Is Japan Religious? Christopher M. Kavanagh12 and Jonathan Jong13 1. Institute of Cognitive and Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Oxford. 2. Department of Psychology, Rikkyo University 3. Centre for Psychology, Behavior and Achievement, Coventry University. Author Note Christopher M. Kavanagh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7545-8137 We have no known conflict of interest. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Christopher Kavanagh, Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, OX2 6PN. Email:
[email protected] 2 Abstract The popular image of Japan and religion presents something of a paradox. On the one hand, large cross-cultural surveys frequently present Japan as a country of non-believers, where only 10-15% of the population self-identify as religious and the vast majority rank religion as being of little importance to their lives. Yet, any visitor to Japan is likely to be struck by the sheer number of Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples that dot the landscape and the diverse array of festivals (matsuri) that are performed at these sites. In this paper, we argue that the apparent paradox is actually an illusion generated by the unwarranted ethnocentric assumption that religion everywhere must resemble the features of the Abrahamic faiths that are predominant in Western societies. To make our case we first review recurrent theoretical and definitional debates concerning religion and examine how they relate to the Japanese context. Second, we explore patterns in contemporary data from an online survey of N =1,000 Japanese that asked about religious beliefs and practices. We illustrate through the results obtained that to understand religion in Japan it is necessary to move beyond theocentric approaches and expectations that religious belief must be tied to religious identities or exclusive membership in a given tradition.