformance. But planning agencies are not practice: land-use plans (municipal are more dependent to have a story and in different degrees (Hale, 2008). The project just facilitators; they make (spatial) policies, ‘bestemmingsplan’ and provincial/ vision for their region. Especially for provincial can be completely supported by one or more operate according to principles and concepts, national ‘inpassingsplan’) and initiate projects, driven by ambitions. From agencies (and municipalities together) the public authorities (in terms of fi nance and/ question arises in how they want to strengthen this perspective – and within the discourse of  Performance (performance based or organization); in that sense it is a project of current planning theories such as ‘strategic their regions from a qualitative point of view. public concern whereby government has total / selective / actor engaging / The provincial agencies need to have strong spatial planning’ (Albrechts, 2004; 2006) – government-led-but-negotiated-form control. Another possibility is a structure which agencies are more selective and oriented concepts and stories for that – and for regional is more open to the market, to the semi-public of governance / providing a framework projects that support regional development. towards the embedding of qualities, whereby (for actions)) or private (or even civil) actors. In most cases they strengthen and benefi t from those such actors become stake- or shareholders of It can be seen that regional infrastructure qualities. In this role the planning agencies the project; they are one of the investors of Instruments of Dutch planning projects – and especially railway corridors operate according the attitude of performance the project. Investment in a project is often practice: structure vision plans cross transit nodes of other public transport (reactive). Within this role the agencies can strong related to the risks the investor is taking. (municipal/provincial/national lines – ask for strong (and selective) visions for even go a step further by supporting pro-active These projects of joint interests by different ‘structuurvisie’) the infrastructure itself but also for the spatial forms of planning through active participation types of stakeholders are often named as and programmatic developments around in planning projects (Needham, 2007). In general, it might be argued that planning a ‘public-private partnership’ (PPS or PPP). the corridors (Tan & Bertolini, 2010). It can The investment in a project is often strong documents which are less restrictive allow be questioned if involved public authorities The way a public agency should operate more freedom for the translation of ambitions related to the risks the investor is taking. The according the idea of conformance or have enough experience or expertise and the advantage of PPP’s for public authorities is and concepts. With the recent reforms in the right knowledge for using their instruments of performance can be seen as a point of national law on spatial planning in 2008 (Wet that they bear less risk because this is often discussion – some theories still argue that the performance (e.g. structure vision documents) spread over the different stakeholders. At op de Ruimtelijke Ordening ‘WRO’ became the to facilitate such projects. government should only act as a facilitator Wet ruimtelijke ordening ‘Wro’), agencies at all the other hand this is also a disadvantage for and with the absence of strong policies public authorities because this often means levels of governance are now to authorized to  Are these instruments appropriate? (Boelens, 2009). Originally, it is common for develop a structure vision planning document that they have less to say and have to negotiate planning agencies to play a role which most (structuurvisie) for their jurisdiction. The  Do the public agencies have the right between the different interests. There is also resembles to conformance (they are supposed structure plan can be seen as a planning attitude to deal with their new roles? the possibility of a project which is totally to act according to their legal power and document that relies on a clear future vision fi nanced and organized by private actors. In responsibilities) (Needham, 2007). In how far and that represents the ambitions of an agency, such cases the role of public authorities in agencies play a role of performance varies whether or not, based on interests of local and general is restricted to verifying and issuing strongly – it depends on each agency in how far regional (private or civil) actors. Regarding the building permits. Because of the long tradition they have ambitions for their region, in how far introduction of this instrument, agencies are in public authorities having strong policies, such they are willing to cooperate and participate on supposed to have a vision on the way their private structures are relatively uncommon in relevant issues and in how far they embed and the Netherlands (Needham, 2007). There is also A5 Practices within Dutch spatial planning A. Spatial planning in the Netherlands

the possibility where projects are initiated and from a traditional public structure with only (Provinice Zuid-Holland, 2012; Rijksoverheid, The question arises if these bottom-up funded by individual citizens, civil committees public actors participating, to more complex 2011). The same counts for small projects that processes will be of importance when it comes and NGO’s and whereby projects are funded by structures such as public-private partnerships, have strong interest of higher authorities – to regional projects such as railway lines. Such the ‘crowd’ (e.g. crowdfunding) (Howe, 2006; that are open to active participation of actors because of strong national policies the national projects might be too complex and require too Rubinton, 2011; Van de Laar, 2012). or stakeholders in mixed diversities, not agencies had strong impact on some specifi c much expertise to be initiated and created by only public, but also semi-public, private, or local projects, such as the implementation local citizens. It is more likely that projects of During the twentieth century the public NGO’s and civil committees. Within this time of community or neighbourhood centres. this scale stay a matter for institutions (whether structure has been most common. It has been of crisis, where long-term visions on large However, because of national government public or private) that have enough knowledge since the 90’s that the structure of public- projects cannot be realized without any short- which is less concerned with local issues (except to develop such projects. This does not mean private partnerships gained serious interest (in term visions, represent the need for fl exible for their key areas with national priority) similar that ideas for regional projects cannot start for instance, area development – the VINEX- investment strategies instead of fi xed fi nancial situations are not likely anymore. bottom-up (by citizens). In this respect it might locations) (Franzen & Luijten, 2011). PPP’s models that where common. be questioned to what extent local views can be are still relatively popular – although applied The dialogue between top-down and bottom- taken into accountable ‘strategic projects’ and on small scale for specifi c projects as town  But is this happening in practice? up is not limited to layers of public governance how. Furthermore it can be argued that there halls, because in these times where the crisis with legal authority. Generally, the term are possibilities for the integration of bottom- hits the market it is hard to fi nd investors for  Do involved stakeholders have the bottom-up is used in planning theory that is up strategies when such projects or parts of it large projects (infrastructure) that want to expertise to this? concerned with Third World or developing are in need of short-term solutions or visions bear (shared) risks. Nevertheless, regarding countries (Graham & Marvin, 2001), with a (think about CIBOGA-complex in Groningen) to some discussions PPP’s are the solution of presence of strongly fragmented cities that are (De Graaf & Kleiman, 2012; Van den Ende, this moment (to manage complex projects), characterized by physical separation of slums 2012). in a situation of economic crisis and of public A5.4 Changing development and primary networks, and that run on formal authorities loosing capacity by decreasing and informal economies (Hart, 2000; Esquival, human and fi nancial resources (Muskee, 2011). initiatives 2010). It is argued that in such cases, where Thus, when in these times private investors public governance does concern about the A5.5 The insuffi cient use of can be found who are seriously interested it is As explained above, the Dutch legal system of informal and the slums, plans need to be taken still an interesting possibility to involve them spatial planning is divided over three layers of bottom-up, outside the rules and games of the the spatial structure in large urban projects such as infrastructure public management (national, provincial and government and with help from for instance, which would otherwise not have been realized NGO’s. For the dialogue of top-down and municipal). It has also been mentioned that It might be clear that the Dutch system of because of insuffi cient adequate resources – it bottom-up processes (integrated) strategies mutual relations of legal capacity may change spatial planning is divided in a vertical structure can be seen that planning agencies are still have been developed (O’Hare et al., 1998; between the public authorities. But there are of multi-layered governance, where every exploring the possibilities for this alternative Fraser et al., 2006). also movements in who initiates development planning agency makes its own policies (often and beyond (more adaptive and fl exible proposals; who takes the initiative? in collaboration with other tiers). In general, this investment strategies) (Luijten, 2010). Anyhow In the Netherlands, similar developments can vertical structure allows higher authorities to such models are still young – it is just one of be noticed (but of another scale) (De Graaf Whether a planning process of a project can supervise lower levels of governance in making the possible solutions (if there is one). & Kleiman, 2012; Van den Ende, 2012). There be seen as top-down or bottom-up, might to their plans and policies. But as previously a large extent depend on the level on which is a visible trend in local initiatives that are Another structure which has been coming undertaken by local citizens, civil committees mentioned, local governments appeared to the initiative is taken and the way in how the be relatively powerful because they have been up last years is the one that is based on the process evolved (who became involved in the or NGO’s outside or with less involvement of initiatives of the crowd. These are highly planning agencies. Most important is that the able to use planning instruments (the land-use project) (Van Boxmeer, 2011). Thus, it might plans) where agencies at higher levels where dynamic structures and hard to predict. It can be argued that the nature (type or scale) of initiatives have been started by the people and be seen that such structures are often related not by the authorities. Apparently people are not authorized to, before the introduction of a project plays a role in this. In that respect the new national law on spatial planning (Wro) to local projects and initiatives (Van de Laar, a rough distinction can be made between unsatisfi ed with neither the decreasing level of 2012). Up to the present day it stays unclear commitment nor decisions of public authority, in 2008. Thus, municipal planning agencies had projects of larger and of smaller scale. It might strong legal capacity to support their policies. whether such structures are interesting for be obvious to think that large projects are the and want to create projects by themselves, support and development of larger projects – in driven by a collective of or individual ambition. In addition, the municipalities are also able to result of initiatives that have been taken at buy agricultural or open land. Regarding both particular for regional projects this seems to be higher levels of authority. However, this is not It might be argued that also the fi nancial and very unlikely. However, this development plays economic crisis play a role in this, where large resources, it gives municipalities the ability to always the case; it is not necessarily that large buy land and to allocate other functions to a big role in the trend of the movement where projects are initiated at higher levels of authority projects with long development paths cannot projects are initiated from bottom-up instead of be completed or are delayed, and are in need that land by changing their land-use plans. – in the Netherlands projects related to area Hereby the land value of the lots increases (e.g. top-down. development or infrastructure are often initiated for short term solutions – people do not accept authority of national or local government. In the value of land that is allocated to offi ces by an interest of local governments that have is higher compared to agricultural land). This In general, it might be stated that strong ambitions and which have succeeded a way these are informal processes that most organizational and fi nancial structures around often start at the very local level and which process made municipalities act as real-estate to bring that interest at the agenda of a higher companies, gaining profi ts by using their legal large spatial infrastructure projects have shifted authority, in order to get the project subsidized develop alongside the legal structure of public agencies. A5 Practices within Dutch spatial planning Learning lessons & A6 conditions for research

capacity to control the rules of the game and sites is relatively cheap. Thus municipalities Th is study has given a better understanding of (the daily practice of) spatial planning in using their fi nancial capacity to operate actively face the growing problem of brownfi eld the Netherlands. Th e planning context has been useful for theoretical (chapter 2) and in areal development (Luijten, 2012a; 2012b). land. When it comes to solutions for existing The allocation of land became a profi table deteriorated sites – no go areas with a empirical research on the case study area (chapter 3) – the used spatial concepts, the involved process for municipalities and an interesting collection of dead offi ces – the costs of these institutions and actors, their authority, their legal instruments and their interdependency or method to strengthen their fi nancial resources. externalities may be internalized by the use of mutual relations. It places regional transport infrastructure projects in perspective (although models of compensation: for instance ‘transfer this research is not a statement but more an observation of the context) and provides In general, local authorities want to strengthen development rights’ (TDR) (Van der Krabben & conditions for the next stages of the research – with the case study in particular. their economic position and encourage Van Dinteren, 2010; Janssen-Jansen, 2010). For employment. It might be argued that mutual the time being TDR would be an adjustment competition between municipalities played an to the institutional order (municipalities). important role in this, with lower authorities Another approach can be seen in the regional wanting to be more attractive than others. coordination of planning, which has the As might have become clear this study  In how far do the involved planning The active attitude of lower authorities to the capacity to counter oversupply and to avoid (especially on the current practices and agencies have enough experience allocation of land has resulted in an oversupply the negative environmental externalities and tendencies within spatial planning) also has or expertise (technically, spatially, of allocated land and property, with offi ce and low-quality sites in future. In this approach a brought forward new questions which might institutionally and operationally) industrial space in particular – the sum of all restructuring institutional order is proposed (Van play a role regarding regional transport to facilitate regional transport these developments transcended the demand der Krabben & Van Dinteren, 2010). However, in infrastructure planning. These additional infrastructure projects [intellectual for offi ces and industrial locations (Van der the Netherlands there seems to be no planning questions can be seen as some of the resources]? Krabben & Van Dinteren, 2010). mechanism yet which deals with this undesired conditions for the later stages of this research spin off (Olden, 2010; ANP, 2012; PropertyNL, and supported the preparations of the  In how far do the public agencies have It also might be stated that oversupply of 2012; RTV Rijnmond, 2012). interviews as part of the empirical research. The the attitude to deal with their new roles allocated land and property seems to be the most relevant questions are summarized below: – provincial government: increasing result of undesired market outcomes (Van der Given these tendencies, it would be interesting responsibility and accountability on Krabben & Van Dinteren, 2010; De Volkskrant, to look what this means in terms of regional  At the case study area the RGL-project, regional projects [governance culture]? 2012). Because the public sector dominates the infrastructure projects; what are the spatial ‘does an appeal’ on three regional market the number of suppliers is limited. On and programmatic implications and what partnerships (Holland Rijnland, Midden-  In how far do the involved stakeholders top of that all municipalities want to attract the coordination is needed to achieve adjustment Holland, and the Rijnstreekberaad): have enough expertise on fl exible same commercial parties. Combined this leads on spatial functions in the region? (cooperation and funding) strategies and to a negative spin-off for value. These outcomes In how far do these partnerships have mechanisms for the long and short term have mainly evolved out of local (municipal) played a role in the project and what to the support of regional infrastructure policies on spatial development – oversupply has been the relation between them projects (PPP/PPS constructions) has become a negative externality of local (more than just a connection by the [intellectual resources] policies. RGL)?  What are the spatial and programmatic Since the start of the twenty-fi rst century  In how far are the planning agencies (in implications of the RGL project (case a powerful discussion in the Netherlands particular at provincial level) capable to study)? regards the issue of mono- and oversupply manage or coordinate projects that cross of allocated land and property (Trouw, 2001). various municipal borders [institutional  Do the involved agencies have suffi cient This is because the impact of these policies capacity]? policies to avoid mono- or oversupply can be seen in geographical terms; it can be of functional program (e.g. adjustment understood that not only national policies have  In how far do these agencies have the of housing, offi ce space, commercial had strong infl uence on the spatial patterns right legal powers or instruments for functions and industry) regarding the within the Netherlands, but these (dispersed doing so [legal resources]? increasing mutual dependency by and fragmented) patterns are also the result of integral transport planning [governance the daily practice of planning at the very local  In how far do the involved planning culture]? level. Thus, it might be stated that oversupply agencies have the right knowledge for of spatial property contributes to urban sprawl using their instruments of performance (Van der Krabben & Van Dinteren, 2010). (e.g. structure vision documents to the support of integral visions at regional Another negative side effect, in terms of level) [governance culture]? environmental quality, is that urban commercial sites tend to deteriorate rapidly because business removal to more attractive new B

Title RGL project agreement: financial distrubiton

Paragraphs #B Table: financial distribution of RGL project agreement

wefawe RGL project agreement: B financial distrubiton

Stops Spatial program Contribution per unit Total sum Key distribution À gures (municipal)

Table Financial distribution of RGL project agreement, linked to spatial development C

Title Empirical analysis of the case study area

Paragraphs #C1 Spatial development patterns #C2 Layers of infrastructure linked to spatial development #C3 History of urban developments linked to national planning documents #C4 Programmatic analysis of main function groups #C5 Programmatic analysis of public facilities #C6 Analysis of regional key actors #C7 Mapping of regional partnerships and relations

wefawe C1 Spatial development patterns

wefawe Layers of infrastructure linked to C2 spatial development

wefawe History of urban developments C3 linked to national planning documents Programmatic analysis of C4 main function groups Programmatic analysis of C5 public facilities

C6 Analysis of regional key actors

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5RWWHUGDP D

Title Analysis SprintStad (Deltametropool)

Paragraphs #D Analysis of municipal plans around tranist zones

wefawe Analysis of municipal plans D around tranist zones

PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda

Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009)

Streekplan Zuid-Holland West

Trekvaartplein Woonwagens

Dieperpoellaan Groenoordhallengebied

Oegstgeesterweg/ Big Boss Boerhaavelocatie/ Wassenaarseweg Oost Stationsgebied Zeezijde

Sylviuslocatie Leiden Nieuw Leyden

Stationsplein/ Stationsweg

Lakenhal/ LammermarktLange Gracht/ Nuon Transvaal herstucturering

Stadsvernieuwingsplan Aalmarkt e.o.

Haagwegterrein

Lorentzhof Zuidhoven

Roomburg Woonwagens wefawe Zoeterwoudseweg/ Sandersterrein De Raad Bouw Leiden Lammenschans VerdeVista Meerburg

Lammenschanspark Achter 't Hofje

Knoop Leiden-Oost Hoogh Swieten Zoeterwoude Meerburg

Streekplan Zuid-Holland West

Oostvlietpolder

0250 500 1.000 Meters PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda

Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009) Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009)

De Baronie

Zonneveldhof Herziening Oude RijnzoneDe Nieuwe Hoop Scalacollege(HogeZijde)Lage Zijde/ Stadshart S Herziening Oude Rijnzone Rhijnkade Streekplan Zuid-Holland Oost

Bonifacius Herziening Oude Rijnzone Herziening Oude Rijnzone Westvaartpark Herziening Oude Rijnzone Hazerswoude-Koudekerk Alphen a/d Rijn

Streekplan Zuid-Holland Oost

Stationsomgeving Alphen aan den Rijn

KLOP

Urban villa's

Boskoop

0250 500 1.000 Meters 0250 500 1.000 Meters PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda

Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009) Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009)

Boskoop Boskoop Naast MFC Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015

Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015

GEB - Waterzuivering

Boskoop Voorofsche Polder

Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015

Structuurvisie Rijnwoude 2020 Oostgouwe

Waddinxveen Noord Waddinxveen 2006-2030 Jacob Catslaan 1 Waddinxveen Parklaan (Boskoop) Waddinxveen: Noordkade

Waddinxveen: Oranjewijk Torenpad Oost BoskoopTorenpad West

Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015 Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015 Locatie Rehorst Waddinxveen Oostgouwe Viforpark

Waterrijk (Boskoop)Entree Waterrijk (Boskoop) Reeuw

Boskoop Centrumvoorziening Snijdelwijk Intergemeentelijk Structuurplan ZuidplasEsdoornlaan 26 Waddinxveen Stuive Omtzigt Waddinxveen Rijnlandstraat 4 Waddinxveen Naast MFC Boskoop Snijdelwijk Ree Centrumplan Waddinxveen Reeuwijk Structuurvisie Boskoop 2015 GEB - Waterzuivering Waddinxveen: SchakelzoneVoormalige Houthandel Alblas Waddinxveen Ree

Boskoop Coenecoop III Voorofsche Polder Waddinxveen: Herstructurering Zuidkade

Mercuriusweg 20 Waddinxveen Reeuwijk Waddinxveen 2006-2030 Oostgouwe Triangel Vredenburgzone Waddinxveen Noord Waddinxveen Zuid Waddinxveen 2006-2030 Jacob Catslaan 1 Waddinxveen Waddinxveen: Noordkade Triangel Waddinxveen: Herstructurering Zuidkade

Waddinxveen: Oranjewijk

Vredenburgzone Waddinxveen 2006-2030 Triangel Locatie Rehorst Waddinxveen Oostgouwe Bedrijventerrein A12 Noord

Intergemeentelijk Structuurplan Zuidplas Boskoop Spoorzone GoudaSpoorzon Intergemeentelijk Structuurplan ZuidplasEsdoornlaan 26 Waddinxveen Gouwe Park Spoo Streekplan Zuid-Holland Oost Waddinxveen Rijnlandstraat 4 Waddinxveen

Centrumplan Waddinxveen

0250 500 1.000 Meters 0250 500 1.000 Meters PlannenstationsgebiedenLeiden-Alphena/dRijn-Gouda

Nieuwekaart van Nederland (bijgewerkt 2009)

Reeuwijk

lblas Waddinxveen

Reeuwijk

rering Zuidkade Calslaan/ De Riethoek

Riddervelden/Bleulandweg Spoorzone Gouda Ronsseveld Locatie Sint Jozef, Gouda Spoorzone Gouda Streekplan Zuid-Holland Oost Gouda Graaf Florisweg

Winterdijk

Rode Dorp/ Gouwestein

De Drie Notenboomen/ Gouds Magnifiek Nieuwe Gouwe WZ/Nijverheidsstraat Kattensingel 9-12 Houtmansgracht Rozendaal 8-28 Herstructurering Wijkontwikkelingsplan Oost Bolwerk Gouda urplan Zuidplas Jan Verswollezone Koningshof Gouda Spieringstraat/Punselie wefawe Westerkade/Snoystraat

Masterplan Centrum Korte Akkeren

Herstructurering Wijkontwikkelingsplan Korte Akkeren

0250 500 1.000 Meters E

Title List of interviewees

Paragraphs #E List of interviewees

wefawe E List of interviewees

 prof. ir. Joost Schrijnen – former director department of Spatial Planning at province of South Holland

 Brechtje van Boxmeer MSc – consultant and project manager at Procap

 Henk van der Meij – project manager RGL at project ofﬁ ce

 Marc Platell – legal management consultant RGL at Province of South-Holland

 ing. Jos Wassens – senior policy advisor Spatial Planning at Province of South-Holland

 ir. Erik Kiers – program manager Trafﬁ c and Transport at regional partnership Holland Rijnland

 drs. Ben Schuttenbeld – department manager Regional Development and managing director Regional Promotion

 ir. Harold van Veen – project manager RGL at ProRail

 Petros Ceelen MSc – policy advisor Spatial Planning at municpality of Zoeterwoude

 John Steegh LLM – former alderman on Infrastructure and Environment at municpality of Leiden

wefawe F

Title Reflection

Paragraphs #F Reflection on the research

wefawe F Reflection on the research

Reﬂ ection P5 A critical review on the research approach

As part of the graduation programme a personal reﬂ ection on the delivered work is needed. I can understand the importance of this; in my opinion this is common because science is not only about having (good) results or about the process, but also about evaluation – in how far did the results meet with the expectations at the start of the research, and what has inﬂ uenced this?

Personally I see this as part of the learning process; having an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the research can be considered as a learning lesson for future work. Thus, I think this refl ection is not only useful for the university but also for my own progress. The supposed purpose of this refl ection however, is to fi nd an answer on how and why the chosen research approach did work or did not work, and to what extent?

The reﬂ ection assignment requires discussion of the following aspects:

- What is the relationship between the project and the wider social context?

- What is the relationship between the theme of the studio and the subject/case study chosen for the research?

- What is the relationship between the methodical line of approach of the studio and the method chosen for the research?

- What is the relationship between research and design?

I would like to highlight the subject of research again, before refl ecting on the delivered work. What was the intention and purpose of this research? How can this research be labelled and positioned, since it also involves other disciplines rather than spatial planning only? And what structure or method was considered to achieve the aims of the research? wefawe Multi-disciplinary research approach The subject of this research started with a fascination in preventing urban sprawl (in developing countries) and to defi ne appropriate strategies that address such undesired developments. Nevertheless, I came to the conclusion that this subject would be too hard to research because it would be diffi cult to get the right data, especially in foreign countries. It would make more sense to focus on the context of spatial planning in the Netherlands, where it would be easier to get the information that was needed for research. But regarding the Dutch system of spatial planning I reconsidered the subject of research and adjusted this to more current issues within the daily practice of spatial planning, which made the study relevant in social and academic terms. These issues could be found in the devolution process of power from the national planning agency to lower levels of authority, which increased the pressure on regional governance for having spatial policies and instruments to deal with spatial interactions and for avoiding undesired outcomes of spatial planning (such as oversupply or urban sprawl). Especially in terms of large scale urban developments this would play a role. From this perspective, the development of regional transport infrastructure was regarded as a potential case study because such projects often cross various territories of lower governments and require coordination of higher authorities.

However, this subject had as a consequence that other disciplines such as public management came in; an orientation towards governance (the attitude and instruments regarding spatial planning) was required. This has led to a research that not only considers space as a single fi eld of research, but one that acknowledge the relation to other environments. For the research I needed to dive in theory and subjects of other disciplines that were more related to spatial planning and public management and of the practice in the Netherlands. Fortunately the collaboration between both management rather than spatial form – in which I was not familiar because of the educational vision institutions made it possible to get the right mentor team for supporting this research (in getting the of the faculty in teaching architecture and urbanism is more focused on the latter discourse of spatial right information and in mentorship); otherwise it would be a lot more diffi cult I believe. form. Fortunately, the involved department (Spatial planning and strategy) of the graduation studio (Complex cities and regions in transition) gave me room for such an inter-disciplinary approach and allowed me to study on my personal fascinations for urban planning. This is also the reason why my second mentor Wil Zonneveld (specialized in governance and urban studies) of OTB is involved. The research methodology The subject calls on studies within different disciplines (e.g. analysis on space, institutions and With the description above some of the criteria for refl ection already have been introduced, namely process) which make the research complex and also tricky, because with the involvement of different the relationship between the project and the wider social context and the relationship between the dimensions it is harder to clarify certain relations. Especially for a master research it is diffi cult to theme of the studio and the chosen subject of research. verify the results because time and instruments are limited for doing a multi-disciplinary or multi- dimensional research. The tricky part can be seen in the threat of too many variables. For instance, how can you prove that fi ndings from dimension A do not infl uence the results of research at dimension B if this is not desired? Or maybe you want to prove a relation instead, that fi ndings of The research anticipates on the social context dimension A are the cause or the result of dimension B. This makes it very important to have a strong In the introduction of the thesis report the rationale for the study has been explained. The subject methodological concept that supports reasonable argumentation and interpretation of results. of research has mainly been chosen because in different type of sources (e.g. newspapers, weblogs Therefore research and fi ndings are interpreted according to the method of inductive reasoning (as and forums) I recognized a debate within the Netherlands on regional governance related to spatial mentioned in the introduction of the thesis report), which means that the research does not derive planning – how can regional spatial projects be managed nowadays, and what should be the roles from theory but starts from a situation of practice (the practice of spatial planning in the Netherlands, and responsibilities at regional level for doing so? Since I was reading theory regarding this subject, together with a case study area as the arena where the issues take place). Reasoning can be seen as I also noticed that this is not only an issue within the Netherlands, but that this is also a subject of describing properties or relations to objects based observation. academic relevance – there is a lot of research going on about spatial governance and institutional structures, which are needed to manage projects of regional scale – especially the regional level, In headlines the research contains a theoretical framework and an empirical research. According because ‘regions become more important than nation-states’. Despite the relevance of the subject, to the philosophy of inductive reasoning the research starts in the empirical, ‘real world’ where the amount of researches in the Netherlands that deal with the results on the ground (impact of the fi rst observations are done. In relation to the fi rst fi ndings, theoretical models are to be found policies and governance on the spatial structure) seemed scars. that deal with the constraints in the real world. Subsequently the issues of the real world can be studied according to the theoretical framework in a case study. This interactive process between the Within the research I also observed several trends within the fi eld of spatial planning in the theoretical and real world is also described as critical realism. Netherlands, and tried to fi gure out how this may infl uence the subject. Also the chosen project as case study, the ‘Rijn Gouwe Lijn’ was a highly emerging project well known because of its political and Because the subject of research is multi-disciplinary, the verifi cation of fi ndings (from the different operational constraints. Generally speaking, I think this research is social relevant and draws on recent dimension) is applied through the use of triangulation across disciples – using different research issues which are of major concern within the system of spatial planning the Netherlands. methods and studies to verify the information (in this case, across various dimensions). A model for doing so could be found in the TIP-concept (technical, institutional and process) of Koppenjan and Groenewegen (2005). The three dimensions of this model corresponded with the multi-dimensional The subject of research belongs to the portfolio of the studio approach of the research, which required the same paradigms of thinking. Although the aspects The studio, which is called ‘Complex Cities and regions in transition’, is partly organized by the within the fi eld of research are often intertwined, an attempt is being done to structure the research department of ‘Spatial planning and strategy’. As the name already indicates, is that this studio according to the three dimensions of space (technical), institutions and process. deals with urban and regional spaces which are often characterized by a high complexity of social, economic and institutional processes and networks. These interactions ask for an interdisciplinary Also, the research is qualitative and not quantitative – fi gures and calculations did not have been view or approach, in order to understand such processes. Within the studio it is therefore not the done. Instead, various interviews for the empirical research of the case study have been done in order intention to create a ‘blue-print’ design or fi xed masterplan, which is not able to anticipate on these to gain realistic data and to verify some of the information. dynamic processes. It is more common to develop fl exible strategies, and proposing instruments that Despite of the attempt to create a strong methodological framework I have to admit that it remained facilitate or support these processes. The studio also deals with issues related to governance, which is very diffi cult to align the results of the research – perhaps the approach was a little too ambitious refl ected in the defi nition of spatial planning. However, regarding the focus of the studio on delivering for a master research. It also gave me diffi culties sometimes in staying on the right track – it is easy spatial strategies and dealing with issues of governance I think the subject of this research fi ts in the to get lost with such a comprehensive approach. With the chosen model of research, I possibly did scope of the studio – I cannot imagine a studio at the faculty where my research belongs to better a step too far which was beyond the philosophy of the department for a master thesis. Personally I than Complex Cities. think that the results of the spatial research could have been better. The results within the institutional Additionally, I have to mention that within the studio there is a lot of knowledge on the relation dimension are more satisfying, better verifi ed by the interviews with the involved experts and more between governance and urban processes – especially on international and abstract level, because corresponding with the expectations of the issues at the case study area. However, I am still not sure of the international mentor team I guess so – but when it comes to the daily practice of spatial if the rigid distinction between the dimensions was the most suitable approach for research although planning in the Netherlands I have noticed that expertise was needed from outside the faculty. I cannot fi nd a clear alternative. The collaboration of the department together with the research institute OTB opened the doors. At OTB and also related the faculty of TBM there is a lot of knowledge regarding theory of public Research and design Although research by design is often promoted as a research method at the faculty of Architecture, this is not the most common practice within the department of spatial planning and strategy. Also in my research this method is not used, simply because this would not be possible regarding the subject of my research. The relation of research and design should be found elsewhere. In fact the role of design is quite small compared to the share of research. The research is based on a structure which is more common at other scientifi c institutions, where answers to questions need to be found and some subsequent recommendations are done at the end of research. For this study it means that a clear distinction is made between the research and design instead of combining them in one research for fact fi nding – the designs rather form the tale of the research.

Thus, the most important element was addressing the problems and ﬁ nd possible alternative suggestions for the issues addressed earlier with the research. These possible alternative suggestions are proposed in (design) recommendations with for instance, a design of a strategy, or an institutional structure or spatial scenario or concept.

As part of the learning lessons of the case study it was the purpose to demonstrate the use of a design from a more collaborative approach. This means that from the perspective of this research a design cannot be interpreted in a classical blueprint plan, as said above, but rather can be considered as a strategy or proposal of how the situation could have been. An attempt is being done to propose a subsequent multi-dimensional design approach which contains a speciﬁ c design suggestion within every dimension (spatial concept/vision, institutional framework/structure and process or strategy) according to the multi-dimensional TIP-model which has been used for the analysis.

The learning lessons In headlines I would like to end up with what I have learned from this research:

 How urban planning practice in the Netherlands occurs (which also required a lot of reading of theories on spatial planning practice and public management – subjects which were new to me).

 I have learned a whole new subject; by studying theories such as institutional capacity building, that fall under the discipline of public management.

 Elaboration of concepts that support integrated transport planning such as ‘transit oriented development’ (TOD) or nodal development.

 In terms of research structure and methodology I have learned that the approach was perhaps too ambitious and too comprehensive for a master research. The multi-disciplinary approach made it easy to get lost and hard to verify results.

 I always had pleasure in studying the content of the research and often red new theories with lots of curiosity, despite there were moments during the process that I found difﬁ cult – the wefawe moments when I lost the overview – which has to do with the ambitious research approach also.

 During the process of research I have improved my English writing style, created a better understanding of how to write a thesis and in developing a research structure which is needed for a scientiﬁ c study. Also I have gained new experiences in interviewing techniques, by doing several interviews during the research. If we think of large scale infrastructure high complexity; for instance, they require projects in the Netherlands that have been participation of many different stakeholders and developed recently we might come to the ask for integral planning approaches because conclusion that the number of completed these projects interact with their spatial and projects in terms of rail infrastructure is very programmatic environment. limited. And if someone might ask to give a successful example of a railway line that has The research of this master thesis draws on been developed last years it is hard to give a some critical issues and major developments, positive answer to this. We probably all know which contribute to a changing practice the ‘Betuwelijn’ or the recently completed ‘HSL’ of spatial planning in the Netherlands: the (FYRA) (both connecting the Netherlands with constraints around integration of infrastructure its neighbouring countries), because of the planning and spatial development, and the issues around these projects; the extraordinary related issues of governance at regional level, budget and their outranging costs in particular. between provincial and municipal administration It even might be argued that such projects – also known as the ‘regional gap’. Both have put large railway projects in a negative issues come together with projects in regional perspective. But also projects of smaller scale transport infrastructure. Accordingly, the have been realized, at regional level: the following questions are being raised: ‘Randstadrail’ for example – a tramline that connects The Hague and Rotterdam. This What are the issues of governance between project is probably more successful, partly local planning agencies, around the integration because the line has been built together with its of sectoral polices on mobility and land-use surroundings. Nevertheless, what these projects and around the implementation of a transport have in common is that they are deﬁ ned by infrastructure project such as the Rijn Gouwe Lijn at regional level?

What planning mechanism can address issues of governance, facilitate integration of policies and support the implementation of such a project?

The Rijn Gouwe Lijn (RGL) is used as a case study to address these issues.