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YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

a product of the

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

SYSTEMWIDE ARCHEOLOGICALINVENTORY PROGRAM YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

Submerged Resources Survey

James E. Bradford Archeologist

Matthew A. Russell Archeologist

Larry E. Murphy Archeologist

Timothy G. Smith Geodesist

Submerged Resources Center Intermountain Region National Park Service

Santa Fe, New Mexico 1999

11 Submerged Resources Center Cultural Resources Management Intermountain Region National Park Service US Department of the Interior

111 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii

FOREWORD ...... X

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... xi

PART 1: REMOTE SENSING SURVEY ...... 1 Matthew A. Russell, Larry E. Murphy and Timothy G. Smith

INTRODUCTION ...... 2

PROBLEM STATEMENT...... 3

SURVEY DESIGN AND RATIONALE ...... 4

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ...... 5

GIS Data Archiving ...... 6

Survey Blocks and Sample Intervals ...... 6

Positioning ...... 6

SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION...... 7

Positioning ...... 8

RoxAnn Bottom Classification Device ...... 8

Depth Sounder ...... 9

Side Scan Sonar ...... 9

Magnetometer ...... 10

SURVEY METHODOLOGY ...... 10

Objectives ...... 10

Digitizing ...... 10

Survey Planning ...... 12

Survey Positioning ...... 12

RoxAnn Survey ...... 13

Side Scan Sonar Survey ...... 14

Magnetometer Survey ...... 15

SURVEY OPERATIONS ...... 15

Geodetic Positioning ...... 15

Hydrographic Survey ...... 16

ROXANN TRAINING SITES ...... 17

RoxAnn Bottom Type Classifications ...... 17

RoxAnn Classification Boxes ...... 18

iv SURVEY RESULTS ...... 22 RoxAnn Survey ...... : ...... 22

Side Scan Sonar Survey ...... 23

Depth Sounder ...... 23

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23

PART II: CULTURAL RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS ...... 36 James E. Bradford and Matthew A. Russell

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 37

2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT ...... 40

Geology ...... 40

Volcanism ...... 40

Glaciation ...... 43

Climate ...... 44

Biology ...... 44

Flora and Fauna ...... 44

3 llSTORICAL CONTEXT ...... 47

Brief History of Yellowstone National Park ...... 48

Yellowstone Lake Use ...... 51

American Indian Lake Use ...... 51

Euroamerican Lake Use ...... 53

4 PREVIOUS ARCHEOLOGICALWORK ...... 74

Fishing Bridge/Mary Bay ...... 74

Lake/Bridge Bay ...... 76

West Thumb ...... 76

Southeast Arm...... 77

1995 SCRU Reconnaissance ...... 77

5 SURVEY RESULTS ...... 79

Southeast Arm...... 79

Frank Island ...... ,...... 81

Dot Island ...... 83

Pumice Point ...... 84

Little Thumb Creek ...... 84

We st Thumb Geyer Basin ...... 84

Lake Boat Docks ...... 90

Small Craft ...... 93

Zillah and Jean D ·································· ···················' ····································· 98

E. C. Wa ters ...... 100

v Hull Remains ...... 100 Propulsion System and Related Features ...... 111 Disarticulated Machinery and Other Features ...... 120 Analysis and Discussion ...... 128

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 130 Recommendations ...... 131 Management ...... 131 Future Research ...... 132

REFERENCES ...... 134

vi LIST OF FIGURES

PART I

1. Planned survey blocks and side scan sonar coverage ...... 11 2. Category 1: Cobble and rubble with sand ...... 19 3. Category 2: Rubble and sand on hard bottom ...... 19 4. Category 3: Mud and fine sand ...... 20 5. Category 5: Dispersed rubble with sand ...... 20 6. Category 7: Sand with dispersed rubble ...... 21 7. RoxAnn boxes generated during the YELL Submerged Resources Survey,

August 1996 ...... 21 8. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block YELL001 ...... 24 9. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block YELL005 ...... 25 10. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block YELL006 ...... 26 11. Raw RoxAnn data, survey blocks YELL009 and 010 ...... 27 12. Sonograph of single small boat located offshore Lake Hotel ...... 28 13. Sonograph of two small boats located offshore Lake Hotel ...... 28 14. Three small boats in close proximity offshore Lake Hotel ...... 29 15. Sonograph of unusual geological fe ature on lake floor ...... 29 16. Sonograph of E. C. Waters ' site showing hull fe atures and surrounding bottom areas ...... 30 17. Sonograph of West Thumb dock supports (cribbing) ...... 31 18. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey block YELL001 ...... 32 19. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey block YELL005 ...... 33 20. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey block YELL006 ...... 34 21. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey blocks YELL009 and 010 ...... 35

PART II 1.1 Ye llowstone National Park ...... 38 2.1 Major geological fe atures in Ye llowstone National Park ...... 41 3.1 Anna, the first boat launched on Ye llowstone Lake ...... 55 3.2 Zillah, possibly at We st Thumb, after 1889 ...... 58 3.3 Zillah, about 1896 ...... 59 3.4 Zillah at Lake dock, 1896 ...... 59 3.5 Zillah at Lake dock ...... 60 3.6 Postcardphotograph of E. C. Wa ters at Lake dock, about 1905 ...... 62 3.7 E. C. Wa ters' anchor at Lake dock in 1961 ...... 64 3.8 Jean D, about 1910 ...... 65 3.9 Jean D, about 1912 ...... 65 3.10 Jean D, about 1910 ...... 66 3.11 Jean D and Zillah on shore at Lake, about 1922 ...... 66 3.12 Rental boats at Lake ...... 67 3.13 Passenger launch at Lake, September 1934 ...... 67

Vll 3.14 Gas-powered launches at We st Thumb ...... 68 3.15 Gas-powered launch at We st Thumb ...... 69 3.16 US Fisheries vessel, 1930s ...... 69 3.17 NPS speedboat at Lake dock, about 1915 ...... 70 3.18 NPS speedboat, October 1938 ...... 71 3.19 Eleven-passenger speedboat Adelaide postcard during the 1920s ...... 71 3.20 NPS 28-foot Chris Craft, 1930s ...... 72 3.21 Deckhouse cruiser NPS No. 2 at Lake dock, 1938 ...... 72 3.22 Deckhouse cruiser NPS No. 1 on Yellowstone Lake ...... 73 3.23 Former US Coast Guard lifeboat Arena Cove on marine railway at Lake, 1936 ...... 73 3.24 Arena Cove being launched at Lake boathouse, 1936 ...... 73 4.1 Ye llowstone Lake ...... 75 5.1 Areas and sites investigated by SCRU in 1996 ...... 80 5.2 Unnamed lithic scatter south of Molly Island ...... 81 5.3 Lean-tos at the Terrace Point Site (48YE707) ...... 82 5.4 Lean-to at the Terrace Point Site (48YE707) ...... 82 5.5 Frank Island boat dock, about 1950 ...... 83 5.6 Algae covered dock crib at We st Thumb ...... 85 5.7 Wagon wheel at We st Thumb ...... 86 5.8 Close-up of West Thumb wagon wheel ...... 87 5.9 Jean D docked at We st Thumb ...... 87 5.10 Plan view site map of West Thumb dock cribs ...... 88 5.11 We st Thumb dock crib ...... 89 5.12 We st Thumb dock ...... 90 5.13 Zillah docked at West Thumb, about 1900 ...... 91 5.14 E. C. Wa ters at the Lake dock, about 1905 ...... 91 5.15 Lake dock rental boats ...... 92

5.16 Lake boathouse ...... 92 5.17 Small launch off Lake Hotel ...... 94 5.18 Hotel launch stem ...... 94 5.19 Field sketch of four small rental boats off Lake Hotel ...... 95 5.20 Small boat bow ...... 96 5.21 Small boat bow ...... 96 5.22 Small boat stem ...... 97 5.23 Small boat stem ...... 97 5.24 Ye llowstone Park Company rental boat #78 ...... 98 5.25 Ye llowstone Park Company rental boat #78 ...... 99 5.26 Zillah at the Lake dock, 1889 ...... 99 5.27 Jean D docked, probably at West Thumb, about 1910 ...... 101 5.28 View southeast of E. C. Wa ters ' remains on Stevenson Island's eastern shore ...... 101 5.29 View northeast of E. C. Wa ters' remains ...... 102 5.30 Plan view of E. C. Wa ters ' site (48YE13) ...... 103 5.31 Plan view of E. C. Wa ters ' hull remains ...... 104 5.32 E. C. Wa ters ' frames. View aft of paired frames with butt joints in the wreck's forward port section ...... 105

Vlll 5.33 Different styles of framing a wooden vessel ...... 107 5.34 Plan and elevation of engine bed and thrust bearing showing additional frames to

support engine weight ...... 109

5.35 Side and end views of boiler saddle ...... 112

5.36. Boiler saddle ...... 113

5.37. View west of E. C. Wa ters ' propulsion system ...... 114

5.38 Starboard side of thrust bearing ...... 114

5.39 Plan, elevation and end view of forward propeller shaft bearing ...... 115

5.40 Top view of propeller shaft bearing ...... 116 5.41 View southeast of after bulkhead stuffing box and gland, and propeller shaft

coupling ...... 116

5.42 Vi ew southwest of forward end of stem tube stuffing box and gland ...... 117

5.43 Plan, starboard elevation, fore and aft views of adjustable stem bearing assembly ... 118

5.44 · View north, starboard side of adjustable stem bearing assembly and propeller ...... 119

5.45 View northeast of propeller ...... 119

5.46 Plan view and aft elevation of the globe valve with intake pipes ...... 121

5.47 View aft along port midships showing feed water intake piping and globe valve ...... 122

5.48 Close-up view of globe valve ...... 122

5.49 Scale drawing of E. C. Wa ters ' capstan ...... 123

5.50 Partially buried capstan ...... 123

5.51 Scale drawing of life boat davit and support bracket ...... 124

5.52 Davit and support bracket within E. C. Wa ters ' wreckage ...... 125

5.53 Metal rod handle wedged between frames on the port side tum of the bilge ...... 125

5.54 Plan and profile views of flatmetal plate, "V" -shaped brace and boat davit brace ..... 126

5.55 Iron or steel strap near E. C. Wa ters ' stem ...... 127

5.56 Thick glass fragments between E. C. Wa ters ' frames ...... 127

FOREWORD

It's surprising to many that one of the largest Although this report is the finished bodies of water under the jurisdiction of the document that most research efforts leave as National Park Service is in Wyoming. With their touchstone for posterity, it should be noted marine holdings in the Atlantic, Pacific and the that any results of the project having immediate Gulf of Mexico, it gives one pause that relevance to ongoing management concerns Yellowstone Lake encompasses a water surface were forwarded to the park within three months that rivals Biscayne National Park and exceeds of completion of fieldwork. This included all that of Dry Tortugas National Park. The average processed survey data for inclusion into the depth of Yellowstone is greater than all other Yellowstone GIS database. A completed draft National Park Service (NPS) areas with the of this document was forwarded to the park for possible exception oflsle Royale National Park. review in March of 1997. It has taken more Beyond physical dimensions, NPS than two additional years to go through the Submerged Resources Center divers were finalization process. We appreciate the greeted by natural features unique to understanding of Laura Joss, John Varley, John Yellowstone and vestiges of human occupation Lounsbury and Ann Johnson as we struggled that stretched from prehistory through the through personnel losses and the crush of many stagecoach era to steam-powered tour boats. In other field obligations while bringing this report addition, there were natural resource to camera-ready conclusion. management problems involving introduction Partly in association with the work at of exotics such as lake trout and visitor use Yellowstone, we conducted an assessment of issues that surrounded the burgeoning of submerged cultural resources at Glacier Yellowstone as a destination for sport scuba National Park, Ye llowstone's northern cousin. divers. In short, a reconnaissance visit by Perhaps the most important observation that we several team members in 1995 resulted in came away with from our involvement in these recommendations for a more intense field two magnificent parks is that submerged operation in 1996. resources are too easy to ignore when there is The 1996 visit generated most of the such scenic magnificence and pressing informationthat is presented in this report. Part visitation problems that confront managers One is dedicated to a discussion of the every day on land. Both parks have wonders underwater remote sensing operations. These that extend beneath the surface into realms that were aimed at simultaneously obtaining data for are too often out of sight and out of mind. We delineating bottom classifications in areas commend the resource managers and rangers deemed important for determining lake trout of Yellowstone for having the vision to begin habitat and obtaining high-resolution side scan addressing these issues proactively as concerns sonar coverage of selected cultural and natural rather than waiting until, through some unhappy features in the lake. Part Two is a circumstance, they become crises. comprehensive discussion of the submerged cultural resources of Yellowstone Lake and the Daniel J. Lenihan role of the lake in the prehistory and history of Program Manager, the region. Submerged Resources Center

X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people contributed to the success of Kraft, Lead Museum Technician Vanessa the Yellowstone National Park (YELL) Christopher, Museum Aide Linnaea Despain Submerged Resources Survey. The park staff's and Historian/Archivist Lee Whittlesey. Retired foresight in dealing with submerged cultural park historian Aubrey Haines provided much resources on equal footing with terrestrial insight into Ye llowstone Lake's maritime cultural resources made this project possible. history and particularly regarding lake tour boat Superintendent Michael Finley; Chief Ranger Zillah. Other park staff and volunteers who Rick Obernesser; Dr. John Varley, Director, worked with us on the project include: Travis Yellowstone Center for Resources; Laura Joss, Wyman, Bill Archer, Bob Ryan, and Frank and Chief, Branch of Cultural Resources; and Lake Beverly Ford. hi. addition, Midwest District Ranger John Lounsbury all played key Archeological Center Archeologist Ann Vawser roles in project planning and execution and provided background on archeological work supporting an innovative, cost-effective conducted in the park and a draft manuscript approach to combining natural and cultural was reviewed by YELL Archeologist Ann resource survey and evaluation that may serve Johnson, Scott Harris and Dan Lenihan. as a model for other areas. YELL Dive Officer Many specialists and volunteers contributed Wesley Miles and Rangers Rick Fey and Gary directly to the project. Marty Wilcox of Marine Nelson worked with us on a dailybasis and were Sonic Technology, Ltd. generously donated use crucial in providing logistical support. Fisheries biologists and natural resource specialists Dan of a side scan sonar and operator Brett Phaneuf. Mahoney, Jack Mcintyre and James Ruzycki We thank them for making the side scan sonar were integral in planning the RoxAnn survey. survey possible. Ian Ablett, steam engineering In particular, James Ruzycki came out on the consultant; Stan Liddiard, marine surveyor; and survey boat when we collected RoxAnn training VIPs Greg and Linda LaLonde helped with sites for lakebed sediments and identified analysis of the E. C. Wa ters site. Field personnel primary RoxAnn lakebed classifications of included: Principal Investigators Dan Lenihan primary biological interest. Geographic and Larry Murphy,Field Director Matt Russell, Information System (GIS) Specialist Eric Archeologist Jim Bradford, Photographer Brett Compas worked closely with Submerged Seymour and Geodesist Tim Smith. Cultural Resources Unit (SCRU) Geodesist Tim Finally, we thank SCRU Visual Information Smith integrating SCRU's data with the YELL Specialist Fran Day, who correctedand revised GIS database. Cultural resources staffmembers the manuscript and designed and produced the particularly helpful with archival research final publication during a tinie when reduced include : Supervisory Museum Curator Susan staff greatly increased her workload.

PART I

REMOTE SENSING SURVEY

by

Matthew A. Russell Larry E. Murphy and Timothy G. Sniith Part I Yellowstone National Park

PART I

Remote Sensing Survey

INTRODUCTION underwater remote-sensing of cultural resources. The Biscayne National Park Survey, During August 1996, the National Park funded through post-Hurricane Andrew Service's (NPS) Submerged Cultural Resources mitigation funds, focused on natural resources Unit (SCRU) conducted a multiresource and seabed classification but included cultural remote-sensing survey in Ye llowstone Lake, resources survey. Methodology developed for Ye llowstone National Park (YELL). This these two projects was to be tested during the survey was initiated through discussions among Yellowstone National Park Submerged Dan Lenihan, Program Manager, SCRU; John Resources Survey. Lounsbury, Lake DistrictRanger, YELL ; Laura SCRU methodology was designed to Joss, Chief of Cultural Resources, YELL; and produce high-resolution, concurrent data on John Varley, Director, Ye llowstone Center for both natural and cultural resources as a cost­ Resources during a 1995 reconnaissance visit efficient approach to survey and inventory of to the park by Lenihan and others. marine park areas. Basic methodology The general strategy was to apply incorporates a Differential Global Positioning methodology developed by SCRU for marine System (DGPS) to position digital data derived resource hydrographic survey to specific from remote sensing instruments for addition management issues at Ye llowstone Lake. The to the park GIS database. GIS data sets are first submerged resources surveys designed cumulative, integrated, comparative and readily specifically for Geographic InformationSy stem accessible. This technology provides the (GIS) applications were conducted several years infrastructure for data collection, storage, earlier by SCRU in areas of the National Park manipulation and presentation necessary for System in Florida. The Dry Tortugas National long-term park management and research Park Survey, begun in 1993, was funded through applications. Yellowstone Lake management the Systemwide Archeological Inventory concerns provided a test case for the SCRU Program (SAIP) to generate an NPS model for survey system in a freshwater environment with

2 Yellowstone National Park Part I

a priority focus on natural resource issues. Exotic lake trout controi is critical to Specific methodological refinements were made continued viability of native trout species in for the YELL Submerged Resources Survey to Ye llowstone Lake. Currently, control consists address particular management problems and of gill net capture and evaluation of lake trout. are discussed below. Based upon gill net results, certain shorelines Information gathered by Lenihan in 1995 were identified by YELL natural resource indicated a high potential for historically specialists as productive lake trout areas, with significant submerged cultural remains in some no assumption of relation between gill net areas of Ye llowstone Lake (Lenihan 1996). production and breeding habitat. Primary Cultural resources remote-sensing survey among productive gill net areas were the West planning for the 1996 survey was directed Thumb north shore and the "Neck" area toward locating exposed cultural materials and between West Thumb and the main lake. The documenting known sites. Site documentation Neck area was specified as the first priority for utilized minimum-impact techniques; no test lake bed classification, with West TJmmb excavation, artifact collection or site disturbance second. of any kind was planned. Additional historical Past work utilizing remote sensing (side re search was conducted to refine site location scan sonar), remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) models and enhance interpretative uses of field equipped with video, and submarines has data. Principal study areas included: West successfully demonstrated potential of these Thumb dock area, where activity took place approaches for determining ideal lake trout between 1890 and 1960; Lake Hotel dock area, breeding substrate in Great Lakes areas (Manny where depositional activity and small watercraft and Edsall 1989; Edsall et al. 1992a; 1992b; use may have left cultural materials and which 1995). SCRU has experience with another was also the primary search area for the surficial sediment classification device, passenger steamer Zillah; Pumice Point, where RoxAnn, which has recently been used for divers have reported wagon and stagecoach marine seabed classification in NPS areas, parts; Frank Island dock area; Dot Island dock particularly Biscayne National Park (Murphy et area; and Stevenson Island, particularly the al. 1995). The RoxAnn device would be the grounded vessel E. C. Wa ters site area. SCRU principal remote sensing instrument for this was granted a Sp ecial Use Collecting and experimental Yellowstone Lake natural resource Research Pennit June 24, 1996, for the project application, and its efficacy would be evaluated. titled: Underwater Investigations of Selected Localities in Ye llowstone Lake. PROBLEM STATEMENT Natural resource issues focused on lake bed surficial sediment classification to locate and 1. Natural Resources: Exotic lake trout map substrate that might include lake trout introduced into Yellowstone Lake compromise spawning habitat. Although primary lake trout viability of native trout species. Identification spawning substrate has been identified for the and delineation of optimum lake trout breeding Great Lakes, there is currently no corollary substrate could increase control method model for Ye llowstone Lake. To date, lake trout effectiveness. Primary objective was to develop biological data for Ye llowstone Lake depends an appropriate survey methodology and upon shore-based gill net capture numbers and conduct a lake bed classification survey to sport fishermen capture reports. ascertain lake bed sediments, and in particular,

3 Part I Yellowstone National Park

presence of potential lake trout breeding SCRU designed the YELL survey to substrate in the priority areas delineated by produce a comprehensive data set that would natural resource specialists based on gill net be accessible to YELL managers for planning capture numbers. and interpretation. The survey design was based 2. Cultural Resources: Historical upon wide-area archeological survey documents indicate several long-term activities methodology developed by SCRU during the directly associated with Yellowstone Lake. NPS SAIP survey of Dry Tortugas National Submerged components of these activities have Park beginning in 1993 (Murphy 1997a; not been investigated, and their extent and Murphy and Smith 1995; Shope et al. significance level is currently unknown to 1995). managers. A secondary objective was to Data collection, post-plotting, analysis and delineate high-priority areas based upon historical documents, oral histories and diver presentation were designed to be utilized in a reports, and to conduct a remote sensing survey GIS database to facilitate their use by managers designed to locate cultural materials on or above and incorporation into permanent archives. This the lake bed. approach results in an electronic product that can incorporate available digital data, such as SURVEY DESIGN AND RATIONALE aerial imagery and digitized historical maps, so they can be combined with project-specific For the natural resources survey, the general results and be analytically manipulated to investigative approach was to systematically examine relationships that would otherwise be survey specific areas for lake trout habitat using extremely difficult toobserve. The project GIS RoxAnn, depth sounder and positioning system data set was generated to provide a standardized, to generate water depth and bottom permanent, cumulative, computer-accessible classification data and to develop signatures for product for multiple applications by managers, specific bottom-type classifications for use in interpreters, researchers, the public and those post-processing analysis. Because no involved in planning and conducting future excavation was anticipated, cultural resource submerged resource operations within the park. survey would utilize positioned side scan sonar This survey approach, which combines survey of high probability areas for shipwrecks, natural and cultural resource survey, reduces small watercraft and discarded materials lying overall park costs for resource evaluation. NPS exposed on the lake bed. A proton-precession magnetometer would be tested to determine equipment was deployed, so no equipment effectiveness in a volcanic environment. The rental or procurement was necessary. Because stranded and wrecked passenger steamer NPS does not possess a side scan sonar, a E. C. Wa ters on Stevenson Island would be cooperative partnership was established with documented and surrounding area surveyed for Marine Sonic Technology, Ltd. of White Marsh, related materials. Planned products included Virginia, manufacturers of a high-resolution, digital and analog information appropriate for PC-based, digital side scan sonar that easily park GIS applications, research and interfaces with SCRU equipment. Marine Sonic interpretation. Maps of the survey area were provided a state-of-the-art instrument and delivered to the park soon after completion of operator for this survey at no cost to the the fieldwork and before report completion. park.

4 Yellowstone National Park Part I

GEOGRAPHICINF ORMATION SYSTEMS GIS data sets can be presented as tabular (GIS) database files or themes that can be generated, analyzed, scaled, combined, superimposed and GIS is the use of multiple, spatially displayed through direct user access in referenced databases to produce maps that unlimited variations. Data themes are graphically depict user generated combinations presentations of nonspatial data referenced to a of variables presented as themes, layers or common location expressed as geographic coverages. Spatially referenced data are basic coordinates. One way of looking at themes is to archeological inquiry, but it has only been in to consider them x-y horizontal locations that the last few years that technological advances share a category of variable z values, which in software and hardware have overcome represent discrete, quantifiable attributes. difficulties in collecting, collating, storing, Analytical techniques include statistical and editing, querying, depicting and manipulating spatial analysis, measurement and comparisons the large amount of data generated by marine that can be used to create additional themes remote sensing survey. YELL Submerged reflectinganalytical results useful for additional Resources Survey results were formulated to be hypothesis testing. incorporated into a GIS product easily GIS can be contrasted with computer­ transferrable to park managers. assisted design (CAD) systems that are GIS provides a methodology to compare generally limited to graphic output such as variablesamong many sets of spatial data, such drawings, pictures and maps, and contain no as artifact categories, remote sensing results and relational database capability nor the ability to natural environmental characterizations, to generate new data sets based upon analytic examine distribution and change over space, functions. CAD systems generally contain no and, if sufficient data are available, over time. interrogative capability and are unable to Rapid manipulation of scale and variables can manipulate nonspatial database attributes (see allow pattern recognition that may not be Murphy 1997b). apparent at other levels. Examination of Two problems make creation of GIS data combined variables is instantaneous because sets expensive and time consuming: accuracy they are presented graphically, greatly determination and conversion of various data simplifying analysis by precluding the necessity sets to an appropriate format. Mixing different of generating mathematical and statistical accuracy levels among data sets degrades models to characterize patternedrelati onships. overall GIS accuracy and gives a false sense of Current computer and software speed allow comparability that can lead to serious analytical rapid manipulation of multiple variable problems in data interpretation. Data set combinations, which allows generation of conversions must consider fundamental associations and relationships that might geodetic concepts such as geoid, ellipsoid, otherwise be unanticipated. Hypotheses can be datum, coordinate system and projection. quickly generated and tested through seamless Geodesy factors vary over time and space, and graphical display. Data manipulation can easily each variation is critical to conversion accuracy be done by researchers or managers with basic (Smith 1997). Few archeologists record a GIS software familiarity, which does not require chart's datum and projection when generating sophisticated mathematical ability. coordinates. For example, latitude/longitude

5 Part I Yellowstone National Park

coordinates in North American Datum 1927 SURVEY BLOCKS AND SAMPLE (NAD 27) and those in World Geodetic System INTERVALS 1984 (WGS 84) can vary from tens to hundreds of meters--confusing these datums introduces Hydrographic survey is conducted in area serious error. Being given coordinates in NAD blocks through which the survey vessel travels 27 and trying to relocate the point with an along preplotted transects, or lanes, at instrument reading in WGS 84 is an easy and investigator-definedintervals selected to ensure common mistake to make. All data generated complete instrumental coverage of the study during the YELL Submerged Resources Survey area. Lane spacing depends upon the survey were based on the WGS 84 datum. Other data questions and remote sensing instrument not collected by SCRU during the project and attributes. The YELL survey was conducted not already in WGS 84 datum were converted with a preplotted block to maximize remote from their original datum before incorporation sensing coverage. Standard SCRU practice is into the YELL survey GIS database. to label survey blocks with the four-letter park acronym followed by a numerical designation, GIS DATA ARCHIVING such as "YELLOOl." Standard SCRU methodology for wide area Raw and processed hydrographic survey survey requires 30-m transects, which have been field data and GIS information archiving is as demonstrated to provide cost-effective magnetic much a concern as any archeological data coverage for discovering most colonial period archiving, and it must be planned in advance. shipwrecks (Murphy 1984:90-95; Murphy and YELL remote sensing survey electronic data Saltus 1990:93-95). Because magnetometry archiving is in a nonproprietary format, was not the primary survey objective, however, primarily DOS ASCII text, which ensures long­ the survey blocks designed for RoxAnn and term data accessibility by many scientific bathymetric survey (YELLOOl-010) were disciplines, managers, archeologists and other created with first 20-m, and later 40-m transects researchers. All results are stored in latitude/ (see discussion below). Side scan sonar can longitude and Universal Transverse Mercator produce high-resolution imagery in 100-m (UTM), WGS 84. SCRU stores archive data in swaths, so the side scan portion of the survey latitude/longitude coordinates so that the was run on 100-m transects. database can be easily converted if future GPS provides a position every second, and alterations or corrections are made to WGS 84; all instrument data were collected at intervals it is more difficult to convert grid coordinates of 1 Y2 seconds or less and collated with the after a datum revision. Most current computer appropriate DGPS position. At a typical boat programs require grid coordinates, so GIS speed of 6 knots, a sample is collected about themes are also archived in this form. Upon every 4-6 m along the transect. report completion, YELL staff will be provided a CD-ROM (some media now have 100-year POSITIONING archival quality) containing all pertinent field data and GIS coverages. This CD-ROM will Hydrographic survey requires real-time be directly accessibly through ArcView, a positions with very rapid updates (1-2 seconds) readily available PC-based GIS program that is for accurate vessel navigation to ensure the current NPS standard. complete, systematic coverage at the desired

6 Yellowstone National Park Part I

sample interval. GIS accuracy requirements are Autonomous civilian GPS receivers produce a 2-3mcircle- of-erroror less. Unlike terrestrial circles-of-error of about 10-30 m. archeological survey and mapping, Unfortunately, GPS instrumental accuracy is hydrographic survey usually has no landmarks; further reduced by "selective availability" (SA), simply, on the water, it is very difficult to occupy which is intentional, random dithering of the and then reoccupy the same point and to CIA code GPS signals by DOD as a security continually know where you are without real­ measure that degrades the signal to a guaranteed time positioning. accuracy of no more than 100 m. However, real­ Accuracy is usually expressed as parts-per­ time accuracy of 2-3m is possible by deploying unit (e.g., 1: 10,000); plottable accuracy, the a base station to compensate for SA through accuracy that a point can be plotted, less differential GPS (DGPS) correction. important now because of GIS digital entry and Ionospheric variables alter the satellite signal zoom capability; or circle of error, which is an propagation times through the atmosphere and ellipse whose largest radius represents the root are an additional error source, which are also mean square errorof a set of measurements, and correctable with a differential base station. The whose orientation shows directional uncertainty. base station, which is set up on a control point The ellipse, centered on the true position, is whose position is known to a very high accuracy, typically at the 95% statistical confidence generates correctionsfo r SA and transmits them level. via a radio modem datalink to the mobile survey Although several positioning systems are instrument. Broadcast differential corrections presently available, GPS offers several are currently available in most coastal areas advantages over most others. GPS has become through the US Coast Guard navigational the state-of-the-art and will likely ultimately beacons and commercial suppliers, which replace other systems for survey applications. provide differential corrections at various The US Department of Defense (DOD) accuracy levels. Because correction services developed the GPS system for military were not available in the study area, the YELL purposes. This system uses trilateration of survey utilized SCRU's proprietary, self­ satellite-transmitted signals to determine contained base station position. GPS provides 1-second updates with global coverage from 24 satellites, meaning four SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION or more space vehicles arecontinuously in view anywhere on the globe. The satellites produce SCRU's GPS-based Archeological Data two signals, known as C/A code and P code Acquisition Platform (ADAP) survey system, frequency, the latter encrypted and available built in 1992 by Sandia Research Corporation only to military or governmentusers. The GPS of Albuquerque, New Mexico, to SCRU is close to an ideal positioning system; it is specifications, was used during the YELL accurate and continuously available on demand Submerged Resources Survey. The ADAP anywhere in the world under any weather system automates and integrates field data conditions. collected with a variety of remote sensing The GPS and GIS combination has provided instruments, and accurately tags each data point a solution for accurate positioning and analysis with real-time differential GPS position and in hydrographic remote sensing. However, time references (Shope et al. 1995; Murphy and some additions to the basic GPS system are Smith 1995). Generating survey blocks, necessary to achieve acceptable accuracy levels. navigating prep lotted lanes, and collecting and

7 Part I Yellowstone National Park

post-processing data were done with Coastal ROXANN BOTTOM CLASSIFICATION Oceanographic's "Hypack" hydrographic DEVICE survey software. This program time tags and collates incoming multiple sensor data for post­ The basic natural resource survey sensor is processing into standard database formats. RoxAnn, manufactured by Marine Micro Standardized post-processed data are easily Systems of Aberdeen, Scotland. RoxAnn, incorporated into a PC-based GIS, in this case, basically a hydroacoustic "black box" with no ESRI's ArcView, which YELL also uses. user-manipulated controls, is easily deployed Consultation with Eric Compas, YELL GIS and adaptable to various survey systems (see coordinator, ensured data compatibility between discussion in Murphy et al. 1995). The model the SCRU data sets and park GIS. used for the YELL survey is called a "Groundmaster," which incorporates a depth POSITIONING sounder and is designed to give absolute, rather than relative, numerical bottom Accurate, real-time vessel positioning is characterizations. These characterizations, fundamental to systematic hydrographic survey. based on comparative analysis of multiple The YELL Submerged Resources Survey relied depth-sounder returns give two numerical upon GPS for geodetic survey, vessel values for surficial sediment roughness and positioning during survey, target relocation and hardness, called El and E2 values. Bottom shore survey. sediments can be characterized and Geodetic survey during the project used two differentiated by these two values, and subtle Trimble Navigation 4000SE geodetic receivers. changes in bottom types can be reliably detected Positioning aboard the survey vessel relied on by RoxAnn. a Trimble Accutime II GPS receiver and VHF The demonstrated strength of the RoxAnn radio datalink. Differential corrections were device is that it produces unambiguous, provided to the survey vesselby SCRU's self­ nonintrusive, reproducible sediment contained, shore-based GPS base station, which classifications. The instrument derives its uses a Trimble 4000SE geodetic receiver and information from the first and second echo VHF radio datalink to generate and transmit a reflections from a single-beam depth sounder. data stream of real-time RTCM-1 04 differential An index, E1, is derived from the initial bottom corrections. This base station allows reflection and its characteristics are related to independent differential correction generation sediment roughness. The second index, E2, is for remote park areas, which makes SCRU's produced by the second echo, which is reflected ADAP system completely self-contained. The twice from the bottom and once from the water ADAP base station supplied Yellowstone Lake surface, and its characteristics are related to survey corrections sufficient for a 1-2-m circle­ sediment hardness. of-error at 95% confidence, required for SCRU Every surficial sediment has a particular survey parameters developed for GIS signature that is a combination of the two applications. variables E1 and E2, which are displayed as x-

8 Yellowstone National Park Part I

y coordinates on a Cartesian grid (see Figure reduced accordingly. The RoxAnn reading is 7). The range of x-y coordinates for a bottom basically an average of the area within the depth type are represented as a "RoxAnn square or sounder transducer sample area. box," to which a user-selected color is attributed The Furuno video depth sounder supplies by the survey software. The RoxAnn boxes can the signal source for RoxAnn. The RoxAnn be adjusted for specific bottom types whose produces a digital depth from the sounder signal presence is indicated in the raw data by the color that is recorded and collated with position and pixel representing each unique bottom type. In collected as part of the survey data set at each post-plotting, the color pixel is plotted in its 1-2-second sample interval. geographic location and combined with others to form GIS thematic layers. Polygons depicting SIDE SCAN SONAR geographic extension of bottom types, as defined by similar colored pixels, can be hand Side scan sonar is one of the principal drawn or produced through various GIS remote sensing instruments used in submerged analytical procedures. These multiple polygons archeological survey. Side scan sonar uses are displayed as a map or thematic layer in a sound waves to image the sea floorand objects large-scale GIS to provide bottom classification laying on or above it. Normally a towed system, information on lake bed bottom types. a side scan sonar transmits a microsecond, pulsed and shaped acoustic beam to each side DEPTH SOUNDER of the tow vessel's path at multiple times per second. The beam propagates through the water Bathymetric information was collected and across the sea floor, reflecting incident using a Furuno Model LS-6000 LCD Video sound energy back to the sonar. A sonar data Sounder, which is integrated into the RoxAnn processor converts the reflections' intensity and "Groundmaster" bottom classification device. time delays to a visual image for display. The Soundingare a, and consequently bottom sample end result is a sea floor (or lake bed) image of area for RoxAnn lake bed classification, is a near photographic quality showing areas of light function of transducer beam width, which is (strong reflection) and dark (areas of lower generally a function of frequency. Usually, the reflectivityor shadow areas). higher the frequency, the narrower the beam For the YELL Submerged Resources width. Most depth sounders use a frequency of Survey, a Marine Sonic Technology Sea Scan about 50 khz, which has a beam width of PC Side Scan Sonar was used. The Sea Scan approximately 46° and samples a circular area PC is a digital, high-resolution side scan sonar with a 42-m diameter at a depth of 50 m. The system that uses a Windows-based personal Furuno depth sounder uses a 200 khz transducer, computer for all control, display, analysis and which provides a high-resolution sample area storage functions. The reflected signal is and reduces bubble-derived noise. The 200 khz digitized within the sonar data processor and beam width is about 10°, which provides bottom stored as digital information. Digital imagery coverage equal to about 17% of the water depth. is preferred because it allows images to be For example, the area covered in 50 m of water filtered and enhanced for improved analysis and is a circle with a diameter of 9 m, or an area of target recognition, and it can be processed into 64 m2. In shallower depths, the sample area is mosaics and incorporated into GIS as an image

9 Part I Yellowstone National Park

layer, much like aerial photography. The digital 50,000 gammas. Current industry standards for format facilitates archival data storage and proton-precession magnetometers allows ± 3 retrieval. gamas of noise, a level that SCR U experience The Sea Scan PC includes an integrated has demonstrated to be too high for navigational plotter, using standard DGPS input, discriminating some cultural materials on a cost­ that allows all parts of the acoustic image to be effective transect spacing. The G-876 generates automatically correlatedwith correctgeogra phic a sensor depth and height over bottom, which position. During the YELL survey, a 600-khz are displayed during the survey and are towfish was used. Like the depth sounder, the important for quality control of data collection higher the sonar signal frequency, the higher its and anomaly interpretation. These data are resolution. This instrument was selected for the collected and collated with DGPS positions as YELL survey because prior deployment by part of the ADAP data set at each sample SCRU proved it was a reliable instrument that position at a rate of less than 2 seconds. Unlike produced very high resolution images in a most NPS cultural resource surveys, digital format appropriate for inclusion into a magnetometer deployment was secondary to GIS database. side scan sonar during the YELL survey. Only visible remains were to be examined during this project. MAGNETOMETER

SURVEYMETHODOLOGY In addition to side scan sonar, submerged cultural resource surveys are primarily OBJECTIVES accomplished with a vessel-towed magnetometer, which measures the earth's Survey objectives included several goals: magnetic field. Some objects, primarilyferro us cover specific areas of Ye llowstone Lake (iron) materials, distort the earth's magnetic defined by park natural resource managers with field and show up as anomalies in ambient the RoxAnn bottom classification device to magnetic readings. The primary anomaly identify and delineate lake bed sediments, in source in hydrographic survey is typically particular possible lake trout spawning habitat; ferrous cultural materials associated with survey high probability areas with a side scan shipwrecks or other submerged archeological sonar to identify submerged cultural resources sites. The magnetometer's strength is that its related to historical use of Yellowstone Lake; readings are generally unaffected by burial; it characterize lake-bottom surficial sediments easily locates buried ferrous cultural materials. concurrently with RoxAnn and the high­ A Geometries model G-876 proton­ resolution side scan sonar for direct comparison precession magnetometer was used as part of to determine the most effective methodology; SCRU's ADAP system. The output of this and test effectiveness of a proton-precession magnetometer is ·proportional to the total magnetometer in the volcanic geological magnetic fi eld intensity and independent of environment of Yellowstone Lake. sensor coil orientation. Because data processing is done in-water with a separate, towed DIGITIZING computer connected in-line with the sensor, typical noise levels are 0.5-1.0 gammas As a normal part of survey planning, the (nanoteslas) in the earth's field of approximately most current Yellowstone Lake bathymetric

10 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Key

"'v Side Scan Sonar Coverage + Hydrographic Survey Blocks

0 1 2 3

Stevenson Island Kilometers

YELL009 Ye llowstone Lake

YELL001

Dot(). Island

West Thumb

Frank Island

Figure 1. Planned survey blocks and side scan sonar coverage. chart was digitized for survey design, execution supplied to Eric Compas, YELL GIS and incorporation into GIS. This chart (and its coordinator. digitized format) is problematic, however, and During field operations, a brief pedestrian should not be used for navigation until corrected survey was conducted along the lake shore through additional high-resolution survey. adjacent to surveyed areas to provide positions Chart contours only generally represent bottom for correcting the north lake shoreline. Figure fe atures, and the shoreline had to be georectified 1 incorporates changes made to the original with very few control points. This chart was digitized chart to correct shoreline inaccuracies

11 Part I Yellowstone National Park

in the study area, and these corrections have SURVEY POSITIONING been incorporated into the GIS survey results. Positioning was provided by on-board GPS SURVEY PLANNING and real-time differential corrections from SCRU's shore-based GPS base station, placed Dividing the study area into rectangular­ at either the Lake District or Grants location. shaped blocks provides an easily controlled and Survey data points were collected executable methodology to ensure full survey approximately every 1.5 seconds, with DGPS coverage at the desired sample interval. Survey positioning accuracy within a 1-2 m circle-of­ blocks covering lake bed classification areas error (95% confidence level) throughout the were established using the digital lake map. survey area. Real-time positions with rapid These blocks are depicted in Figure 1. updates (1-2 seconds) are necessary in Survey blocks were first laid out in the hydrographic surveys for accurate vessel primary survey area, as defined by YELL natural navigation to ensure complete, systematic resource managers. This survey area is based coverage at the desired sample interval. A on productive gill net locations, which may not Trimble Navigation Accutime II GPS receiver be directly related to spawning loci. There is and radio datalink were used aboard the survey not yet a model for lake trout spawning loci, boat for navigation and data collection. but the primary survey area represents an Typically, about 10,000 points per km2 are estimate of high lake trout populations by collected with all data collated and tied to DGPS natural resource researchers. The desired survey position. Survey positions and sensor data were coverage was in two areas: the restriction stored to the hard drive ofan on-board computer between the main lake and West Thumb, known as it was collected, and backed-up nightly via as the "Neck"; and the north part of West modem to a computer at the SCRU office in Thumb, from Pumice Point to Carrington Santa Fe. Island, from the shoreline to a depth of 120 ft . Prep lotted survey lanes were followed using Thermal fe atures, such as in the vicinity of the navigation information provided by the GPS and West Thumb Geyser Basin, were the lowest displayed in Hypack, a commercial priority. Six survey blocks were laid out to cover hydrographic software package. ·A computer the area specified by park biologists: YELLOO 1, monitor mounted near the helm provided the YELL005, YELL006, YELL007, YELL009 boat pilot with current position as well as and YELLO lO. navigation informationsuch as cross-track error, Initial survey transects or lanes in block speed, course, distance to end-of-line and YELL001 were designed with 20-m lane bearing to end-of-line to ensure complete, spacing to evaluate survey interval adequacy for systematic survey block coverage. In addition RoxAnn coverage in Ye llowstone Lake. These to tabular information, a graphical display data were post-plotted and discussed with showed real-time boat position and movement Ye llowstone natural resource personnel. and survey lanes superimposed over a geo­ Evaluation of survey transects indicated that 40- referenced, digitized lake chart. m lane spacing would be adequate for habitat Three geodetic surveys were conducted to location purposesand allow maximum coverage establish extremely accurate survey points of desired target areas. during the project, two for SCRU base station

12 Yellowstone National Park Part I

positions at Lake District Ranger Station and depths (Edsall et al. 1995:424), which is Grants, and one at Mammoth Hot Springs to sufficient to prevent mechanical damage and establish a YELL community base station for predation of eggs and fry. This environment park operations (see discussion below). often appears as cobble patches or piles on bedrock. Trout breeding apparently occurs in a ROXANN SURVEY range of water depths, from 1-36 m, with most in the 4-25-m-depth range, but reportedly as Interval deep as 46 m (Edsall et a1.1992a:85; Edsall et al. 1989:277; Edsall et al.1996:87). Spawning National Park Service submerged resource lake trout in Lake Superior were oftenfo und in survey standards utilize 30-m transects for water deeper than 10 m, and they are abundant general survey. The spacing represents NPS on reefs deeper than 15m, with one researcher experience regarding optimal cost-effective stating that 36 m is the maximum lake trout magnetic coverage for most colonial-period spawning depth (Edsall et al. 1992a:86-87). shipwrecks and related materials (Murphy YELL Submerged Resources Survey bottom 1984:90-95 ; Murphy and Saltus 1990:93-95). classification was designed to isolate this In block YELLOO 1, the survey transect distance bottom type should it later prove to be a was reduced to 20 m for RoxAnn performance spawning ground in Yellowstone Lake as it is evaluation in Ye llowstone Lake. The initial in the Great Lakes. survey block data were examined and a decision There are two ways to develop seabed was made in consultation with Yellowstone categories based on RoxAnn classification data. fisheries biologists that halving the resolution First, post-processed data sets can be grouped would be adequate for their purposes. In all into discrete value ranges of E1 (a numerical later blocks, transect interval was 40 m, which quantification of sediment roughness) and E2 appears to provide acceptable RoxAnn data (sediment hardness), which are each attributed resolution for the rather patchy environment of a specific color. Correlation of RoxAnn ranges Ye llowstone Lake. and bottom types requires diver investigation. Diver examination and ground truthing in past RoxAnn Generation RoxAnn surveys revealed a 1:1 congruence between RoxAnn data and bottom type. There To map potential trout habitat, a signature was also a very high correlation between for the target substrate had to be developed for bathymetry, aerial imagery and RoxAnn data. the RoxAnn data. Increased knowledge about In one case at Gulf Islands National Seashore, lake trout spawning habitat has resulted from a sandy area of about 1.5 km2 was classified attempts in the Great Lakes to re-establish lake into six categories derived solely from trout populations decimated by lamprey mathematical data set analysis. Diver predation and overfishing (Edsall et al. observations and grab samples verified that the 1995:418). Although complete lake trout range of classifications developed habitat utilization studies have not been mathematically directly reflected subtle conducted (Edsall et al. 1992a:84), generally, variations of sediment size and constituents that the optimum lake trout spawning habitat is correlated very well with submerged dune believed to be rounded or angular rubble and formation. This test and diver evaluation has cobble-sized rocks, 5-50 em in diameter (Edsall provided compelling empirical verification of et al.1992a:86), with 10-30 em interstitial RoxAnn's resolution.

13 Part I Yellowstone National Park

The second method of seabed categorization SIDE s>cAN SONAR SURVEY requires specific software capabilities. Recent modifications to Hypack, a Windows-based A corporate-partnership with Marine Sonic survey software used by SCRU, allow RoxAnn Technology of White Marsh, Virginia, allowed data color boxes to be manipulated in real time use of a side scan sonar and operator for four and also allow static data collection into a days. There were three basic goals for the use reference file. This particular combination of this instrument: to characterize the lake allows generation of seabed classifications bottom concurrently with RoxAnn for direct based on existing bottom classifications as comparison to high resolution side scan developed by sedimentologists, biologists and imagery; to survey high-probability lake areas other natural resource scientists. For this for submerged cultural remains above the lake procedure, the survey vessel is positioned above bottom; and to image areas surrounding known the type location for the seabed classification submerged archeological sites to locate further and a reference (training) file is collected. The material. RoxAnn color box is altered to fit the data range, The principal areas chosen for the cultural resulting in a tight classification capability. This resources survey and termed "high-probability" procedure, which was used for bottom are locations near the Lake Hotel likely to classification of Ye llowstone Lake, combined contain cultural remains associated with hotel with the RoxAnn Groundmaster instrument, activities, the vicinity of E. C. Wa ters on the results in a standardized bottom classification east side of Stevenson Island and the West capability for specific areas that can be Thumb Geyser Basin docks. One specific target compared over long periods of time. This new was the passenger steamer Zillah, which may seabed classification tool coupled with GIS have been scuttled for disposal in the early should provide comparable databases over wide twentieth century. According to former YELL areas appropriatefor long-term monitoring and Historian Aubrey Haines, if Zillah was scuttled, management needs and be entirely compatible with existing YELL GIS data sets and layers. the most likely location would have been just Based on the Great Lakes experience and west of the former Lake Hotel docks, offshore the reported lake trout literature, the target the old boathouse and marine railway. In depths and lake bed sediment would be addition to Zillah, one known site, a small steam concentrations of cobble-sized material on hard launch associated with the Lake Hotel, is located bottom in depths between 4-40 m. Several in the same area. This site was briefly visited training sites for RoxAnn data collection were during Lenihan 's reconnaissance in 1995 developed to repre sent bottom-type (Lenihan 1995a). The Lake Hotel offshore areas classifications of interest to natural science became top priorityfor sonar survey for cultural researchers for post-processing the RoxAnn remains based on possible presence of Zillah, data. James Ruzycki, a fisheries biologist, heavy use of the Lake Hotel area and presence assisted SCRU in locating and evaluating of known sites. Secondary priorities were RoxAnn training sites specific to Yellowstone offshore Stevenson Island to locate materials Lake. Lake bed sediment signature generation potentially associated with E. C. Wa ters and methodology is discussed in detail below in the other wrecks, and the West Thumb Geyser Basin "RoxAnn Training Sites" section. dock area.

14 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Three survey blocks were established in two installing survey gear on the park's 25-ft. of the high-probability areas. One block, Bertram and testing the system. YELL002, was constructed offshoreof the Lake Survey operations began August 2 and Hotel, and two smaller blocks, YELL003 and continued through August 14, totaling 12 days YELL004, were created on Stevenson Island's of survey; survey operations were not conducted east side. These blocks defined the general August 12. RoxAnn coverage was completed survey area for simultaneous side scan sonar in six survey blocks (YELL001, 005, 006, 007, and RoxAnn coverage. These blocks, 009, 010), totaling approximately 4 mU, in maximized for sonar coverage, were surveyed addition to side scan sonar coverage depicted on 100 m transects at 3 knots or less to maximize in Figure 1. sonar record quality. The bottom topography was extremely irregular in these survey areas, GEODETIC POSITIONING so preplotted lanes could not always be followed. No block was created for the We st Three geodetic surveys were conducted Thumb Geyser Basin dock area because dock during the August field operations: to position remnants are visible from the shore, and the DGPS base stations at Lake District Ranger shoreline affords a navigation guide. headquarters and Grants, and to establish a park DGPS base station at Mammoth. MAGNETOMETER SURVEY For a base- station to supply accurate corrections, its position must be surveyed SCRU's magnetometer was deployed to test accurately, which is done using geodetic­ the instrument's effectiveness in the volcanic capable GPS receivers. A static geodetic survey Ye llowstone Lake geological environment. As was conducted to establish control coordinates a cultural resource discovery tool, the for the GPS base station at a point on the old magnetometer's effectiveness is considerably "air quality shack" near the Lake DistrictRanger reduced in an environment with excessive Station. The base station control point was background noise; subtle anomalies generated triangulated from two "Order B" horizontal by cultural remains can be masked by the greater control monuments, "Yellowstone" and "CVO fluctuations of the earth's magnetic field caused 84 23." by the geological environment. Deployment The YELL Submerged Resources Survey and tuning of the instrument on the first day of study areas included both the Lake Hotel survey proved this was the case and was shoreline and the far shore of West Thumb. A sufficient to determine that it would be water test of the Lake District base station ineffective to use it on subsequent days. indicated the radio link could not reach the West Thumb area, which was the primary survey area SURVEY OPERATIONS for trout-habitat bottom classification. The base station was moved to Grants, where a geodetic SCRU members arrived in YELL on July survey was conducted to locate the new base 28, 1996, and began survey preparations. From station position and tie it to the Lake District July 29 to August 1, the SCRU survey team position. Subsequent tests of the new base installed and readied the survey system for station location proved it easily covered the operations. This included setting up a mobile primary survey area. Full study area coverage GPS base station to provide real-time required repositioning the base station between differential corrections to the survey boat, Lake District and Grants.

15 Part I Yellowstone National Park

During the project, geodetic positioning was ("Mam_Base"), which is an "X" scratched in conducted at the park's request to aid YELL's the fire cache building roof peak just north of a Spatial Analysis Center in establishing a raised roof portion. The third observation was community GPS base station. The base station made from "C157" to "Mam Base." All was designed to continuously collect GPS base observed data were processed and baselines station information for differential corrections adjusted according to the strengths of the of remotely-collected GPS data in the park and monuments. Horizontal control was used from surrounding areas, up to 300 miles distant. A both "F-Mammoth" and "C1 57" ; vertical basic requirement for a community base sta6on control was used from "C157" only. is the GPS antenna be geodetically positioned Statistical analysis of the resulting to a circle-of-error of no more than a few horizontal coordinates for "Mam Base" centimeters. An antenna location was selected establish it to within a few millimeters. by YELL GIS Coordinator Eric Compas on the Confidence in the geodetic coordinates for this Mammoth Village Fire Cache roof, which point is high, within a few centimeters. provides a secure, unobstructed position. Established WGS 84 datum coordinates for On July 30, 1996, SCRU Geodesist Tim "Mam_B ase" are: 44° 58' 31.388351" N, 110°

Smith, assisted by YELL personnel, conducted 41' 51.094834" W, HAE = 1901.0199 m. a GPS geodetic-control survey to establish coordinates for the Mammoth permanent GPS HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY base station. This station was named "Mam_B ase." Two National Geodetic Survey Weather was frequently a limiting factor (NGS) Control monuments were used for this during Yellowstone Lake survey operations. survey: "F-Mamoth", a third-order horizontal Inclement weather could appear with very little control and "C157", a B-order horizontal and warning, quickly making conditions vertical control monument. "F-Mammoth" unacceptable for accurate survey and unsafe for NAD 83 horizontal coordinates are : 44° 58' boating. Surveying had to be terminated early 54.761666" N, 110° 42' 16.47553" W; Mean on several occasions because of strong winds Sea Level (MSL) height for this monument was and seas. The weather patterns generally scaled from an existing topographic map by the deterioratedin the afternoon; consequently, the NGS, and geoidal height (-8.37 m) obtained survey team began work early when the wind using the Geoid 90 program. Coordinates for was still calm, often leaving the dock before "C157" are, 44° 58' 12.29096" N, 110° 42' 0600. 06.93849" W. Height is 1937.218 m MSL and The first four survey days, August 2-5, 1928.757 m Height Above the Ellipsoid (HAE). were spent on block YELL001 in the southern Vertical height for this monument was part of the "Neck." On the first day, the survey established though differential leveling and team deployed the G-876 magnetometer. This , geodetic separation ( -8.35 m) by the Geoid 90 instrument, which is extremely sensitive, program. typically has internal noise of0.5-1 .0 gammas. The first baseline observation was In Ye llowstone Lake, readings fluctuated more conducted from "F-Mammoth" to "C157" to than 20 gammas. Extensive attempts to tune verify the coordinates on both monuments. The the instrument were unsuccessful; the observed ground distance was 1328.0253 m. background noise in the earth's magnetic field The second baseline was established from "F­ was simply too much for reliable recording of Mammoth" to the YELL base point small anomalies. Magnetometer operations

16 Yellowstone National Park Part I

were tenninated. Inclement weather on several ROXANN TRAINING SITES of these first days forced survey operations to terminate midday. On August 11, training site data fi les were The Marine Sanies Technology side scan collected for RoxAnn post-processing. Nine sonar and operator arrived August 5, and on homogenous bottom types were selected based August 6 the instrument was mobilized and on raw RoxAnn data to produce RoxAnn tested. The next two days were spent covering identification signatures. These categories are high-probability areas offshore the Lake Hotel presented in the software as RoxAnn and east of Stevenson Island, including Classification Boxes, which are user defined. imaging E. C. Wa ters and the surrounding areas. Each box was based on a particular bottom type For these survey days, three blocks, YELL002, found in Yellowstone Lake. Each site was YELL003 and YELL004, were created, and they visited and divers were sent down to visually defined the general survey area covered inspect the bottom and videotape the location simultaneously by side scan sonar and RoxAnn. The fourth and last day of side scan sonar survey, as a permanent record. These sites varied in August 9, covered the area around West Thumb bottom type from fine, deep, fluff-type mud to Geyser Basin, including imaging the submerged hard rock surfaces. Each data file was dock structures and vicinity. Finally, an attempt completed successfully, and a good was made to cover block YELL001 with side classification model with seven distinct bottom scan sonar to generate data for comparison with types was produced from these training files for RoxAnn in the high priorityare a. Unfortunately, the entire surveyed area. Identified bottom the towfish struck a vertical underwater cliff on classifications were based visually on the first lane and was disabled beyond field Wentworth Scale definitions: sand = less than repair. Side scan operations were terminated, 2 mm in diameter (0.07 in.); gravel = 2-64 mm and no direct comparisons between side scan (0.07-2.5 in.); rubble = 65-256 mm (2.5-10 sonar data and RoxAnn data could be in.); cobble = 257-999 mm (10-39 in.); and accomplished. boulders = greater than 999 mm (39 in.). Block YELL001 was completed with RoxAnn coverage only during the afternoonof ROXANN BOTTOM TYPE August 9. The next day, block YELL005, which CLASSIFICATIONS is adjacent to YELL001 to the north, was completed on 40-m lane spacing. Completing The following categories were developed this block finished 'RoxAnn coverage in the for Ye llowstone Lake surficial bottom type restriction between West Thumb and the main analysis and display. Bottom classifications 1, lake. 2, 3, 5 and 7 were developed from training sites; Final RoxAnn coverage was completed August 13 and 14. Blocks YELL006, 4 and 6 were judgmentally determined from data YELL007, YELL009 and YELL0 10 set categorization. The classification encompassing the area in the north part of West nomenclature indicates predominate sediment Thumb from Pumice Point to CarringtonIsland, type first, followed by lesser sediment types; from the shoreline to a water depth of 120 ft . i.e., "dispersed rubble with sand" consists of were surveyed, completing all primaryRoxAnn more rubble than "sand with dispersed rubble." survey areas defined by YELL natural resource Yellowstone Lake classifications are: managers.

17 Part I Yellowstone National Park

1. Cobble and rubble with sand (Figure 2) attributed the box color and appear on the map 2. Rubble and sand on hard bottom (Figure 3) as the bottom category represented by that box's 3. Mud and fine sand (Figure 4) color. The boxes can be made any size and 4. Hard bottom with sand attributed any color, and the data set can be re­ 5. Dispersed rubble with sand (Figure 5) evaluated after the survey to produce additional 6. Large cobble and boulders or different categories. In practical applications, 7. Sand with dispersed rubble (Figure 6) we have found that only a few bottom types have been necessary to categorize survey areas for ROXANN CLASSIFICATION BOXES most research purposes, although more could be added at any time as scientific questions RoxAnn classification boxes are generated about the lake bed are developed. as a normal part of data collection and post­ To produce a RoxAnn box from a training processing, and are the method of converting site, the survey boat and transducer are raw RoxAnn data into bottom categories for positioned over a homogenous bottom type display purposes and GIS integration. Basically, desired as a bottom category. A training site digital value s collected from field data file is recorded and displayed on the RoxAnn representing bottom sediment characteristics are grid. A box is constructed around the scatter of attributed a color indicating presence of a sample points. (The variation in plots is a result particular bottom type that is collated with of boat movement, bottom variation and other position to produce a map showing bottom type factors. A stable transducer generally produces distribution. The RoxAnn classification boxes a fairly small point-cluster spread.) If it is are developed and designed based on two basic necessary to isolate that particular bottom type types of information: homogeneous bottom to a very high degree of accuracy, a small type fi les or "training sites" and the overall field RoxAnn box is constructed in the software on data set. the grid. Generally, a larger box is constructed RoxAnn data are displayed as El to incorporate the range of vari ability a (roughness) and E2 (hardness) values with each particular category encompasses. The process data point presented on a Cartesian grid as an is repeated for each bottom category in the x-y position representing roughness and desired classification series. hardness. The range of RoxAnn values can It is unlikely that all bottom variations will theoretically portray thousands of bottom types, be represented by desired categories. Our and it is capable of extremely high�resolution experience has shown that RoxAnn's ability to discrimination. Similar bottom types produce discriminate variations in bottom sediment similar El and E2 values and appear clustered exceeds researchers' ability to discriminate on the grid. A RoxAnn box is simply a square categories. For example, variable percentages or rectangle formed on the grid around a cluster of sand versus gravel, rubble or cobble can be area that defines a particular range of El and discriminated by RoxAnn, but are difficult, and E2 values, which indicates a similar bottom type often unnecessary, to categorize into separate (Figure 7). The software attributes a color bottom types through on-site observation. (actually a color value number) to each point The second way of generating RoxAnn based on its position within the grid in relation classification boxes is by using the whole to described RoxAnn boxes. Any survey point hydrographic survey data set. Typically, the data producing El and E2 values falling within the over a large area will more or less cluster into range as defined by the RoxAnn box will be areas of dense sample points on the graph, which

18

Part I Yellowstone National Park

represent similar bottom types. Training sites incorporate coarser grained bottom types such can be selected in an area where nothing may as fine sand so that the identified bottom type be known about the bottom sediments based on classification is "Mud and Fine Sand," by the data clustering alone. A central point in the enlarging the classification box along the El graph is selected and the survey boat proceeds (roughness) axis, which was done for the to that area and collects a training site. Diver Ye llowstone data. Classifications #4, "hard observations provide the category descriptions. bottom with sand," and #6 "large cobble and Box size and number are judgmentally selected, boulders," were judgmentally developed by with the results fairly reliably providing extending the RoxAnn data range to encompass categorization of the predominate sediment data sets outside the training site categories. types present in the survey area. Both Bottom type categories can range from procedures require judgmental determination of several to many, their number and ranges box boundaries, and they incorporate some determined by research questions and the assumptions about bottom variability during natural range of variability. Any bottom post-processing operations. Categories are characterization necessarily creates boundaries easily tested by conducting diver investigations between arbitrary abstract categories that are in of areas on the post-processed map to determine reality gradations of sediment types and homogeneity of bottom types depicted. SCRU percentages. Distinct boundaries between has conducted several tests of this nature in polygons representing similar types are useful marine areas. in GIS, but they mask the natural range and In practice, SCRU uses a combination of complexity of the surficial sediments depicted. these two approaches with the methodology Any set of categorizations incorporate varies according to research questions and combinations of empirical observation, general conditions. For example, a question judgmental determinations and assumptions might involve one particular sediment type. A about sediment characteristics. However, all training site generated from that sediment could depictions are based on reproducible, quantified be developed, and the survey data divided into attributes of bottom sediment that can be two categories: the desired sediment and reanalyzed to incorporate additional everything else. Typically, a more information, training sites or different comprehensive bottom classification is desired assumptions. for management purposes. Some classifications are developed from particular bottom types of SURVEY RESULTS research interest that are combined with types generated from survey data clusters. ROXANN SURVEY Classification boxes based solely on training sites will, generally, be too narrow to cover all Training sites from August 11 provided a the bottom variations in the survey area. bottom classification model for the Yellowstone Adjustments to existing ground-truthed bottom Lake bottom as discussed above. Data classification boxes is usually desirable for collection was skewed toward areas most likely comprehensive coverage and to eliminate to include lake trout habitation, so more training undescribed areas. Typically, one assumes there sites may be required for future work in other is a range of El, E2 values within any bottom lake areas. Indications are, however, that most type category. For example, a classification box bottom types will probably fall between the for fine mud assigned from training data may variations found in the bottom classification

22 Yellowstone National Park Part I

model developed during this survey. Bottom DEPTH SOUNDER classification maps for each survey block were produced, and this information was sent to A 2-m-contour surface model of the lake YELL shortly after the project's completion for bottom was produced from the bathymetric use in developing lake trout control methods. data, and is presented in Figures 18-21. Survey block maps for surveyed areas are presented in Figures 8-11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS SIDE SCAN SONAR SURVEY The project surveyed approximately 4 rni.2 Ye llowstone Lake side scan sonar coverage with a DGPS-positioned RoxAnn bottom classification device and depth sounder for lake is presented in Figure 1. High-probability areas trout habitat location. The instrument appears near the Lake Hotel revealed several interesting effective and of sufficient resolution to cultural and natural features. Although no trace distinguish lake bed sediment for estimation of of Zillah was observed, eight small, wooden fish breeding and other habitats. Survey data rowboats associated with the Lake Hotel were incorporation into the park's GIS database located; three were briefly visited and provides a permanent record that can be used documented (Figures 12-14 and Part II). In for future lake trout control and research addition, unique bottom topography and operations. Side scan sonar survey of about 4.8 For geological features were also observed. mi.2 located eight small watercraft and example, the probable hot water vent in Figure eliminated the highest potential areas for 15. Side scan sonar images (sonographs) of Zillah 's location. E. C. Wa ters (Figure 16) and the West Thumb Should further bottom classification be docks (Figure 17) did not reveal any additional desired, additional training sites need to be remains associated with these sites. However, developed to refine bottom classification the sonographs have proved useful for typology. Survey data generated during this analytical and documentation purposes. project is ultimately useful for the management Because the sonar towfish was damaged, no issues for which it was conducted only if it is comparative data were collected in the primary collated with gill net locations and fish catch RoxAnn coverage areas. numbers in the GIS.

23

110d30'00" 110d29'30" 110d29'00" 110d28'30"

44d27'45" 44d27'45" f Survey Block YELL005 National Park Service Submerged Cultural Resources Unit

44d27'30" 44d27'30"

44d27'00" 44d27'00"

0 500

meters

2 meter bathymetric contours

---.. ---�-

44d26'35" 44d26'35"

110d30'00" 110d29'30" 11Od29'00" 110d28'30"

Figure 19. Two meter bathymetric contours, survey block YELL005.

33 11Od32'00" 1 10d31 '30" 11Od31 '00" 11Od30'30" 11Od30'00" 11Od29 '30"

44d27'30" 44d27'30" Pumice Point

44d27'00" 44d27'00"

meters

2 meter bathymetric contours

·------·-

t Survey Block YELL006 National Park Service 44d26'30" 44d26'30" Submerged Cultural Resources Unit

110d32'00" 1 10d31 '30" 11Od31 '00" 110d30'30" 110d30'00" 110d29'30"

Figure20. Two meter bathymetric contours, survey block YELL006.

34 110d33'00" 110d32'30" 110d32'00" 110d31'30" 11Od31 '00" I

44d28'00" 44d28'00" ) /

l 0 500

m�ters 44d27'30" 44d27'30" 2 meter bathymetric contours

Al ------�- 'Survey Blocks YELL009 & YELLO 1 0 National Park Service Submerged Cultural Resources Unit

110d33'00" 110d32'30" 110d32'00" 110d31'30"

Figure21. Two meter bathymetric contours, survey blocks YELL009 and YELLOlO.

35 PA RT II

CULTURAL RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS

by James E. Bradford and Matthew A. Russell Part II, Chapter 1 Ye llowstone National Park

CHAPTER !

Introduction

Ye llowstone Lake, with more than 100 mU sites and begun a program to survey, inventory of surface area, dwarfs the other 75 ponds and and evaluate them in a manner necessary for lakes in Ye llowstone National Park (YELL) their management, protection and interpretation. (Figure 1.1). Centuries before the idea of the Terrestrial archeological surveys and world's first national parkwas discussed around excavations have been conducted in many park a frontier campfire, Yellowstone Lake was the areas, including some portions of the focus of much human activity. American Indian Ye llowstone Lake shoreline. groups had long been moving through the area, As a result of discussions with park hunting and living along the shores of this high­ management in 1995 during an archeological altitude, volcanic lake. How many aboriginal reconnaissance, the Submerged Cultural sites occur along the lake shores is unknown, Resources Unit (SCRU) was asked to provide but evidence indicates a long history of human technical information on lake physiography for occupation and use of the unusual area natural resource issues. YELL scientists had associated with Yellowstone Lake. become aware of SCRU's systematic remote The earliest Euroamerican activities in the sensing of natural resources in other park areas, area mirrored those of American Indians. particularly Biscayne National Park and Dry However, these activities shifted toward Tortugas National Park. An important question scientific studies by the 1870s and, before the facing YELL natural resource scientists was end of the century, included recreation, with how to control proliferation of exotic lake trout heavy influence from concessionaires catering that compete with native trout in Yellowstone to the growing tourist trade. Euroamerican sites, Lake. These scientists wished to determine if many of which are integral to the park's history, the methods developed by SCR U for seabed are numerous around Yellowstone Lake, classification would be appropriate for although the number and full range of these sites classifying lake-bed sediments in order to are not yet known. Park management has understand their relationship to lake trout recognized the importance of these archeological breeding. Recognizing the cost-effective

37 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 1

GALLATIN'NATIONAL FOREST

QuadrantMt 9,944 ft ·-·

�DomeMi

SHOSHONE. 9.�:/t NATIONAL. . . FOREST • Mt WasJUn.rn . 1�,243/f'. " _J .c-�.

! White Lake�

. . ·. · · . D Beach,Lalu!

i i ·L

.<'1-i : "R�d Lali�:. 'Mountains .· ' .' . : /Mt Sh .;riJan ' 10,3,08 /�i \ ..

eMflf.nco{;k 10,214/t ' · NORlH · 16 Kile!s BRIQER-TET9)'1�ATIONAL FORES�· ., ... \, 10 las @)

Figure 1.1. Yellowstone National Park.

38 Part II, Chapter 1 Ye llowstone National Park

benefits of multiresource investigations, SCR U including small boats near the old Lake Hotel accepted the opportunity afforded by this natural dock and Zillah, the first large lake tour boat, resource investigation to collect information on reported to have been sunk near the lake's submerged cultural resources at the same time. northern end. Although park divers have The 1996 SCRU investigations of observed submerged near-shore features near Yellowstone Lake were a follow-up to the 1995 the Lake Hotel and We st Thumb Geyser Basin, reconnaissance-level study. This second, more no systematic archeological survey of these areas intensive project was designed to acquire . has been conducted. Lake District Ranger John substantial information on cultural resources in Lounsbury provided the background information the lake in areas selected by park managers. The and historical context for these areas. cultural resources survey and documentation Fieldwork began July 30, 1996, and was phases were opportunistically "piggy-backed" completed August 15, 1996. Daniel J. Lenihan on the primary field objective of testing the was overall SCRU project director and Larry efficacy of SCRU's remote-sensing survey E. Murphy was field director. Murphy and methodology for lake sediment classification to Timothy G. Smith were principalremote sensing assist resolution of the park's lake trout issue. surveyors; Lenihan, Matthew A. Russell, Brett The cultural resource component of the T. Seymour and James E. Bradford conducted 1996 project was designed to accomplish two the in-water investigations; John D. Brooks and goals: 1) investigate selected shoreline Seymour documented cultural and natural archeological sites and submerged near-shore features with photography and video. Park features related to the history of Ye llowstone rangers provided logistical support, with John Lake, including precontact and postcontact Lounsbury, Rick Fey, We sley Miles and Gary American Indian sites, and historical Nelson directly involved in fi eld operations. Euroamerican features such as boat docks, This report presents the methodology and watercraft remains and other material culture results of the 1996 field investigations in scatters; and 2) conduct side scan sonar survey Yellowstone Lake. Recommendations for future to locate submerged watercraft remains, work are included in the last chapter.

39 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2

Environmental Context

This chapter presents a brief discussion of (1872, 1873, 1883) and followed by A. Hague's specific Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem aspects classic studies done between 1883 and 1902 that have particular relevance to the (Hague 1899, 1904), the area's complexity was environmental context of archeological sites not well understood until the work of Boyd presented in this report. Its purpose is to briefly (1957), when the vast age difference between describe how Yellowstone Lake was formed, the older and younger rocks was recognized. discuss the bio-diversity that evolved along its Since Boyd's work, studies by Pierce (1979), shores, and explain why these factors attracted Christensen (1984) and others have increased people to Ye llowstone Lake, the largest high­ and refined knowledge of Yellowstone's altitude lake in the intermountain west. complex geology.

GEOLOGY VOLCANISM

Situated in the northwest corner of The Yellowstone Plateau has been Wyoming, Yellowstone National Park is at the destroyed, altered and reshaped often through juncture of three physiographic provinces: the geologic time. The oldest rocks in Yellowstone southeastemmost extension of the Northern National Park are volcanic, dating to perhaps Rockies; the northern lobe of the Middle 50 million years ago when countless mud flows Rockies; and the easternmost extension of the cooled into breccia deposits forming a nearly Columbia Plateau. This location, in the heart of 65-km (40-mi.)-long mountain range between the youngest and largest mountain chain inNorth Mt. Washburn, 26 km (16 mi.) north of America, affords one of the most geologically Yellowstone Lake, and Mt. Sheridan in the Red complex and fascinating settings in the world. Mountains, 13 km (8 mi.) south of the lake's Although pioneering geological studies were West Thumb (Figure 2.1 ). Connecting these two conducted in the Ye llowstone area as early as high peaks and running along Ye llowstone 1871 by the western geologist F. V. Hayden Lake's eastern edge is the Absaroka Range

40 Part II, Chapter 2 Ye llowstone National Park

QuUdrantMI 9,944/t

n��'Mt 9,894 ft SHOSHONE, (• NATIONAL FOREST

'NORTH

Figure 2.1. Major geological features in Yellowstone National Park.

41 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 2

which, together with the WashburnRange and or ring fractures around the dome and allowing the Red Mountains, form a "sort of geologic risingmagma to vent to the surface. The venting horseshoe open to the southwest" (Good and triggered a sudden release of tremendous Pierce 1996:6). The original size of these pressure in the form of gasses and molten rock mountainous deposits will likely never beknown that erupted almost immediately and, upon because later geologic events have destroyed exposure, began cooling and solidifying into many of them. pumice, ash and dust across the surrounding Beginning about two million years ago, a landscape. Vast ash flows quickly covered series of volcanic eruptions occurred in the thousands of square miles, obliterating a general Ye llowstone area creating four large complex ecosystem of plant and animal life and calderas, three of which directly affect park replacing everything with a barren, black topography (Figure 2.1). Calderas are "large moonscape (Good and Pierce 1996:13). With basin-shaped volcanic depressions more or less relief of underlying pressure, the dome collapsed circular in form"(Good and Pierce 1996:8). The several thousand feet into the underlying magma first caldera eruption, about 2.1 million years chamber forminga giant caldera 77 km (48 mi.) ago, produced 965 km3 (600 mi.3) of volcanic long by 45 km (28 mi.) wide, ultimately creating rock-2,400 times more than the recent Mt. St. the depression for what is now most of Helens eruption. This caldera is centered in west Yellowstone Lake. Ye llowstone, extending westward into Idaho and Even with these eruptions, the magma eastward to include the area now containing the chamber still contained most of its material and western half of Yellowstone Lake. A second began rising again, creating two resurgent domes explosion, the island park caldera, occurred 1.3 within the caldera floor and causing a series of million years ago outside the current park rhyolite flows through the fractures. These flows boundariesbut within the westernmostexten sion spread across the caldera floorand completefy of the earlier caldera. The third. and most buried the caldera's western rim (Good and relevant caldera to the study area erupted about Pierce 1996: 12). This young rhyolite along the 650,000 years ago in much the same place as caldera floor shaped the foundation of much the first, overlapping it and extending the newly Yellowstone topography seen today. This formed Ye llowstone Caldera 16 km (10 mi.) process created many streams, waterfalls and northeast. This third caldera encompassed all lakes. For example, Shoshone and Lewis lakes' of what would become Ye llowstone Lake except fill basins are located between adjacent flows, for the two southern fingers (Southeast and and "Yellowstone Lake [eventually came to fill] South arms). It may have been this explosion a basin in the southeast part of the 600,000-year­ that destroyed the southern part of the much old caldera between the east rim of the caldera older Washburn Range (Good and Pierce and the rhyolite flows of the west" (Good and 1996:10). More recently, about 160,000 years Pierce 1996: 14). ago, an eruption, minor by comparison to the This formative geologic activity is caused earlier ones, formed the West Thumb Caldera by what geologists now believe to be the slow, within the southeast portion of the much larger southwestern movement of the North American Ye llowstone Caldera (Taylor et al. 1989). tectonic plate passing over a stationary thermal The Yellowstone Caldera was created when mantle plume-a bulbous mass of magma that a huge magma chamber beneath the earth's crust has risen from the earth's core toward the crust, began risingand arching the overlying crust into which is slowly being flattenedby crustal plate a huge dome, resulting in a series of concentric movement (Good and Pierce 1996:21). This

42 Part II, Chapter 2 Ye llowstone National Park

tectonic movement over the mantle plume also Yellowstone Plateau's glacial history is as uplifted much of northwest Wyoming, southwest complex as its volcanic history. In the Montana and southern Idaho, resulting in Ye llowstone region, there were at least 10 glacial Ye llowstone's 2,450 m (8,000 ft.) average periods; the last began around 70,000 years ago, elevation (Good and Pierce 1996:21). reached its maximum size about 25,000 years Subsequent volcanism, glaciation and erosion ago, and all but vanished 15,000 years ago. The have caused elevation differences within the park Yellowstone Plateau ice shield was separatefrom ranging from 1,620 m (5,315 ft.) near the park's the North American ice shield and covered the north entrance to 3,462 m (11,360 ft.) on Eagle entire area in an almost flat ice mantle for miles Peak near the southeastern comer boundary in all directions. During this last glacial period, (Haynes 1946: 15). the ice mantle was 1,200 m (4,000 ft.) thick above the Yellowstone Lake area (Good and GLACIATION Pierce 1996:31). Because of Yellowstone Plateau's modest elevation, early warming Goncurrent with Yellowstone Plateau's significantly affected the area when the volcanic history is glaciation. Although one does Yellowstone ice field began to shrink about not usually think of fire and ice coexistence, 20,000 years ago. The snow line rose 900 m Yellowstone's geologic history often (2,953 ft.) to its current position, which resulted encompassed both simultaneously, much as the in the plateau being in the initial melt zone. Kamchatka Peninsula of eastern Russia does today. A combination of factors caused As the plateau ice field melted, the glaciation, the second major geologic influence Yellowstone valley glacier retreated on park terrain: the upward thrust of the plateau up valley and thinned . . . [but the to its current elevations and a cooler global major valleys] were still full of climate. Glaciation requires "considerable moving ice. Meltwater streams from snowfall [and] summer temperatures ...cool the plateau ice field drained toward enough for some of the winter snow to survive the ice-filled major valleys and ran into the succeeding winter, year after year" along the margins of the valley (Good and Pierce 1996:27). glaciers [Good and Pierce 1996:43]. Glacial conditions existed during the past two million years over 26 million km2 (10 million As the ice thinned, the underlying volcanism was mi.2) of Canada and the United States that are uncovered, and interactions between stagnant now almost ice-free, extending as far south as ice and hydrothermal features were abundant St. Louis, Missouri (Good and Pierce 1996:27). (Good and Pierce 1996:44). Moving ice often This Quaternary-age glaciation was cyclical, blocked the valley streams creating large lakes alternating between periods of glaciation and that, in tum, eventually rose to overpower the glacial melting about every 100,000 years, which ice dams and create violent, massive glacial was influenced by two factors: 1) eccentricity outburst floods (Good and Pierce 1996:46). of the earth's movement around the sun; and 2) Such wasting of the massive ice cover caused a effects on global weather patterns created by 61 m (200 ft.) drop in the level of Ye llowstone plateau and mountain uplift, as in the western Lake, resulting in the explosion of superheated United States, that created barriers to west­ water from below that created the 1.6 m long east storm tracks (Good and Pierce 1996:28). (1 mi.) by 49 m deep (160 ft.) Mary Bay on the

43 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 2

lake's northern end. Similar, smaller explosions and its location within the Rocky Mountains. between 5,500 and 3,500 years ago created The climate is considered severe along the lake Indian Pond and Turbid and Fern lakes shore, with a mean annual temperature of oo C (Hirschmann 1982:83). With the lake level (32° F). Daytime summer temperatures are currently stabilized, we are left today with generally mild, in the 15.5° C (60° F) range, but numerous, but much less violent, hydrothermal winter temperatures can plunge to 10-15.5° C features that characterize the Yellowstone (50-60° F) below zero. Winters are long with Plateau: an estimated 150 geysers and more snow commonly occurring from September to than 5,000 hot springs, hot pools, and steam June, but snow can also occur in limited amounts vents. These geothermal features, particularly during summer months. Annual precipitation geyser basins, are concentrated along streams varies from 30-200 em (12-80 in.) across the and on lake shores because it is here that the park with a mean precipitation of 76 em (30 necessary concurrence of heat and water is in.), most of it snow. Yellowstone Lake is often found. These remarkable features have no peers, icebound by late December and stays frozen all and they have made "Yellowstone" synonymous winter, though the ice is rarely more than 60 em with geothermal activity (Haines 1996a:xix). (2 ft.) thick (John Lounsbury, personal Today, glaciers, along with a few remnant communication 1996). Winter generally lasts ice fields, areall but gone within the contiguous 7-8 months, andit usually snows every few days. United States remaining only in the highest Winds can reach 160 kph (100 mph) on the RockyMou ntain elevations within classic glacial region's higher peaks, and dangerous winds erosion topography. These features include come up on the lake most summer afternoons. mud, sand, gravel and boulders reduced and These climatic conditions have a major influence redeposited by glacial action. This lithic debris on the region's floral and faunal populations. forms much of the lake shore and islands within Yellowstone Lake. Aside from minor exposures BIOLOGY of late Tertiary and Quaternary-age volcanic flows and a few hydrothermal deposits along Vo lcanism produced enormous amounts of the shoreline, almost the entire lake shore is silica sediments that cover the landscape, composed of Quaternary-ageglacial sediments creating a relatively sterile soil environment. and subsequent lake deposits (Taylor et al. Certain plants have adapted to this environment, 1989). Also left over from the last Yellowstone including lodgepole pine, pine grasses and glacial retreat was a large·amount of melt water fireweed (Good and Pierce 1996:14). These that originally filled low areas within the adaptations eventually led to plant and animal calderas, creating the many lakes that are associations that add to the area's uniqueness replenished each spring with snow melt. This and include wildlife that, along with the geologic cycle created the ancestral Yellowstone Lake, wonders, has drawn people to Ye llowstone for which once covered the Hayden and Pelican centuries. Creek valleys. Many features of the present Ye llowstone Lake reflectits complex formation. FLORAAND FAUNA

CLIMATE As described by Good and Pierce (1996:47- 50), the postglacial Ye llowstone Plateau history Ye llowstone's climate is affected primarily is one of a succession of plant communities and by its latitude, Yellowstone Plateau elevation, their attendant animal populations. As

44 Part II, Chapter 2 Ye llowstone National Park

temperatures rose and the glaciers retreated, new Cooler temperatures followed the warm deposits of glacial till supported a seriesof plant early Holocene period, allowing four minor communities. Toward the glacial -period glacial advances in the last 6,000 years. The terminus, the plateau was a tundra containing a last of these cooler periods, dubbed the "Little mixture of grasslands, stunted sagebrush, and Ice Age," began around A.D. 1250 and lasted other tundra vegetation, with dwarf willows until about 1900. During this period, the snow lining meltwater streams. Pleistocene animals line dropped 90-180 m (300-600 ft .). This from south of the continental ice sheets moved cooler, 650-year period was the last major northward with the ice shield's retreat. Many environmental influence on plateau vegetative tundra-related animals, such as musk oxen, communities, and is evident in the local plant woolly mammoths, dire wolves and elk, were communities and distribution patterns seen present. About 14,000 years ago, the today. Of the 13 arboreal species found in the Ye llowstone Plateau became ice-free and park, eight are conifers that cover almost 80% episodic changes in vegetation began to occur. of the park terrain. Along the lake shore, With lake and pond formation, hardier plants lodgepole pine dominates and herbaceous plant became established through pollination by trees communities are principal understory types. and shrubs from areas south of the plateau. With Lakeshore glacial sediments support sagebrush these new plant communities may have come communities, including silver sage, big such animals as American lions, bison, ground sloths, camels, horses and, by late Holocene sagebrush, and a variety of forbs and grasses. times (about 10,000 years ago), beaver. Two Stream banks and marshy areas produce stands animals not previously recorded in North of willows, sedges and rushes, important food America, humans and grizzlybears , also entered for elk and moose. during this period (Good and Pierce 1996:49). Just as plant communitiesare dependent on The tundra-like vegetation was replaced by the region's geology, native animals are Engelmann spruce that spread through the dependent on the vegetation. As described by region over a 500-year period,indicating rising Haines, Ye llowstone today is not only a: summer temperatures and moist conditions. As the temperatures continued to rise, whitebark, . . . hot-water extravaganza [but limber and lodgepole pine formed open forests also] ...an unusual wildlife habitat, a that were eventually succeeded by the present great outdoor zoo preserving a more closed forests of lodgepole pine (Good and representative sample of the primeval Pierce 1996:48). Deer and black bear probably fauna of the American West than is entered the region at this time. now found anywhere else. Here, During the period from 10,000-6,000 years living under conditions very nearly ago, the earth was at its perihelion, the closest those existing when white men first approach to the sun. Lodgepole pine flourished entered the area, are elk, buffalo, in this period of higher solar radiation, probably mule deer, moose, antelope, bighorn also due in part to the natural fires that swept the area. These pines occupied areas that today sheep, black and grizzly bear, cougar, support primarily spruce and fir, while Douglas coyotes, wolves, beaver and a fir predominated around Yellowstone Lake's number of smaller animals, as well as shore. Today, these pines are restricted to dry manyspecies of resident andmi gratory southern exposures. birds [Haines 1996a:xix].

45 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 2

To briefly summarize the environmental cycles also produced cyclical advances history of Ye llowstone: and retreats of forests and wildlife over the millennia [Good and Pierce . . . we have learned that . . . 1996:51]. Yellowstone [is a] very active part of our planet. ...The hotspot (the Similar to human migration into the western thermal mantle plume) produced hemisphere that followed Pleistocene herd repeated volcanic eruptions and still animals, it was the promise of animal furs, produces prodigious amounts of heat particularly beaver, that brought the first energy that drive the largest natural Euroamericans to the Yellowstone region in the hydrothermalsy stem in the world. In early 1800s. But the lure of profits from pelts the greater Yellowstone region, quickly gave way to the fantastic geologic sights doming above the hot spot fostered these early explorers and trappers encountered. Pleistocene glaciation that sculptured Tales of these wonders soon brought public stunning scenery-mountains, interest to Yellowstone, which began the canyons, and lakes, large and small. exploitation of its less tangible resources: its Pleistocene glacial and interglacial scenic beauty.

46 Part II, Chapter 3 Ye llowstone National Park

CHAPTER 3

Historical Context

Yellowstone National Park (YELL), be reserved for public use as a park" (Haines established by Congress March 1, 1872, as a 1996a:90). Meagher soon led his own group to "pleasuring ground for the benefit and explore Ye llowstone, the 1867 Curtis-Dunlevy enjoyment of the people" (Tilden 1951 :98), was expedition. Unfortunately, he died suddenly, and the world's first national park. The idea of the expedition only reached Mammoth Hot preserving a vast territory in its natural state Springs before turning back. This expedition for the general public was a novel concept, elevated interest in Ye llowstone exploration and particularly in a young countrywhere extractive was soon followed by another futile attempt in exploitation of the seemingly limitless resources 1868, as well as the successful, three-man was considered a right. To actually preserve expedition of David Folsom, Charles Cook and this large area is even more astounding, although William Peterson in 1869 (Haines 1996a:91). it took almost a half-century of experimentation David Folsom was later credited by an expedition to learn how to manage such an unparalleled partner as proposing that the "governmentought undertaking. Although the congressional not to allow anyone to locate here at all," to concept of natural preservation did have which Cook responded, "it ought to be kept for precedent in the 1864 Yosemite Grant that the public some way" (Haines 1996a:103). provided state protection for that area, the The successful Folsom team was followed unique wonders of Yellowstone so impressed the next year by the Washburn expedition, the explorers and scientists that the idea of a national first to collect important information about the park originatedearly in its exploration. Perhaps area. Washburn expedition member Cornelius the earliest recorded comment on the matter, Hedges, present in 1865 when Meagher made which was made in 1865 by then Acting his prophetic comment, was the only member to Territorial GovernorThomas F. Meagher, who suggest in print that the area should be preserved upon hearing first-hand stories from trapper for public use (Helena Herald, November 9, Franc;oisVi elle and Father Francis X. Kuppens, 1870). N. P. Langford credited Hedges with the declared that such a place of wonders "should idea of " ...a great National Park ..." when

47 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 3

Langford compiled his 1870 Washburn capitol. By early December 1871, a memorial expedition diary more than 30 years after (Joint Memorial 5 earlier adopted by the Congress created the park (Haines 1996a: 130). Montana Legislative Council), was submitted Cramton (1932:28-35) provides a good to Congress, calling for granting the Ye llowstone discussion of this facet of Yellowstone history, region to the Territory of Montana (Cramton and Haines (1996a:130, 134-140), with the 1932:25). This memorial was based on two benefit of Father Kuppens' 1865 information, premises: 1) the precedent set when the federal expands upon who may have first proposed the government transferred Yo semite Va lley and national park wording: Hedges, Langford or Mariposa Big Trees to California in 1864; and even F. V. Hayden, who led three expeditions 2) that Montana's claim to the region was into Yellowstone in 1871. Haines' (1996a: 156- justified by its exploration of the area and 173) chapter on this early Yellowstone history settlement of Yellowstone Valley north of the is particularly good. Historians may someday proposed grant (Haines 1996a:165-166). The settle the question of who first proposed the idea memorial was not supported because Congress of a "great national park," but whoever is finally determined the government could not grant credited, it is clear that the idea's seed had been public lands to territories (Montana was not yet planted, germinated and taken root in the a state), although it could to states, as in the Montana Territoryby 1870. California precedent. However, the national The 1870 Washburn expedition resulted in park idea rapidly gathered support, and a draft several articles written by various expedition bill establishing a national park was introduced members and Langford's speaking tour in the into both houses of Congress on December 18, eastern United States. These presentations 1871. The bill passed within ten weeks and was initi ated a rapidly growing interest in signed into law by President Grant March 1, Ye llowstone and spurred many others to bring 1872. Ye llowstone's remarkable natural wonders to the The fledgling park was an exciting, new American public's attention. experiment, but it had a nearly disastrous beginning. Congress failed to define basic BRIEF HISTORY OF YELLOWSTONE guidelines and appropriate funds, which were NATIONAL PARK limited in the post-Civil War recovery era. Park managementand protection responsibilities were In 1864, the Montana Territory was carved given, by law, to the Secretary of Interior, fr om the vast Idaho Territory, which had been initiating federal land management policies. created in 1863. YELL is located within the Although there was pressure for a local person Wyoming Territory, which was established in as the park's first superintendent, on May 10, 1868 from the Montana Territory. Although 1872, the secretary selected N. P. Langford, a Ye llowstone could be reached from either the member of the Washburn expedition visiting Montana or Wyoming side, it was much easier Washington at the time. Langford promptly from the Montana Territory,parti cularly through selected David Folsom as assistant the Gallatin and Yellowstone River drainages, superintendent-both men served without and, to a lesser extent, from eastern Idaho via salary. The managers believed lack of park the Snake River. Consequently, impetus for operational funds would be ameliorated by creating a Yellowstone park came from growth of a tourist economy resulting from the Montana, principally through people educated Northern Pacific Railroad, a maj or park in currentaf fairs and influential in the national supporter, reaching Montana. This certain 48 Part II, Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

tourist growth from easy, dependable Norris was tireless in exploring the park, transportation to Yellowstone would encourage mapping its physical features, and adding concessionaires from whom fees would be immensely to geographic knowledge about the collected to offset park costs. Unfortunately, park, but he was criticizedby some for applying these plans collapsed with the failure of Jay his own name to several landmarks, including Cooke & Company, which started the Panic of Norris Geyser Basin, Norris Valley and Norris 1873. No railroads were built for the next six Pass (Clary 1972:36). years, which meant no tourist growth, no Despite his best efforts, Norris got caught concessionaires, no fees, and ultimately, no in the politics of big business and was replaced money for park operations (Haines 1996a: 179). after nearly five years as superintendent. Langford, for all his efforts to explore Ye llowstone and establish the park, proved to The removal of Norriswas indicative be an ineffectual manager. In five years as of Yellowstone's plight. During its superintendent, he visited the park only twice: formative years, the park was fought once in 1872 to accompany the second Hayden over by interests that for political or survey; and again to evict squatter Matthew financial reasons hoped to claim it as McGuirk from his Mammoth Hot Springs a prize and control it totally. Without homestead (Haines 1996a:212). Langford had legal protection against such some good ideas for managing the new park, exploitation or against poaching and and even portended the major park roads. But vandalism, the park suffered greatly his reluctance to select concessionaires, perhaps during its first two decades. An active influenced by his close association with the and conscientious, if abrasive, railroad and its eventual recovery, damaged his superintendentlike N orris wasunable relationship with the Secretary of the Interior. to fully protect the park. After his Growing criticism of Langford's dismissal, promoters of schemes to unresponsiveness to increasing vandalism of build railroads and toll roads in the thermal formations, setting of wildfires and, park and to monopolize particularly, rampant slaughter of park animals accommodations usually blocked the led to his dismissal in early 1877 (Haines appointment of capable 1996a:200, 212-216). superintendents and harassed any who Langford was replaced in April 1877 by the showed signs of honestly strivingfor dynamic P. W. Norris, a highly energetic person the benefit of the park. A succession critical of Langford. Norris' management of powerless and mediocre difficulties began upon his arrival. During two superintendents took office [Clary weeks of warfare, the US Army chased Chief 1972:37]. Joseph's band of 600 Nez Perce Indians through the park, and several tourists were killed (Haines The governmentattempted to bring law and 1996a:219-237). Norris received some funding order to the park in the 1880s. In addition to for salary and park improvements, and he the superintendent, ten assistant superintendents constructed many park facilities, including the were hired to patrol the park and enforce famous Mammoth Hot Springs blockhouse regulations. These measures failed, and they headquarters. He also began the basic park road were described as "notoriously inefficient if not system, hired the first gamekeeper, and waged positively corrupt" (Clary 1972:42). Because a ceaseless war against poachers and vandals. of this failure, Wyoming Territory laws were 49 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 3

extended into the park in 1884. But this situation E. Howell's arrest for slaughtering park bison only created a different brand of corruption-it led to the National Park Protective Act (Lacey allowed magistrates and informers to split fines. Act) that finally put teeth in protecting Consequently, no money went to the park. In Yellowstone's treasures. Although the Army's 1886, Congress repealed the act allowing record over the next 30 years was admirable, territoriallaw enforcement in Yellowstone. The something more was clearly needed. The Army park soon fell victim to a new onslaught of was not in the business of running parks, and poachers, wood cutters, vandals, squatters and they could not meet requirements of the rapidly pyromaniacs. Failure of superintendents to increasing tourists who wanted more protect the park gave Congress reason to refuse information about the park. During this period, appropriations for their ineffective 14 other national parks had been established, administration. At this point, no one could be and each was managed independently. This found to serve as YELL superintendent. situation caused uneven management, The Secretary of the Interior, lacking both inefficiency and a general lack of direction. By park funding and a superintendent, enlisted the 1916, it was obvious that a governmentagency aid of the Secretary of War, which was allowed was needed to provide coordinated national park under the act establishing the park. Beginning administration by professionals able to meet in 1886, the US Army had jurisdiction of protection responsibilities and other special park Ye llowstone, which proved a positive needs, including a new concept called management step for the park. The Armyhad interpretation (Clary 1972:44). On August 25, sufficient manpower for mounted patrols and 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed into law enforcement. They posted new regulations law a bill creating the National Park Service in the park, and constant military patrols (NPS). enforced them. Military detachments were Ye llowstone management and protection stationed around heavily visited areas and, responsibilities passed from the Armyto the NPS although no specific law denoted offenses, the in 1918, and C. A. Lindsley became the firstNPS Armyhad authorityto evict troublemakers and superintendent. Many early park rangers were keep them out of the park (Clary 1972:43). Army veterans already familiar with Congressional appropriations increased, and the Yellowstone's issues and territory. But by this Corps of Engineers began a series of time, tourism, particularly automobile traffic, improvements that included completion of the was becoming a major issue for park road system begun by Norris. ArmyEngineer management. The growing influx ofpeople and H. Chittenden, who also wrote the first history cars required more time spent on traffic control of YELL, left a tangible mark on the park with and protection of the park's fragile natural these improvements, including the great arch at features. More sophisticated management the park's north entrance. The Army's techniques were clearly required. Yellowstone legacy is most obvious at their This growing challenge was met by Horace Mammoth Hot Springs headquarters, initially at M. Albright,who became superintendent in June Camp Sheridan,and, later, at Fort Yellowstone, 1919. Albrightis legendary for innovative park which houses park headquarters today (Clary management during this period of rapid park 1972:43). visitation growth. He laid the foundation for Continued poaching in Ye llowstone Yellowstone's management, which became a eventually forced Congress to correct the lack model for the whole park system. Albright of enforceable laws. In 1894, poacher emphasized public interpretation and portrayed 50 Part II, Chapter 3 Ye llowstone National Park

parks, important in themselves, as part of an Artifacts from Fishing Bridge peninsula on intricate interrelationship of humans and their the lake's east shore indicate Yellowstone Lake environment. During his tenure, Albright shores were probably used as early as 10,000 extended Ye llowstone's boundaries to years before present (B.P.), and certainly by encompass related natural topographic features, about 9000 B.P. (Reeve 1989; Cannon 1993:9). protect petrified tree deposits, and increase elk Sometime around 8500 B.P., many Pleistocene winter grazing range. Developers' attempts to megafauna species died off as the climate impound the Ye llowstone River were changed to a warmer, drier regime. Rainfall successfully defeated, and solidresearch into the remained abundant in the mountains, and park's natural resources provided a foundation succeeding human occupations continued into for more sophisticated wildlife and forest Late Prehistoric times. The most intensive lake management policies. A better understanding use appears to have been during either Middle of park ecology led to better ways of allowing to Late Archaic times (5000-2000 B.P. ) or public access to the park's natural wonders during the Late Prehistoric period (up to without inflictingsevere environmental impact A.D.1500). Many precontact sites, some quite (Clary 1972:44-45). Albright's pioneering large, from both periods have been located Yellowstone management style continues today around the lake (Taylor et al. 1964; Reeve 1989; throughout the National Park System. Cannon 1993). Ye llowstone's aboriginal occupation is often YELLOWSTONE LAKE USE referred to as limited or transient, but the archeological evidence indicates a long history Yellowstone Lake occupies the central of American Indian use. This archeological Ye llowstone Plateau. By the time ancient evidence supports AmericanIndian origin stories humans arrived on the plateau, there were many and ethnohistoricalaccounts from several tribes lakes, ponds and streams created by melting that describe the Ye llowstone Lake region as glacial ice. Yellowstone Lake was the region's their ancestral homeland or place of origin. largest, and its present size of 139 mi.2 makes it Groups claiming ties to Yellowstone Lake the United States' largest natural, high-elevation include the Kiowa (Mooney 1979), Shoshone lake (Whittlesey 1988:167-168). Yellowstone (Dominick 1964; Wright 1978) and Apache Lake, like most fresh water sources, was a focal groups (Perry 1980), particularly the Kiowa­ point for human activity. Apache (Gunnerson and Gunnerson 1971:14). By the late 1600s, introduction of the AMERICANINDIAN LAKE USE modem horse into the northernplains drastically changed subsistence patterns of indigenous Archeological evidence from YELL reflects cultures. Pedestrian bands became more mobile more than 10,000 years of human utilization, beginning at the end of the last ice age with and much faster with the horse, so groups hunted seasonal occupation by highly mobile hunting plains bison more and used the mountains less bands possessing limited material culture. The (Haines 1996a:8). By the time Euroamericans scant material evidence indicates only rare and first penetrated the Yellowstone Plateau in the brief sojournsonto the plateau to hunt modern early 1800s, the plateau was largely abandoned species and now-extinct Pleistocene herd except for occasional trips through the area by animals such as mamoth, horse and giant bison, the Shoshone, Piegan (Blackfeet), Crow and and to gather supplemental wild food plants. Bannocks, and the more distant Flatheads and 51 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 3

Nez Perce to the north and west along associated with these movements are likely to established trails. These trails: be found along its shores. One exception to general plateau though indistinct, were found by the abandonment was an American Indian group early explorers, generally on lines referred to as "Sheepeaters." This group has since occupied by the tourist routes. been described as: One . . . followed the Yellowstone Va lley across the Park from north to ... Shoshonis who had 'retained the south [branching] at Yellowstone old way of living from the time before Lake, the principal branch following horses were introduced and who the east shore [to] a great trail which established a specialized mountain connected the Snake and Wind River culture.' [They are described] as Valleys. The other branch passed living in very small groups, often of along the west shore of the lake and family size; traveling on foot, over the divide to the valley of the accompanied by large dogs which Snake River and Jackson Lake. Other were used for hunting and as beasts intersecting trails connected the of burden (they were sometimes Ye llowstone River trail with the packed, and sometimes pulled V­ Madison and Firehole Basins on the shaped dog travois); and living on west and the Bighorn Valley on the berries,herbs, fish, small animals, elk, east. The most important trail . . . deer, and bighorn sheep. was that known as the Great Bannock Trail. It extended from Henry Lake ...As a people, they were timid but across the Gallatin Range to not unfriendly,and their philosophical Mammoth Hot Springs, where it was outlook was animistic. Altogether, joined by another coming up the valley their lifestyle was a holdover from the of the Gardiner. Thence it led across Late Prehistoric period [Haines the plateau to the ford above Tower 1996a:24]. Falls; and thence up the LamarVa lley, forking at Soda Butte, and reaching The first recorded Euroamerican observation of the Bighorn Valley.... Thi s trail was Sheepeaters is from 1835 when a party of Lamar an ancient and much-traveled one... Valley trappers led by Osborne Russell [But] with one or two exceptions the encountered them (Haines 1996a:49). Early old trails were indistinct ...[and] their Euroamerican explorer accounts of the region undeveloped condition indicated suggest that most Indian groups, including infrequent use [Chittenden 1924:7-9]. Sheepeaters, were generally unfamiliar with the area beyond specific areas they frequented. The Great Bannock Trail through the park's . Apparently they were unaware of the main northern section was the major east-west geyser basins' thermal features (Chittenden thoroughfare with other trails forming minor 1924:9-12). Sheepeater diet included fish, connecting routes in other directions. which indicates they probably utilized, and Yellowstone Lake appears to have been a major perhaps seasonally occupied, Yellowstone Lake landmark in north-south travel, and sites shores. Euroamerican encounters occurred until

52

Part II, Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

the Sheepeaters were dispossessed of their lands 1996a:48). Russell returned in summer 1836, in 1851. Their lands were ceded by treaty with trapping in the lake's marshy south shore area the United States to the Piegan and Crow, who, where the Ye llowstone River enters. From there, in tum, lost them in an 1868 treaty (Haines he traveled up the lake's east side to Pelican 1996a:27; Hodge 1910:378). Creek, exiting the region to the north at Archeological evidence of Yellowstone Lake summer's end (Haines 1996a:50). Russell fishing is scant, although some has been returned to the area twice in 1839. During the observed. A submerged feature just offshore second trip while camping at Pelican Creek, an occupation site northeast of Bridge Bay has Pi egan Indians attacked his party, andhe escaped been suggested as a fish weir (John Lounsbury, along Yellowstone Lake's west shore to the personal communication 1996; Johnson and Snake River (Haines 1996a:51-52). Also in Lippencott 1989:41). Net-weight sinkers have 1839, Indians attacked a group of 40 trappers been found in archeological sites south of the traveling the lake's east shore near Mary Bay lake and along the Ye llowstone River. Fish just south of Pelican Creek (Haines 1996a:52). bones were recovered from a roasting pit at site Trappers were only interested in beaver; their 24 YE3 (Ann Johnson, personal communication association with Yellowstone Lake was trapping 1997). There is only a single mention of lndian where the Ye llowstone River connects and using watercraft in the ethnohistorical literature-an established shore trails. Warren Angus Ferris, entry by Norris (1880:37) who " ... saw a rude an American Fur Company clerk, was probably canoe at the lower rapids of the Upper the first "tourist" to visit Ye llowstone. Ferris Yellowstone, and probably others have been traveled to Yellowstone specifically to see the used by both Indians and white men ...." geological wonders, rather than for solely commercial reasons (Haines 1996a:46-47). EUROAMERICANLAKE USE For the next 20 years, few Euroamericans visited Yellowstone territory, but gold strikes in It is generally agreed that John Colter, a the early 1860s brought an incursion of miners member of the 1803-1806 Lewis and Clark to the Idaho-Montana region. By the end of expedition, was the first Euroamerican to view this period, miners had explored most parts of Yellowstone Lake. In his 500-mi. solo trek the future park, and many undoubtedly saw through the northern Rockies in the winter of Yellowstone Lake. At least nine mining 1807-1808, Colter walked along the lake's west expeditions entered park territorybetween 1863 side during his return to the Bighorn River and 1870. The 1864 Phelps-Davis party skirted (Haines 1996a:35-38). In 1827, trapper Daniel the lake's eastern edge, and, in 1866, George Potts described Yellowstone Lake as "a large Huston mentioned a "horse-thief trail" along the fresh water Lake . . . on the very top of the west side of Yellowstone Lake (Haines Mountain ...and as clear as crystal ..." (Haines 1996a:75). Both mining groups and horse 1996a:41). Many trapping parties probably thieves were apparently taking advantage of camped by the lake after 1826, and Osborne earlier Indian and trapper trails through the area. Russell made five trips into the Ye llowstone Like the trappers, miners ' interest was country between 1835 and 1839. Although commercial, and their association with the lake Yellowstone Lake was the original objective of was incidental. Before 1869, when the first his 1835 trip, (its location had been drawn for expedition was organized to specifically inspect him by a Sheepeater on a hide map), he instead and record Yellowstone's unique natural trapped in the surrounding mountains (Haines features, Yellowstone Lake's importance was 53 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 3

likely limited to providing fish for American altogether too much inclined to slip Indians, trappers and miners. their cables and strike out in their The 1870s were a decade of scientific study individual capacity. The toil of a day for Ye llowstone. Although visitors to the area was the wreck of a few moments, and continued to mention Yellowstone Lake's we hushed our disgust with the glad productive fishing, it is during this period that reflectionthat we had never got away direct use of Yellowstone Lake for on it, and quit the subject by promising transportation is first mentioned. ourselves to bring an India-rubber boat when we came again" [Helena Yellowstone Lake's Watercraft Herald, November 9, 1870; see also Cramton 1932:108-109]. The First Rafts The combined Hayden/Barlow-Heap The first recorded Ye llowstone Lake expedition rafted the Yellowstone River near watercraft was a small raft built September 4, Mud Vo lcano in July 1871. On July 30, Captain 1870, by the Washburnexpediti on. The builders Barlow built another raft to cross the assumed lake islands had "doubtless ...never Yellowstone River lake outlet, and with it been trodden by human footsteps" (Helena explored east of the river to Pelican Creek Herald, November 9, 1870). In a single sentence (Haines 1996a:146, 148). of his 1870 official report, Washburnexpedition In 1873, another raft was launched on the member Lt. G. C. Doane noted the raft's fate Yellowstone River at its lake outlet. Two and characterized Ye llowstone Lake navigation: members of the Corps of Engineers had only "We built a raft for the purpose of attempting to slightly more success than their predecessors. visit them [the islands], but the strong waves of Near the river outlet " ... two topographers the lake dashed it to pieces in an hour" (Cramton (Paul LeHardy and his partner, Gabbet) decided 1932: 130). Fellow expedition member C. to abandon their horses temporarily for a float Hedges provided more detail: trip down the Yellowstone River ...[which] they expected to be a pleasant voyage of a day The wonderful beauty of the lake had or so to the falls.... The first three miles were wrought a charm over almost the delightful, but, on approaching some cascades . entire party, and around the evening . . the raft went out of control in the swift rapids, camp fire we voted to traverse the straddled a conical rock, and the rear end pulled entire lake shore ....We would build under and stuck" (Haines 1996a:20 1 ). The men a raft, raise a blanket sail, and visit survived, and LeHardy Rapids gained its name. the wooded islands; we would visit Whittlesey (1988:167) mentions that in the every nook and corner. . . . Our same year (1874) US Government surveyors attempt at raft building was such an constructed a raft to conduct their business utter and ignominious failure that the around the lake, but no other information is subj ect was dropped by mutual offered. consent. The wind was always from the wrong direction, the waves rolled Boats unnecessarily high, the water was evidently deep and unmistakably cold, The first successful lake navigation in a boat the islands distant, and the logs occurred during the 1871 Hayden expedition. 54

Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 3

tour guides, along with Frank Williams, built a convenient for mule transportation. It row boat and a small sail boat of green would be reassembled with wood whipsawed timber at his cabin (later named screws upon reaching the launch site Topping Point) near the foot of Yellowstone [Haines 1996a:210]. Lake. Topping describe<;!the boat and its maiden voyage: When the party reached the Yellowstone Lake outlet, it took two days to assemble the ...fu rnishedwith a whipsaw, canvas, boat. When ready, the party used the boat to and rigging, (they) went up the transport supplies by towing it with a mule Yellowstone to its lake. There they around the west shore. This worked well for sawed out lumber to build a row boat, about 15 miles, but "at Pumice Point, where it anda yacht, which they rigged in sloop was necessaryto cast offthe line and row around form. They launched the latter on the the rocks, a large wave swamped the loaded twentieth of July. On the trial trip the boat, and it sank instantly. Everything was two ran into a flock of geese which saved, but time was lost drying the cargo and were moulting and could not fly, and repairing the damaged hull" (Haines 1996a:211). secured enough to make feather beds Three soldierstook the boat across We st Thumb, and pillows [Topping 1968:123]. but it was slow going against the wind, and the boat and men were coated with ice when they The yacht, referred to as To pp ing by reunited with the others. They found the boat Whittlesey (1988:155) after its builder, but as would not bear a cross-sea, and their only choice Sallie by Topping (1968:124), had a short life was put the bow into the wind and row as hard and after "perilous service during a small portion as possible, bailing the boat each time a freezing of the seasons of 1875 and 1876, was wave caught them. The boat was transported dismantled, abandoned and finally lost" (Norris overland to Heart Lake where it was used, again 1880:37; Whittlesey 1988:155). This was the with great difficulty, to transport the group's earliest boat on the lake to provide some tourist supplies down the outlet stream to the Snake services. River, where it was eventually lost and the Lt. Doane, who led the military escort for expedition abandoned (Haines 1996a:211-212). the 1870 Washburn expedition, conducted a In the summer of 1880 at Topping Point, P. military reconnaissance of the park in the winter W. Norris, second superintendent of YELL, had of 1876. Doane's equipment included a small T. E. "Billy" Hofer and his brother construct a boat, and one of his enlisted men had operated small sail boat, also of green, whipsawed lumber, Hayden's canvas boat Anna on Ye llowstone measuring 20 ft. long by 6 ft. wide by 2Y2 ft. Lake in 1871. deep, dubbed Explorer. Norris and two companions, Captain Jack Davis and W. H. The boat had been built in the post Parker, made a 10-12-day voyage in Explorer carpentry shop before the expedition during which they circumnavigated Yellowstone was authorized. It was a 22-foot Lake and most of its bays and fingers and double-ender with a beam of 46 inches ascended Pelican Creek, the Upper Yellowstone and a depth of 26 inches, strongly up­ and other streams to their rapids. These curved fore and aft. After investigations did not result in any major construction the boat was taken apart discoveries, but they did confirm Stevenson's and packaged in two bundles 1871 lake soundings. The boat, described as 56 Part II, Chapter 3 Ye llowstone National Park

loggy and clumsy, proved to be very concentrated on hydrothermal features, his unseaworthy and was maneuverable only with influencepervaded all aspects of the park, and great effort. "After encountering many mishaps his works are still primary in park literature. and dangers," Explorer eventually wrecked near Hague was one of the most eloquent tour guides the point where it was built and was abandoned in park history (Whittlesey 1988: 120). The to the elements (Norris 1880:11-12). second government boat was US Pinafo re , a At least two other boats operated on small craft tested on Swan Lake by Dan C. King Yellowstone Lake in 1880. T. E. Hofer "built a of the US Army Corps of Engineers before being boat [in 1880] and tried to make some money used on Yellowstone Lake (Whittlesey with it in catering to the tourist trade, but did 1988:153). This boat, built by Road Foreman not succeed, and the boat later drifted over the Lamartine, was the first Corps of Engineers Falls" (Chittenden 1924:345). Another "boat vessel on Yellowstone Lake (Haines 1996b:408, piloted by Billy Hofer and William D. Pickett n15). US Pinafo re is not mentioned again after made at least one trip in 1880" (Whittlesey its trial voyage that year (Livingston Enterprise, 1988:167). August 22, 1885). Two government vessels were operating on Another Corps of Engineer boat operated Ye llowstone Lake in 1885. The first, a US on Ye llowstone Lake in July 1891: "the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) boat, was destroyed Army Engineer Corps put on [the lake] a small by lightening (Whittlesey 1988:167). John H. boat which they use in supplying their road Renshawe, geographer-in-charge of a USGS camps with forage and provisions and in hauling surveying team on the lake, provided the lumber from the mill to the various points where following details: it is to be used" (Anderson 1891:7-8). Lt. Gray hill, in charge of parkroad construction in Three members of the party were early 1891, hauled a 40-ft. steam launch to the making observations, also in the lake to supply road crews working on the east northeast part of Yellowstone Lake, end of the West Thumb-Lower Geyser Basin in a rowboat fitted with a mast and road (Haines 1996b:217). sail. The sky was clear yet the mast The idea of launching a passenger boat on was struck by a bolt of lightning, Yellowstone Lake to service the growing tourist accompanied by a clap of thunder. trade was mentioned several times in the 1880s. The oarsman next to the mast was As early as 1880, P. W. Norris observed that killed and the other men in the boat, Ye llowstone Lake, though very dangerous for including Mr. Renshawe, were sailing craft, " . . . even a small steamer, well rendered unconscious but soon built and managed ...would be [in] little danger revived and brought their lifeless attending regular trips around the fingers, thumb companion to shore, where other and palm of the lake ...." Norris continued his members of the party stated that they visionary statement: " ...with a suitable steamer heard the thunder [Haynes 1946: 104]. making regular excursions ...it is safe to predict that a hotel on some one of the many charming This incident likely occurred during the terraces near the foot of the lake would Hague geological survey. Hague's park field ultimately prove a profitable investment in this studies spanned 20 years (1883-1902), and he region of wonders" (Norris 1880:12-13). continued work for another 14 years afterformal In 1889, park administration granted a fieldwork ended. Although his studies permit to the Yellowstone Park Association for 57

PartII, Chapter 3 Ye llowstone National Park

an additional fee for lake transportation. Many or naphtha launches on the lake has tourists complained to the superintendent about not been carried out, but I believe it Waters' extra fee. Despite this and other would prove remunerative and questionable acts, Waters received favorable certainly would be a great comments in the park annual reports, for accommodationto tourists [Anderson example, Acting Superintendent Anderson's 1894:8]. 1892 report: By the following year, business returnedto The steamer on the lake has been normal. E. C. Waters obtained a large running successfully for a year or percentage of the tourist travel and, as company more, and adds much to the pleasure general manager, was granted a license to of a trip through the park. It is expand his business to include selling small commodious and comfortable, and I groceries, providing blacksmithing to campers believe perfectly safe. It is now made and taking parties on small side trips, a niche a part of the park transportation, and not filled by larger concessionaires (Anderson carries passengers, at their option, 1895: 10). He also expanded his business to from the Thumb to the Lake Hotel, include renting tourists small boats and fi shing thus relieving them of 18 miles of tackle. In 1896, Waters placed bison and elk on tedious staging. I believe the boat Dot Island as an added attraction to Zillah company has enough small boats for customers, a move that contributed to his the demands of fi shing parties, but I eventual undoing in the park. think prices might be lowered where Waters received permission to construct boats are used continuously for small landings at several points on the lake shore, several hours [Anderson 1892:7]. including Dot Island and at his operations center near the Lake Hotel (Anderson 1896:10). The pattern continued into the following Satisfactory reports of the boat operation year with the description that "The steamer continued through the remainder of the decade continues to be satisfactorily run, and is greatly and into the early years of the twentieth century. enjoyed by all tourists who make the trip on it" Zillah was popular with tourists, and it carried (Anderson 1893:10). However, labor problems 2,589 passengers during the 1897 season (Young affectedlake business in 1894. Because of close 1897:6) and 3,050 in 1900 (Goode 1900:4). At association between Yellowstone tourism and the tum of the century, the strong Yellowstone the railroad companies, the 1894 railroad strike Lake tourist business prompted Acting resulted in losses to all park operations. Superintendent Pitcher (1901:7) to suggest it Superintendent Anderson commented in his would be desirable to have "some competition Annual Report: be introduced in this business." The following year Pitcher (1902:12) suggested a larger boat, The boat company has suffered quite or several smaller ones, be placed on the lake to as much as other industries in the Park accommodate increased tourist traffic. from lack of patronage. The boat has Within a few years, E. C. Waters, likely in been put in excellent condition, and it an effort to thwart competition, followed furnishes one of the most delightful Pitcher's suggestion of a largerboat. Meantime, bits of travel on the tour. The however, the first few years of the new century proposition to put a few small steam continued to be successful for Waters. Zillah 61

Part II, Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

(Anonymous 1995:7), was expected to carry (Whittlesey 1988: 167). Waters refused to agree Waters' business into the next decades. to a permit to carry fewer than 500 passengers, E. C. Wa ters, 125 ft. in length and 26 ft. in so the new steamer sat idle at its Stevenson beam and the largest Yellowstone Lake Island anchorage (Haines 1996b: 127). passenger steamer, was designed to carry 500 Because of disagreements with park passengers (Haines 1996b: 127) (Figure 3.6). administration over the 500-passenger E. C. Bartlett (1989:208) quoting from the Montana Wa ters permit and other problems he created Standard, Butte, Montana, gives different through the years, Waters was run out of the information on both E. C. Wa ters size and launch park in 1907 (Haines 1996b:77). After Waters date: left the park, the T. E. Hofer Boat Company was given a permit to operate Yellowstone Lake In 1902, Waters brought into the park ·concessions, and they bought Waters' park from Tacoma, Washington, and assets in 1910. T. E. Hofer Boat Company was floated in time for the 1903 season, a reorganized into the Ye llowstone Park Boat larger vessel dubbed the 'Eli C. Company in 1911 with Harry Child as director Waters.' It was, if a newspaper article (Bartlett 1989: 193) . By this time, Zillah had can be accepted as accurate, 140 feet deteriorated beyond repair, and its tour boat long and 30 feet wide and could carry career had ended. The vessel was either sold 600 passengers. Trouble was, the for scrap or scuttled (Anonymous 1995:6). At authorities refused to allow him to least one other tour boat of comparable size was place it in service on the grounds that running on the lake, but not E. C. Wa ters. it was unsafe. Waters eventually sailed E. C. Wa ters was secured in a cove on it to Dot Island where he moored it; Stevenson Island's east side. The "ship was it became an ugly hulk and was finally wintered in that cove for many yearsbecause it burned. was thought safe from the lake ice, which normally went out with a southwest wind in the Several parts of this account do not match spring. But the ice broke up with an easterly other information in the literature: 1) the date wind in 1921, pushing the vessel onto the beach E. C. Wa ters arrived in the park is given as 1902 where it remained. The machinery was removed instead of 1905; 2) the vessel is called "Eli C. in 1926" (Haines 1996b:415 n67). Wa ters" (Eli vs Ella) instead of E. C. Wa ters; 3) After removal of E. C. Wa ters ' machinery, the length is given as 140 ft. instead of 125 ft.; the boiler, "a typical scotch marine boiler" 4) the beam is given as 30 ft. instead of 26 ft.; 5) (Aubrey Haines, personal communication 1996), the number of passengers indicated is 600 was used to heat the Lake Hotel for 46 years. instead of 500; and 6) it states the vessel was The boiler was converted from wood to oil in sailed to Dot Island instead of Stevenson Island. 1937 (Dittl and Mallman 1987: 19) and, at some Given the number of discrepancies in this point, coated with asbestos insulation. In 1972, newspaper article, it is doubtful that it represents it was sold as scrap to a junkyard near Three first-hand know ledge at the time of publication. Forks, Montana (Aubrey Haines, personal After launching the vessel, Waters tequested communication 1996). Some E. C. Wa ters a permit to carry 500 passengers, but park original steam gauges are reportedly still in use administration refused it. Because of difficulties in the hotel heating system (John Lounsbury, with the park, Waters apparently never made personal communication 1996). No record of more than test runs with his new steamer what became of the vessel's engine could be 63

Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 4

CHAPTER 4

Previous Archeological Work

Archeologists have conducted a variety of of frequent occupancy by Sheepeater investigations in Yellowstone National Park aborigines" in the form of "decaying brush (YELL) through the years. The National Park corrals, wickiups, and lodge-poles ... [as well Service Midwest Archeological Center as] rude stone heaps of wickiup sweathouses" (MWAC) contains about 221 references relating (Norris 1880:587). to YELL archeological investigations, including One of the park's largest and oldest sites, trip reports, cultural resource management 48YE1, is located at Fishing Bridge between (CRM) investigations, and more traditional the lake outlet (Yellowstone River) and Pelican archeological survey, inventory, evaluation and Creek, covering nearly the entire peninsula. excavation studies. National Register of Historic Work began on this site in the 1940s when two Places documentation, post-fire surveys and human burials,with associated grave goods and park development projects produced many of dogs, were removed from the area during these archeological investigations. Most park construction activities (Condon 1948; Wright et archeology has focused on prehistoric sites, but al. 1982:2-26; Cannon 1993:15). Montana there has been some on sites related to early State University (now University of Montana) park history. About 30 archeological studies archeological survey crew members recorded have been done near Ye llowstone Lake, most the site and five others in the northern lake area on the north and west shores (Figure 4.1). during a 1960s park-wide inventory survey (Taylor et al. 1964). According to Cannon FISHING BRIDGE/MARY BAY (1993:7-9), lack of diagnostic artifacts prevented the Montana survey crew from The Mary Bay north shore, just east of determining site age. However, related Pelican Creek between Indian Pond and components and Reeve's (1989) later work Ye llowstone Lake, has long been noted for its indicate 48YE1 may have been occupied from human activity. As early as 1880, observers the Paleo-Indian period (about 9000 B.P.) to described this area as having "abundant evidence Late Prehistoric times. Reeve (1989), who

74 Part II,Chapter 4 Ye llowstone National Park

Steveiis�n :Js/and

, _/

///j

\-- �- '\.

T� o Ocean 1. Plateau

!

Figure 4.1. Ye llowstone Lake.

75 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 4

recovered 8,560 lithic artifacts, fire-cracked Euroamerican sites, related mostly to hotel and rock, bone, shell and ground stone, concluded park activities, being recorded. With one notable aboriginal subsistence may have centered on exception, aboriginal sites along this shoreline fishing. Work on other sites in the area has been tend to be small and contain limited materials. conducted by Cannon (1991), including a site The exception is a large site located just dating to 7000 B.P. on Mary Bay's south shore. northeast of Bridge Bay, with a purported fish Historical activity has also centered on Fishing weir located just offshore. Reports of numerous Bridge. Recent evidence supports this location artifacts encountered during road construction as one of Hayden's 1872 Expedition campsites through this site attests to its size. Haynes (Cannon 1995:40). Other work in the immediate (1946:104) noted: "In building the road along area, conducted ahead of road development or the lake the workmen found many arrowheads, facility improvements, includes that of Williams spearheads, skinning knives and other Indian and Wright (1980), Baumann (1984), Cannon artifacts." Johnson (1986; 1989), Daron (1992a; (1990, 1992 and 1995) and Connor (1994). 1992b, 1992c, 1992d, 1995), Cannon and Three NPS-related sites have been reported Phillips (1993), and Cannon (1995) have in the Lake Butte area south of Mary Bay (Hunt conducted development-related surveys and 1989:3-4,21 -22). Because the Fishing Bridge/ archeological testing projects in the Lake/Bridge Mary Bay area was a primary camping place for Bay area. both Euroamerican expeditions and American Hunt (1989) located 11 Euroamerican sites Indian groups traveling through the area, there between Lake Junction and Bridge Bay, may be many more significant sites in this area. including some associated with road Historical documentation supports this construction, NPSmaintenance activities, hotel possibility. Haines (1996a:50-52) cites several trash dumps, and, on Stevenson Island, the references to the lake outlet/PelicanCreek/Mary exposed E. C. Wa ters shipwreck. Johnson and Bay vicinity as a camping area for trappers as Lippencott (1989:31) first recorded this early as 1836, when a two-day battle between a shipwreck as an archeological site (48YE13) 40-person trapping party and Piegans occurred during their post-fire assessment work. near Indian Pond (Haines 1996a:52). Five Underwater sites are present in the area, prospecting parties camped in this vicinity particularly features related to the Lake Hotel, between 1864-67 (Haines 1996a:68-69, 75, Lake boathouse and dock, and the former fish 79), and later exploring expeditions made the hatchery. area a regular camping place between 1869 and 1871 (Haines 1996a: 110). A large Nez Perce WEST THUMB squaw camp was located at Indian Pond in 1877 (Haines 1996a:227). West Thumb (Figure 4.1) history is similar to that of Lake. Archeologists from Montana LAKE/BRIDGE BAY State University recorded the first 12 archeological sites along the We st Thumb The area between the-lake outlet at the shoreline in 1958-1959 (Taylor et al. 1964). Ye llowstone River and Bridge Bay is the most Most sites range from Grant Village on the west extensively developed part of the lake shore shore to ArnicaCreek on West Thumb's north (Figure 4.1). Several archeological projects shore. These sites date from Paleo-Indian period have been conducted in this area resulting in few (about 10,000 B.P.) to Late Prehistoric (Taylor aboriginal sites being located, but several et al. 1964:108, 179). In 1980, Samuelson 76 Part II, Chapter 4 Yellowstone National Park

(1981) discovered two more sites, which she Basin road to West Thumb was improved and concluded represent winter hunting and spring opened to the public in 1892 (Haines fishing activities. Little work was done in this 1996b:217-219), leading to increased visitation, area until 1992 when MWAC archeologists which, in tum, led to development of Army(and surveyed and tested several sites between Arnica later NPS) visitor facilities. With the road's Creek and Little Thumb Creek near the Potts opening and its extension to Lake, tourists were Geyser Basin north of We st Thumb (Cannon rerouted through West Thumb as they passed 1993). Archeological testing exposed hearths through the park. As a result, many structures on an old occupation surface. Researchers also have been built, removed, and maintained near recovered sherds from 48YE449-theonly site the geysers, all contributing to the archeological to yield such artifacts in the park. Some older record of the West Thumb Geyser Basin. Of sites, deeply buried and dating back 5,000 years, particular interest to this study, the West Thumb provide important information on aboriginal area was a terminus for the passenger steamer lakeshore use relative to changing lake levels Zillah between 1891 and 1907, which had its through time. Most sites in this area, like Lake, dock near the Thumb Paint Pots. are small with few stone artifacts. Johnson (1989), Daren (1992e), Cannon (1992), Cannon SOUTHEAST ARM and Phillips (1993), Deaver (1993) and Johnson et al. (1993) have all conducted archeological Very little archeological work has been investigations here as a result of park conducted along Ye llowstone Lake's Southeast improvements in Grant Village and Potts Geyser Arm (Figure 4.1 ). However, three archeological Basin. sites were brieflyvisited during this study. One West Thumb, protected from prevailing of two sites reported in the vicinity of the south winds, was apparently heavily utilized and likely shore patrol cabin was located. The "YCC contains many more aboriginal sites. This area Camp Site" could not be relocated. A site on was also the center for much Euroamerican shoreline due south of Molly Island was located, activity in the park. For example, in 1839, but not formally recorded. Site 48YE707 on trapper OsborneRussell camped at West Thumb Terrace Point on the arm's east shore was briefly Geyser Basin as did George Huston in 1866 visited. This site consists of several lean-tos and (Haines 1996a:49,72), and probably several was first recorded in 1989 by Cannon (1993:48- unrecorded prospectors duringthe 1860s. Most 49, 140-141). later expeditions camped at the Geyser Basin: the 1869 Cook-Folsom party; the 1870 1995 SCRU RECONNAISSANCE Washburn expedition; the 1871 Hayden expedition twice (along with his military escort); In August 1995, after discussions with park the 1873 military reconnaissance by Lt. Jones' management, the Submerged Cultural Resources troops; and Lt. Doane's winter expedition of Unit (SCRU) staff spent nine days inthe park 1876 (Haines 1996a:99, 125, 127, 148, 203, conducting reconnaissance-level underwater 210-211). investigations at several Yellowstone Lake By 1879, there was a rough trail from the locations (Lenihan 1995a, 1995b, 1996). Upper Geyser Basin to West Thumb and, in The 1995 SCRU Ye llowstone Lake 1882, General Sheridan cut a rough road from investigation was initiated, in part, by the the park's south entrance to West Thumb impending visit of a large group of scuba divers. (Haines 1996a:245, 263). The Upper Geyser Later, a scuba diving club asked permission to 77 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 4

conduct an instrument survey to locate the West Thumb Geyser Basin and E. C. Wa ters site shipwreck Zillah, purported to have been on Stevenson Island. Dives were made at other scuttled in deep water offshore the Lake Hotel. locations to document some ofthe park's natural Park management became concerned about underwater features. Recommendations by Lenihan (1995a:9-10) led to the subsequent potential impacts to underwater archeological work in 1996, as reported in this document. sites from large dive groups and they requested In conclusion, although much archeological advice from SCRU about the park response to research has been conducted around the dive club survey request. The 1995 SCRU Ye llowstone Lake, the 1995-1996 SCRU investigations included dives in particular areas investigations were the first time submerged to determine site location, character, integrity cultural resources have been intensively and archeological significance. Investigations investigated in the lake. Chapter 5 discusses were conducted at the Lake Hotel dock area, these investigations' results.

78 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

CHAPTER S

Survey Results

The Submerged Cultural Resources Unit Ranger Station on the first lake terrace. A Yo uth (SCRU) cultural resource survey and Conservation Corps (YCC) camp was also documentation conducted August 1996 located in this vicinity. No evidence of the generated archeological data on several sites in aboriginalsite was observed. Park Archeologist and around Ye llowstone Lake. Ye llowstone Ann Johnson (personal communication 1997) National Park (YELL) staff selected and has also unsuccessfully looked for this site, and prioritized sites investigated by SCRU. she believes this site may be located further west Although some information was obtained on than originally reported. This site has not been aboriginal shoreline sites along Yellowstone formally recorded. Lake's Southeast Arm, the primary fieldwork 2. Unnamed Lithic Scatter. A lithic scatter focus was to locate and document Euroamerican was located at the confluence of the lake and sites, in particular sites associated with lake an unnamed drainage corningoff the north face passenger vessels that served the growing tum­ of Two Ocean Plateau, approximately 700 ft. of-the-century tourist industry. Project results southeast of the Trail Creek Ranger Station. are provided below by geographic areas and Artifact density is light along the shoreline; only major sites (Figure 5.1). seven chalcedony and obsidian flakesand one chert biface fragment were observed along a SOUTHEAST ARM 700-ft. stretch of beach. Observed material most likely comes from a site up slope to the south, A reconnaissance trip was made to but ground cover there precluded verification. Southeast Arm to locate and inspect shoreline This site has not been formally recorded. aboriginal sites. Four sites were visited, 3. Lithic Scatter. This unnamed site consists including: of extensive lithic scatter along the shoreline 1. "YCC Site. This site is reported and on the north-facing slope of a point about to be a small, light-density lithic scatter 1,4 mi. south of Molly Island (Figure 5.2). Eleven approximately 350 ft . west of the Trail Creek stone artifacts were noted on the slope and in

79 Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

-/ /

· ; · E. C Wa ters

·· Island

I/ /'

··: ·

./ ( I

j

' . )_,- r--- / i_. ' I \-�""

· � t \-�.··\ ,/<-:�., Trail Creek Ranger :'

Tw o Ocean �Plateau

Figure 5.1. Areas and sites investigated by SCRU in 1996.

80

Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

are eroding, while the leeward sides are From then on [1911] the fishery building, burying any indications of structures activity in the Park increased rapidly: under migratory sediments (Rick Fey, personal the Thumb station was enlarged and communication 1996); or 2) the National Park three boats were put into operation in Service (NPS) has removed all traces of the 1912; a hatchery was constructed docks during one of several cleanup efforts (see near Lake Hotel. [Haines E. C. Wa ters' burning in Chapter 3). 1996b:92-93].

PUMICE POINT The first hatchery was located at the confluence of Ye llowstone Lake and Little Thumb Creek The area directly off Pumice Point (see about 2 mi. north of the West Thumb Junction, Figure 5.1) is reported to have wagon wheels an area Haynes (1946:101) called "Fisheries and other stagecoach parts on the lake bottom Creek Crossing." Fish stocking in YELL ceased in shallow water (John Lounsbury, personal in the 1950s, and the last fishery, at Lake, was communication 1996) and was considered a closed in 1958. priority area for investigation by park resource SCRU investigators expected that both management staff. John Brooks conducted a boats and docks associated with Fisheries diver tow visual survey in an area about 600 ft . Commission activities would be present long on either side of the point, except in the underwater near Little Thumb Creek. Brooks north side where gill nets prevented boat conducted a diver tow in this area from the creek passage. Depth and visibility varied from 8 to confluence south for a distance of about 1/2 mi., 20 ft. No cultural material was located during visually searching the lake bottom to a depth of this survey. 20 ft. Thermal features and a steep drop off were observed, but no cultural resources of any LITTLE THUMB CREEK kind were located.

Yellowstone Lake's first fish hatchery was WEST THUMB GEYSER BASIN located in this area about 1 Y2 mi. north of West Thumb Geyser Basin (see Figure 5.1): In 1995, SCRU examined an area east of the West Thumb Geyser Basin boardwalk. The A fish hatchery was suggested for the task was to observe lake bed artifact density and Park by Captain J. B. Erwin in 1898, assess potential for scuba divers removing but nothing was done about it until artifacts from the shallow lake bottom. NPS 1902, when a fish egg collection divers noted several scattered wood pieces and station was authorized for Thumb. automobile engine blocks, one chained to a The station was put into operation the concrete block. Two engine blocks were following year, greatly facilitating removed at park request. The engine blocks the taking of trout eggs which had were most likely placed as small boat mooring been started at that place in 1901. ... anchors. Other artifacts observed included old By 1909, the Thumb station was and recent bottles, and several historical West recognized as the most successful Thumb dock crib remnants. SCRU conducted collecting point for blackspotted general documentation of the dock remains trout eggs in the United States. using videography and photography, and they

84

Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

CRIB 1 CRIB 2

D

CRIB 3

EXPOSED ROCK

\ CRIB 4

CRIB 5

CRIB 6

FEET

0 5 10 20

Figure 5.10. Plan view site map of the We st Thumb dock cribs. Drawing by Jim Bradford and Matt Russell; inked by Paul Neidinger.

88

Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

major extension and revisions were completed Park resource managers and divers between August and October 1936. These conducted a more extensive investigation of the revisions employed a pile driver, as in the Lake docks in October 1998. They officially original construction. The dock was extended, recorded the site and issued it an archeological a launch ramp constructed and a trestle track site number, 48YE247. At that time, they added from the road to the water providing a observed a large scatter of rocks 15 ft. wide means of dry docking large boats, and a small extending in an arc for 900 ft.; a second scatter, boat ramp was built. All are well documented also 15 ft . wide, extending for 170 ft.; and four in the park photograph archives. In spring 1937, intact rock-filled cribs (Dave Price, personal the docks were severely damaged by ice, which communication 1999). The 1998 work done resulted in additional ice protection measures by park staff indicates more Lake docks remains in October 1938. The fish hatchery was added than observed by SCRU during the 1995-1996 to the facilities in the 1910s, and all vestiges of field work. these structures, with exception of the The marine railway section was located by boathouse, were removed around 1962. SCRU in 1996 in shallow water and consists of Underwater features noted during the 1995- a short segment of ties and rails still in place 1996 investigations include a single crib (John Brooks, personal communication 1996). remnant from the dock and a short marine The railway, located just west of the later railway section still on the lake bottom. The fisheries dock, was used to launch the E. C. dock crib contains only three courses of logs Wa ters in 1905 (Aubrey Haines, personal and has a spike projecting out of the top, the communication 1996) and three NPS boats upper end of which is at a depth of 6 ft. brought to the park in 1936.

The bottom is sand, some of it very SMALL CRAFT well packed into a hardpan. Cobbles from the cribbing have in many A launch located on the lake bottom near places been spread along the bottom the Lake Hotel dock was dived in 1995 (Figures through natural site formation 5.17- 5.18). The launch's rudder was removed processes in a manner resembling by park divers sometime in 1994-1995, and it paving blocks. They are evenly is currently in the Bridge Bay Marina Ranger distributed over the bottom rather Station. than helter-skelter in piles. Some of In 1996, side scan sonar revealed a clear the wooden members utilized in cribs sonogram of a cluster of small boats about 0.2 that are now lying loose on the mi.southeast of Lake Hotel. A single dive on bottom seem to have formed a slight these craft confirmed four boats sitting in 23 ft. furrow or depression about them in of water (Figures 5.19). All four are of similar the hardpan; in some cases the design and oriented in the same direction depression is longer than the spar (Figures 5.20-5.23). Rough measurements give itself. There is also the remains of a length range from 13 Y2to 14 ft., and a width docking and some smaller artifacts of from 3 ft. 7 in. to 3 ft. 9 in. All four have small a modem vintage protruding through seats fore and aft, two have a single center seat, the smooth, hard bottom between the one has two such seats and the fourth lacks rocks [Lenihan 1995a:1]. center seats. As noted by Lenihan (1996), "these

93

Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

B

c FEET

0 10 20

Figure 5.19. Field sketch of four small rental boats off Lake Hotel. Drawing by Paul Neidinger.

95

Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

reference to Zillah having been cut up and sold forward-most attached hull plank, and the bow for scrap, perhaps a confirmation of its being points due east. dismantled. Haines also stated that there is a The SCRU field team, consisting of two reference to the "destruction of the Zillah" in archeologists and a photographer, documented his 1961 taped interview with Mr. Hallin. This the site during a six-day period in August 1996. has not yet been confirmed. Definitive This preliminary site assessment employed a references to Zillah's final disposition have yet nondestructive, noninvasive approach; no to be found. artifacts were collected and only exposed The Jean D (Figure 5.27 and see Figures features were documented. The one exception 3.8-3.11), along with Zillah, was owned and was the capstan, buried in the sand 75 ft. south operated by the Ye llowstone Park Boat of the hull, which was exposed by hand fanning Company during the 1910s (Aubrey Haines, the sediments for documentation and personal communication 1996). Unfortunately, photography and then reburied. The no other information on this vessel was located documentation team established a baseline in a brief search of park archives. along the wreck's centerline structure and mapped site features using baseline trilateration E. C. WA TERS (48YE13) and direct measurements. The main features, including E. C. Wa ters' hull, remaining E. C. Wa ters, the largest vessel ever operated propulsion system, and scattered site features on Ye llowstone Lake, was a 125-ft .-long, were also drawn to scale. Unfortunately, limited wooden-hulled, single-screw passenger steamer time for this assessment did not allow complete with a 26-ft. beam (Haines 1996b: 127). documentation of all site details. For example, Although depth of hold and tonnage are not the many small, portable artifacts located documented for this vessel, they are estimated between the vessel frames could not be to have been a 10-ft. depth of hold and between completely documented, and other details, such 200 and 250 tons. Today, E. C. Wa ters' remains as the hull fastening patterns,were documented lie partially exposed and awash on Stevenson through recording only a representative sample. Island's east shore (Figures 5.28 and 5.29). No wood samples were taken during this Initial field observations of site 48YE13 were noninvasive site assessment. that the wreckage consists of the largely intact lower hull below the tum of the bilge, much of HULLREMAINS the drive train (excluding engine and boiler), and many scattered features and artifacts (Figure At August 1996 lake levels, the E. C. 5.30). Major structural features include the keel, Wa ters' centerline (keelson and propeller shaft) main keelson, sister keelsons, floors, the first was just at the lake's surface. Because of the and second futtocks of most frame-pairs, engine 27° port list, the submerged port side is better bed, propeller shaftand bearings, thrust bearing, preserved than the starboard side, which is propeller, hull planking, ceiling planking and mostly exposed above water level. Port-side deck machinery, along with numerous scattered hull remains are extant to the tum of the bilge, fittings (Figure 5.31). The hull, listing 27° to while the starboard-side hull consists of burnt port, is 121 ft. 7 in. long from propeller to the stubs of several floors and futtocks (frames or

100

llSlrtn gors Hul Plana -

\ HuJ Ptanka \ / -� -- · s"",. oximate \ Appr \

Capstan

�FEET 0 5 10 20 Iron Strap

Figure 5.30. Plan view of E. C. Wa ters' site (48YE13). Drawing by Jim Bradford and Matt Russell.

103

GLOBE VA LV E ASSEMBLY

BOW

PROPELLE R SHAFT

THRUST BEARING ENGINE MOUNT DAV ITS

5.31. Plan view of E. C. Wa ters' hull remains. Numbers along the lower edge are frame pair Drawing by Jim Bradford and Matt Russell.

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Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

port side are now broken at the turn of the bilge; upon the great difficulty in obtaining those on the starboard are broken near the keel. first futtocks of sufficient length, size Individual floor and futtock timbers are joined and crook for ships of the largest end to end with butt joints that are staggered so classes. It is regarded as a great that one half of each frame pair overlaps the improvement, inasmuch as it rids the butt joints of the other half to maximize strength. keel of the range of butts with which This paired frame arrangement with staggered it was covered under the old system. butt joints is known as "double framing". . . [Wilson 1873:197]. E. C. Wa ters' framing was constructed using a peculiar combination of the long-and-short­ Specifications for both the "old system" and the arm method through its midsection (which was long-and-short-arm framing method were the preferred construction method by the tum­ included in the Rules fo r the Construction of of-the-century), and an older style of framing Wo oden Ve ssels, published annually by the near the bow and stern. The long-and-short­ American Shipmasters' Association through at arm method uses two staggered floors of the least 1900. Several standard early-twentieth same length crossing the keel, so that the long century ship construction manuals do not even arm of one timber is on the same side of the mention the older framing style (Estep 1918; keel as the short arm of the other (Figure 5.33). Curtis 1919; Desmond 1984[1919]), indicating The first futtock on each side of the vessel butt­ standardization on the long-and-short-arm joins the floor's short arm, while the second frame method. No examples of mixing the early futtock butts the long arm. In this way the and later framing styles in a single vessel were futtocks are carriedup the vessel's side. The located in either historical or archeological older style of framing uses just one floor, literature. centered over the keel, for one half of the frame Forty-eight frame pairs are present in pair, with the two first futtocks butt-joined over E. C. Wa ters' hull remains (see Figure 5.31); the keel formingthe other half. Second futtocks all floors and futtocks measure 5 in. sided and are attached to either end of the floor and third 9 in. molded, while room and space (distance fu ttocks are attached to the end of each first from the center of one frame pair to the center futtock. This patternis repeated up the vessel's of the next) is 24 in. As recorded, Frame Pair side (Figure 5.33). #1 is the first square frame, which crosses the The practice of long-and-short-armfr aming keel perpendicularly. Forward of this square was introduced before the Ci vii War and became frame were half or cant frames that butted into the preferable construction technique by the the deadwood. Half frames remained 1870s (Record of American and Foreign perpendicular to the keel and became Shipp ing 1879:21). The historical shift to long­ increasingly steep as they formed the pointed and-short-arm frame techniques occurred for ship bow, whereas cant frames rotated forward several reasons, including availability of in a radial pattern. Because no bow framing material and this framing technique's superior remains, there is no way to determine if E. C. strength: Wa ters' builders used half or cant frames. The bow filler deadwood exhibits heel notches for The practice of placing two sets of the frames and fastener patterns inthe outer hull floors across the keel having a long planking indicates several half or cant frames and a short arm on alternate sides is were present. In the stern, two half or cant of recent origin, and is consequent frames (#47 and #48) notched into the

106 --

� (J'Q... Vessel Centerline = I a Ul � - � - -- __ 2nd Futtock -:-:- Flo r - __ 2nd Futtock - - � - . -:-;- -- · t:1 - · -· �-� --- �..=_ - . � ·-:- - � ---- - (1) 1st Futtock 1st Futtock a ..==' CJl.. "-- (1) r/) -�nd Futtock 0 .. � 1st Futtock ------·· -� =: - .. 1st Futtock � ..

s-· ==' (Jq � � 0 0 - 0. 0 (1) Traditional or "Old Style" Framing -. ==' < (1) r/) r/) (1)-

t:1 >-t �

�-· ==' (Jq 0"' "-

a:� .. � c r/) r/) �-

Long and Short ArmFr aming Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

deadwood are still in place on the port side and forward section, but the floors are missing. a notch for a third half or cant frame is present. They may have been purposefully omitted to Fastener patterns on the starboard stern allow bilge water to pass from one side of the deadwood indicate at least three half or cant vessel to the other. frames were used but are no longer present. Typical of late-nineteenth and early­ Frame pairs #1-14, as recorded, were twentieth century wooden ship construction, constructed using the older framing style, with E. C. Wa ters was built with multiple keelsons. a single floor and the port and starboard first Keelsons are fore-and-aft centerline timbers futtocks butting under the keelson. Each futtock extending the vessel's length, located on top of, was fastened horizontally to its mated floor with and fastened through, the floors into the keel, *-in.-diameter fasteners, creating the frame tying the main centerline structures together into pair. These 14 frame pairs are constructed with a solid unit. E. C. Wa ters has a main keelson the floors forward of the futtocks. E. C. Wa ters' and two sister keelsons, the latter being slightly midship section (frame pairs #15-38) is smaller timbers flanking the main keelson on constructed using the long-and-short-arm either side. The forward end of the main keelson method, with two staggered floors. Near the is broken and splintered, but is the same length stem, frame pairs #39-46 (the last square frame) as the keel, suggesting it is almost fully intact. revert back to the older style of framing, with a With the exception of the port garboard strake single floor and two first futtocks butted under (the outer hull plank closest to the keel), which the keelson, though in these the floorsare aft of extends another 1 ft. 6 in. forward of the keelson the futtocks. The last two frame pairs (#47- and keel, the keel/keelson structure is the 48), are either half or cant frames, which are forward-most articulated hull structure. A mortised into the stem filler deadwood. These single outer hull plank extends further forward frames are perpendicular to the keel, but it could on the port side, but it is loose and not fastened not be determined if they are half or cant frames. to other timbers. The main keelson extends aft Only first futtocks are present on E. C. Wa ters' to the stempost. Its total length is 116 ft. 4 in., starboard side due to the vessel listing to port and its dimensions are 11 in. sided and 10 in. when it burned (manyfu ttocks showed evidence molded. Like the keel, a single horizontal scarf of burningon their top ends). There is probably is visible on the main keelson, beginning 30 ft. also deterioration from ice, water, wave impact 8 in. aft of its forward-most end. Because the and vandalism. Several port-side frame pairs' main keelson is flankedon both sides by sister second futtocks are present. keelsons, no details of this scarf could be All frame pairs have two limber holes, each observed. It could not be determined if the scarf hole offset 9V2 in. from centerline, allowing for is angling forward or aft, or what type of scarf bilge water drainage down the vessel length to it is. Because the keel and both sister keelsons the pump wells. The limber holes are roughly used hook scarfs, however, it is reasonable to rectangular, 1 V2 in. high, and varying between expect the builder used this scarf when 3 and 4 in. long. Amidships, beneath the engine assembling the main keelson. Given the main mounts, 14 additional floors are present, keelson length, at least one additional scarf creating a solid block of athwartship supports would be expected, probably hidden by the that add strength to the vessel's machinery engine bed aft of midship. spaces, which bore the combined weight of E. C. Wa ters' sister keelsons flank themain engines and boilers (Figure 5.34). Space for keelson, but are slightly shorter. The port sister two other floors is present in the mount's keelson appears to be complete, its forward end

108 0 2 3 4 5 FR,AME PA IR

FLOOR FUTTOCK FEET � FLOGlRm FLOOR

Figure 5.34. Plan and elevation of engine bed and thrust bearing showing additional frames to I. support engine weight. Drawing by Jim Bradford. )I 109 Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

cut straight 10 ft. 1 in. aft of the main keelson's measured, a starboard hull plank, is 30 ft. 1 in. forward end, just forward of Frame Pair #1. In long. Hull planking is attached to each frame the stem, the port sister keelson ends 13 ft. 11 with two or three V2-in.-square spikes. Ceiling, in. forward of the main keelson's aft end. This or interior, planking, 2 in. thick and 10 to 12 in. gives the port sister keelson a total length of 92 wide, is fastened to each frame with two V2-in.­ ft. 2 in.; both sister keelsons measure 10 in. sided diameter spikes. The starboard limber board and 8 in. molded. The starboard sister keelson's (longitudinal planks lying atop the floors) butts forward end is broken off 8 ft. 7 in. aft of the the starboard sister keelson and is fastened with port sister keelson's forward end. The starboard spikes, but the port limber board shows no sister keelson ends in the same place as the port evidence of fasteners. Portions of three bilge sister, giving it a total length of 83 ft. 8 in. The strakes (thick planks) are in place on the aft ends of both sister keelsons taper from their starboard side. Bilge strakes are thick timbers full sided dimension of 10 in. to 2Y2in. over the at the turn of the bilge that add additional aft 2 ft. 8 in. The port sister keelson was notched longitudinal hull support. On this vessel these over the frames from the engine bed forward. strakes are 5% in. wide x 4V2 in. thick, made of The notches are Y2 in. deep at the engine bed multiple lengths joined with 3-ft.-long plain and get progressively deeper moving forward scarfs, and fastened to the frames with %- or 1- so they are notched 5V2 in. over Frame Pair #1. in.-diameter clinch bolts. Like the keel and main keelson, each sister In addition to the frames, main keelson and keelson has a single visible horizontal hook sister keelsons described above, the engine bed scarf. The scarfs are offset by several feet, are or foundation incorporates several other slightly different lengths, and angle in opposite elements (see Figure 5.31 and 5.34) to directions. The port sister keelson scarf begins strengthen the hull in the machinery spaces. As 32 ft. 1 Y2 in. aft of the port sister keelson's mentioned above, additional floors were placed forward end and is 5 ft. 10V2 in. long between the regularly spaced frames, creating horizontally. Its nibs (ends) are 1V2in., the hook a nearly solid block of timbers under the engine is 1 in., and it angles up towards the bow. The bed. The sided dimensions of these added floors starboard sister keelson scarf begins 1 ft. 4V2 vary between 3 in. and 7 in. Two timbers in. forward of the port sister keelson scarf, is 5 measuring 12 ft. 6 in. long, 1 ft. 1 in. sided, and ft . 2 in. long horizontally, has 1 Y2-in. nibs and 10 in. molded were placed outside each sister hook, and angles up towards the stem. Most keelson to help support the engine. Because likely, the slight offset and opposite angles were the molded dimension of the sister keelsons is intentionally designed to increase the centerline 2 in. less than the main keelson and the engine structural strength. As with the main keelson, bed timbers, a 2-in.-thick cover board was though no other scarfs are visible in either sister fastened over each sister keelson, between the keelson, it is likely they are present and probably main keelson and the outside timber, making a obscured by the engine bed. flush surface to fasten the engine bed frames. Both outer hull and ceiling planking are The engine bed frames are three transverse present across the E. C. Wa ters site. The vessel's timbers fastened to the platform with four to outer hull planking is 3 in. thick and 7 to 11 in. seven %-in.-diameter fasteners plus three to four wide, depending on where tapering is required 2-in.-diameter threaded bolts that also secured by the hull form. The garboard strake, or first the engine to the three timbers. The bed frames hull plank butting the keel, is 4 to 5 in. thick. vary in their sided dimensions; the aft timber is Hull plank lengths vary, but the longest one sided 1 ft., the middle timber is sided 1 ft . 1 in.,

110 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

and the forward timber is sided 1 ft. 4V2 in. They triple expansion engine, which added a third areall 5 ft. 4 in. long and measure 10 in. molded. cylinder to the basic compound design. Triple The timbers are shaped to accept the underside expansion engines were first developed during of the engine and allow clearance to the engine the 1870s and became popular during the 1880s crankshaft. and 1890s; they continued to be built well into In addition to the intact hull bottom and the twentieth century. At the tum of the century associated features, there are many scattered marine steam technology branched into two hull planks, ceiling planks, bilge stringers, and distinct lines: 1) the reciprocating engine, which frames across the lake bottom to the north, east reached its pinnacle with the quadruple and southeast of E. C. Wa ters. Most of these expansion engine, and 2) the steam turbine, are included on the site map (see Figure 5.30). which became more widespread and eventually Several of the scattered timbers show evidence eclipsed the reciprocating engine (Gardiner of burning. A complete, systematic survey of 1994:152-154). As with the introduction ofthe areas beyond the main wreck concentration was compound engine 50 years earlier and the triple not conducted. expansion engine 30 years earlier, the most technologicall,y advanced machinery was PROPULSION SYSTEM AND RELATED initially only used in the most profitable trades, FEATURES such as in Atlantic passenger steamers. It is unlikely E. C. Wa ters carriedthe most modern As noted in Chapter 3, the engine and boiler steam engine available. were salvaged from E. C. Wa ters sometime after As asserted by Haines (personal abandonment on Stevenson Island. The boiler communication 1996), there is no question was used for many years to heat the Lake Hotel E. C. Wa ters would have been equipped with a and later sold for scrap; there is no record of cylindrical, or Scotch, boiler. The Scotch boiler what happened to the engine. Historical was developed during the 1860s and was a great research did not locate any specifications on improvement over the firebox boiler, which engine or boiler types and sizes, other than a used many flat surfaces, because it could note that the boiler was a Scotch-type marine withstand much greater steam pressures. Scotch boiler (Aubrey Haines, personal boilers were fitted in ships until the mid­ communication 1996). Although E. C. Wa ters twentieth century (Gardiner 1993:106-107). was built for use in a unique environment, Although there is no historical documentation reasonable speculation can be made about the on E. C. Wa ters' steam engine, configuration engine and boiler based on parallels from of the bed frames and the size of the thrust contemporary vessels. bearing indicate either a compound engine The first compound reciprocating steam (most likely), or a double simple engine, of engines were developed during the 1850s and about 80-100 hp was used in combination with saw widespread service beginning in the 1860s a single Scotch boiler (Ian Ablett, personal (Gardiner 1993:106). The idea of communication 1999). compounding, in which high pressure steam The only evidence remaining of E. C. entered a small, high pressure cylinder and was Wa ters' engine is the wooden engine bed and then recycled to a larger, lower pressure cylinder the bolts that secured the engine to the bed. The before being vented or condensed, greatly boiler is represented by four iron or steel saddles improved marine steam engine efficiency. This (Figures 5.35 and 5.36) that supported the boiler idea was improved upon even further with the and served to distribute the concentrated weight

111 Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

the later part of the nineteenth century (Gardiner 1993 : 100). The purpose of the thrust bearing, or thrust block, is "to receive and to transmit to the ship the thrust produced along the line of shafting by the revolution of the screw" (Yeo 1894:83). The thrust bearing is generally • positioned near the forward end of the propeller shaft, just aft of the engine, and consists of a block with removable cap. The shaft, at this part of the drive train, is composed of a number 0 1 of collars while the thrust bearing has a ·- - .. - corresponding set of internalcolla rs; in this case, FOOT six thrust collars separated by five horseshoe bearings. When the thrust of the propeller is Figure 5.35. Side and end views of boiler transferred up the propeller shaft, the shaft saddle. Drawing by Jim Bradford. collars press upon either the forward or aft faces of the thrust bearing collars, depending on which direction the vessel is going. In either of the boiler and its water over a larger area direction, the screw tends to force the shaft through the main keelson and other wooden slightly forward or aft, but that pressure is taken members of the hull. These four saddles are by the block and, through the strong support on scattered in the general debriswithin the vessel's which it is fixed, transferred to the hull. hull, a pattern most likely the result of salvage Adjustment of the thrust block is made with activity. Each saddle is triangular with one large set screws on either side of the block, while concave side to accept the rounded boiler shell, the forward end has a shaft coupling to accept and is notched on one edge for mounting in the the engine crankshaft. E. C. Wa ters' thrust hull. There is no evidence of direct fastening bearing measures 3 ft . 4Y2 in. long x 2 ft. 2 in. of the boiler to the saddles, indicating metal wide, and is 1 ft. 6 in. high. It is mounted on a straps or stays with turnbuckles may have been pillow, or plummer, block solidly attached to used to secure the boiler to the vessel. the main and sister keelsons; the pillow block With the exception of the engine and boiler, measures 4 ft. long, 2 ft. IOY2 in. wide, and 10 the rest of E. C. Wa ters' propulsion system is in. high. intact within the wreck (Figure 5.37). This E. C. Wa ters' propeller shaft is intact aft of includes the thrust bearing; propeller shaft with the thrust bearing (see Figure 5.37). The two shaft bearings, the afterbulkhead stuffing forward part of the propeller shaft, or line shaft, box and gland, a single shaft coupling, and the is 6 in. in diameter and articulates with an 8- stern tube with stuffing box and gland; an in.-diameter stem tube in which the aft part of adjustable stern bearing assembly; and the the propeller shaft, or tail shaft, spun. Typically, propeller. Tota1 length from crankshaft coupling propeller shafts are hollow, with internal forward of the thrust bearing to the aft end of diameter about half the external diameter. The propeller hub is 37 ft. 10V2 in. tail shaft within the stem tube is usually larger E. C. Wa ters' thrust bearing (Figures 5.34 in diameter than the line shaft, about the same and 5.38) is a multiple-collar block developed size as the crankshaft attached to the engine. In during the 1850s and in near-universal use by this case, the tail shaft, where it exits the stem

112

Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

0 1

FOOT

KEELSON

HULL PLANK

Figure 5.39. Plan, elevation and end view of forward propeller shaft bearing. Drawing by Jim Bradford.

115

Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

AFT FORE 0 1 2 ELEVATION ELEVATION FEET

Figure 5.43. Plan, starboard elevation, fore and aft views of adjustable stem bearing assembly. Drawing by Jim Bradford.

118

Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

keyed to the shaft end and secured with a large steel tubing, or built-up welded shapes hexagonal, keyed nut. (Kerchove 1961:199). All seven are 3-in.­ diameter steel tubing, welded at the bend. A DISARTICULATED MACHINERY AND davit collar bolted to the deck secured each base, OTHER FEATURES and each davit was braced below the bend. Figure 3.6 shows three sets of davits holding Several features associated with E. C. lifeboats on E. C. Wa ters' port side in about Wa ters' machinery are located within the hull 1906. or near the vessel remains. One of the most Three flatiron or steel brackets are present prominent is a globe valve mounted in the hull on the wreck, all loose and not in their original bottom on the engine bed's port side (Figures location (see Figures 5.31 and 5.52). These 5.46-5.48). This valve was the main lake water brackets are made from Yz -in. flat iron or steel inlet for supplying water to the boiler and in a modified L-shape, with a diagonal brace auxiliaries. The valve contains all of the connecting the arm and leg. A base plate features of an ordinary stop valve as shown in measuring 10 in. long, 4 in. wide, and Yz in. Lyon and Hines (1915:76-77), but is an angle thick is attached to the bottom of the leg. A 1- rather than a straight-through valve. The intake in.-diameter tab projects through the plate, is through a feed water pipe fitted in the wooden which allowed the bracket to swivel on the base block on which the valve is secured. plate. A similar tab is also present on the top of E. C. Wa ters' capstan is located 75 ft. south the bracket. The plates were secured to the of the engine bed, buried in the sand in about vessel with 3-in. lag bolts. Holes drilled through 1 Y2ft . of water (Figures 5.49 and 5.50). Before the arms are not identically placed in each piece 1995, the capstan was located on the beach but are probably evidence of where wooden about 30 ft. south-southwest of the wreck. chocks were attached. These brackets were DuringSC RU's 1995 visit, the capstan was not supports for the lifeboats (see Figure 3.6) when located and thought by park rangers to be stowed. They were riggedso as to swing against missing. A depression on the beach marked the cabin and out of the way when the lifeboats the location where park rangers remembered it were hoisted or lowered. (Lenihan 1995b:5). During the present site Various lengths of 1-in.-diameter iron or documentation, the capstan was found in its steel rod are scattered across the site. All are current location, apparently moved by would­ bent, and two exhibit particular attributes. One be looters in a failed attempt to remove it. The segment, 7lfzft. long, has the rod curved around capstan is 1 ft. 3 in. high, 1 ft. 4 in. across the to form a symmetrical handle (Figure 5.53), drumhead, and its base is 2 ft. 2 in. in diameter. while the opposite end has a steel plate attached. The base plate, spindle, and drumhead are intact, The plate measures 6 in. x 10 in. x 1116 in. and, but the barrel is missing. The capstan is geared, on the opposite side of the attached rod, has a indicating it was probably operated with an 11J4-in.-square nut welded to the plate as auxiliary steam engine. reinforcement. Its purpose is unknown but it Seven davits are present within the E. C. appears to have been a long handle. The second Wa ters wreck (Figures 5.51 and 5.52). Davits piece was intentionally bent into a "J" hook at are small derricks of various designs used for one end and has an "eye" on the other end hoisting boats, ladders, loads, etc. They are through which an "eye" from a second segment oftenmade of forged ingot steel bent to shape, of rod is joined, giving both pieces an articulated

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Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

with a 1-in.-long square nail in place. Two Y2- in.-square holes are present along each side, with an additional 1.4 -in.-diameter hole on one side, while the fourth side has a crudely cut 1 Y2- in.-diameter hole near the edge with a 1-in.­ diameter bent steel rod through it. Function is

___ unknown, but it may have been a heat shield on - - .. __ ,_, - - ...... -.. - - - ::. - - ...... top of the keelsons, below the boiler. - .. I I -- II:: -_, 1 =- If I A single, uniquely shaped, iron or steel :I: II I I 11 I \ :: I brace is also located within the wreckage \\ :1 II , / ,, , ', , (Figure 5.54b). It is roughly V-shaped and .. II,, ..,..,.,."' -,.. '- I twisted to accommodate whatever it secured with 1.4 -in. x 4-in. carriage bolts. It is very similar to the boat davit braces (Figure 5.54c) but is shaped to fit a wooden board rather than

__ j a metal pole. Its association is unknown. Three examples of iron or steel strapping are present; one at the wreck's stem (Figure 5.55), a second in shallow water about 100 ft. south of the wreck's bow, and the third on shore about 200 ft. southeast of the wreck. All are at least 6 in. wide and 1.4 in. thick, and partially 0 1 2 buried in the sand. The one on shore is square

FEET in shape, the one near the stem is about 12 ft . long and L-shaped, while the third is long with a one end curved into a round. None are in Figure 5.51. Scale drawing of life boat davit their original location, and their functions are and support bracket showing their relative unknown. positions in securing a life boat. Drawing by Many small, portable artifacts are located Jim Bradford. between E. C. Wa ters' frames, including two pieces of 1-in.-thick glass (Figure 5.56). Small on the plate's surface. On the underside, each slivers of windowpane glass were also noted plate has eight 2-in.-long, 1.4-in.-wide, lh-in.­ on the site, probably from the cabin windows. thick tabs, four along each side. These tabs may Three small pieces of hardware were also have served as small legs upon which the plates observed. One is a small cabinet door hinge, rested or, more likely, secured the plates from one is a brass keyhole plate, and the third is movement once installed. These plates were part of a door lock jamb. All would have been probably flooring around the engine or boiler. located in E. C. Wa ters' pilothouse or cabins. A single large iron or steel sheet is present These are only the most noteworthy of the many forward of the engine bed (see Figure 5.31), artifacts on the site. although it is not secured in its original location. A variety of fasteners is located across the The sheet is 7 ft. 5V2in. long, 2 ft. wide and 1.4 wreck. These range from small wire nails to in. thick. It is notched on one end and three 1.4 - hull spikes and clinch pins. Many of the items in.-square holes are present along one end, each described above were fastened to the vessel with 124

Part II, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

s:=

0 0

a

b

0 1 2

c FEET

Figure 5.54. Plan and profile views of flatmetal plate (a), "V" -shaped brace (b) and boat davit brace (c). Drawing by Jim Bradford.

126

Part II, Chapter 5 Ye llowstone National Park

common nails, screws and bolts. Numerous of framing, however, is an anomaly; no nails are present along the keelsons and appear analogous examples were loc ated in the to mark locations where blocks of wood historical or archeological literature. The supports were, or are, located. These are obvious question, then, is why did the builders common nails varying in size from 2d to 1 Od. use this framing pattern? By the tum-of-the­ Equipment bases, brackets and braces were century, it had been clearly demonstrated that fastened with 1-in.-square nails and various the long-and-short-arm framing method sized carriage bolts and lag screws. Smaller provided greater hull strength than the older wooden members and frame pairs were fastened framing style because it eliminated butted first with %-in. pins, while hull planking was futtocks over the keel. Yet E. C. Wa ters' fastened with Yz -in.-square spikes. The larger builders created an unusual hybrid of the two wooden elements of the vessel were fastened framing styles. A functional explanation can with %-in.- and 1-in.-diameter fasteners, some be dismissed: mixing framing styles is not a threaded to receive nuts to secure metal better way to build a ship. So a cultural components. explanation needs to be addressed. It could indicate multiple builders: one who directed the ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION project during midship construction, and a different one involved in bow and stern The E. C. Wa ters site is unique not only in framing. Another possibility is that the bow Ye llowstone National Park, but to the entire and stem timbers were reused from some other National Park System. No other high-altitude shipbuilding project, and brought to lake passenger steamer as large as E. C. Wa ters Ye llowstone Lake prefabricated for use in is known to exist in any other park waters. E. C. Wa ters. The unusual framing pattern,then, Smaller passenger vessels still exist, in use and may reflect recycling and reuse behavior. The as archeological sites, in Glacier National Park real surprise, however, in spite of the framing (see Russell 1997) and possibly other hybrid, is that the vessel is as well-constructed mountain parks. By studying the E. C. Wa ters ' as it is. Many small details, such as the keel site, archeologists have a unique opportunity to and keelson horizontal hook scarfs, indicate a learnabout touristeconomy development in the seaworthy vessel constructed by competent world's first national park. After shipbuilders. At 8,000 ft. above sea level in documentation of E. C. Wa ters, several aspects the Wyoming mountains, more evidence of of the material remains offer the opportunity to expedience was expected, which was not the study behavior associated with the lake tourist case. trade. Analysis of E. C. Wa ters gives insight Salvage activity on E. C. Wa ters was similar into such diverse topics as vernacular versus to typical salvage practice in the Great Lakes, traditional ship construction techniques and but differed in one notable way: although the maritime salvage activity. engine and boiler were recycled and reused, the Hull construction is mostly typical of vessel's thrust bearing was left in place on the wooden-hulled steamer construction. wreck. Typically, in coastal and Great Lake Scantlings, scarfs, machinery, and general environments, if the engines and boilers are construction style is comparable to accessible enough to be salvaged, then other contemporary Great Lakes practices. Even the high-cost, reusable items such as the thrust odd stem bearing arrangement has corollaries bearing are also removed. This is the case on in the Great Lakes. E. C. Wa ters' mixed-style several sites documented in Lake Superior, for

128 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 5

example the Monarch wreck at Isle Royale Documentation of E. C. Wa ters and other National Park (Lenihan 1987:264). When the sites in Yellowstone Lake give researchers a engine and boilers are inaccessible, such as on tangible link to Ye llowstone's turn-of-the­ Isle Royale's Glenlyon, then the thrust bearing century tourist trade. Few maritime material is also left in place. On E. C. Wa ters, however, remains are left in the park representing the new even though the engine and boilers were century's burgeoning tourist economy, and removed and the thrust bearing was easily several of those, such as the West Thumb docks, accessible, it was not salvaged. This reflects the Lake Hotel docks, the small boats off the the unique environment that in which the Lake Hotel, and E. C. Wa ters, are submerged in steamer operated. The engine and boiler were Ye llowstone Lake. Analysis of these important easily put to nonmaritime use: the boiler was archeological remains provides insight into used to heat the Lake Hotel, and although it is aspe9ts of these commercial enterprises not unknown where the engine was used, it could recorded in the historical record. Baseline easily have been used locally, for example, in a documentation of archeological resources lumber mill. The thrust bearing, on the other hand, had no other use than on another screw allows researchers to pose particular questions steamer. In the Great Lakes or coastal locations, relating to Ye llowstone Lake's maritime history an object like a thrust bearing could easily be and creates the opportunity to study a little­ sold for reuse. This was not the case in documented facet of YELL's economic Yellowstone. development as a tourist destination.

129 Ye llowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

The 1996 SCRUYellowstone National Park and library. Other complementary regional Submerged Resources Survey expanded the records and those in Aubrey Haines' possession initial 1995 submerged site reconnaissance were not examined. However, researchers were requested by park management. In 1996, park able to obtain sufficient information to describe staff prioritized particular areas in and around cultural resources located during fieldwork and Ye llowstone Lake for SCRU to examine with evaluate their potential significance. remote sensing and direct observation to Some study produced negative evidence. determine how many and what kind of cultural For example, we did not locate the reported resources were present, their condition, and stagecoach parts near Pumice Point or what concerns for their protection and submerged features associated with the Little management should be considered. The second Thumb Creek facilities. Limited material investigation accomplished variable evidence in some areas, such as the Lake Hotel documentation levels ofthese areas, and variable dock area and West Thumb Geyser Basin, results were obtained. For example, suggests a very efficient effort at removing archeological sites along the lakeshore were buildings, docks, etc. from those locales. photographically documented, small watercraft Additional archival research and oral history were located on the lake bottom and drawn, and collection with former and present park E. C. Wa ters and the We st Thumb dock remains employees would likely augment the history and were recorded to a high level of detail in observations presented in this report. photographs and measured drawings. Confirmation of the lake steamer Zillah's The 1996 investigations were designed to fate is one of the most intriguing questions. Data accomplish a great deal of fieldwork in a very from the remote sensing survey suggest Zillah short time; consequently, park archival research is not on the lake bottom, at least in the primary was necessarily limited. Investigators were not area identified by local lore. Additional historical able to completely trace many of the intriguing research is necessary before continuing a search leads located within park archives, photographs for its remains. Little is known about the lake

130 Part II, Chapter 6 Ye llowstone National Park

vessel Jean D, and more research is required diving public on Yellowstone Lake submerged here, too. More is known about E. C. Wa ters, a cultural resources and in response to a dive club vessel that may have never carried a paying proposal to search for remains of Zillah. Given passenger on the lake. these concerns, and this study's results, the The West Thumb Geyser Basin dock remains following management recommendations are are unquestionably an archeological site that has suggested: significant association with park development, 1. Diving visitors are on the increase in most particularly regarding lake transportation and parks containing divable waters. The park tourism. These remains, one of the earliest lake should present a higher park dive management docks, represent a lakeshore tourist destination profile to accommodate growing diver interest, second only to the Lake Hotel dock. The Lake including the option of diving on submerged Hotel docks present very little archeological cultural resources in the lake, but cultural evidence of its past. The West Thumb Geyser resource preservation must be stressed. Specific Basin dock remains should be preserved and interpretive devices including pamphlets, protected, and they may offer an interpretive brochures, permittingand exhibits have proved potential for both land and diving visitors. useful in other areas. Documentation produced by SCRU duringthese 2. Park divers should monitor the condition investigations should be useful to park of small craftand other cultural features off the management in forming any decisions required Lake Hotel to assess diving visitor impact and about the long-term development and general natural deterioration rates of these preservation of this resource. resources. Should diver impact be observed, E. C. Wa ters' remains, along with the Lake diving these resources can be curtailed or boathouse, are the most obvious surviving redirected to other areas. cultural resources associated with Yellowstone 3. Monitoring the We st Thumb dock Lake boating history. The wreckage is a remains for signs of deterioration from visitor destination for current lake boat tours, as well access should also be done, for the same reasons. as pleasure boaters and fishermen. Site 4. The E. C. Wa ters ' remains offStevenson documentation resulting from this study can Island should be both monitored and regularly serve interpretive purposes and as a baseline patrolled to determine and minimize visitor against which evaluation of future impact can impact to this important archeological site. be measured. Interpretation and monitoring of Documentation generated by this study can be this site is warranted. used as baseline information for a monitoring program. RECOMMENDATIONS 5. The We st Thumb dock remains, the steam launch examined in 1995 and the small boats Based on information and results presented located in 1996 should be officially recorded as in the preceding chapters, the following archeological sites and given site numbers, like management and research recommendations are Lake dock and E. C. Wa ters. In addition, the offered. steam launch and small boats should be recorded in detail. MANAGEMENT 6. Sites determined to be eligible should be nominated to the National Register of Historic This study was, in part, initiated by park Places. Although individual sites such as the management's concern about effects of the historic dock remains and small boats may not

131 Yellowstone National Park Part II, Chapter 6

be eligible individually, nominating all the Comparative analyses among E. C. Wa ters, maritimearche ological sites as district,thematic Zillah and other lake tour boats of the or possibly cultural landscape listings should be northwestern United States are important to considered. understanding the regional archeological Currently, there appears to be no need for significance of this poorly documented facet of restrictions for divers or boaters to these Western history. Historical research is also resources, but a systematic monitoring program important for interpretive purposes. should be initiated and maintained to make 3. Jean D also requires further historical informed management decisions should they research. Other than a few arc hi val photographs, become necessary through loss of resource no information was found on this vessel, which integrity. had a lake history as long as Zillah 's. Very little is known about this vessel, which may also be FUTURE RESEARCH in the lake. 4. A definitive history of the lake docks is This initial study of Ye llowstone Lake important to Ye llowstone Lake interpretation. submerged cultural resources revealed many Historical documents indicate several docks discrepancies in the current and historical were proposed, some were constructed and literature about the resources and pointed out expanded. However, very few material remains many areas where information about the attest to this aspect of lake history. resources is lacking. The following 5. Lake fisheries facilities should be recommendations address this issue. researched. As with the dock facilities, fisheries 1. Personnel should conduct research on have an important place in lake history, but little Zillah's history. There are many discrepancies is known about them. in the vessel's early history, and its final 6. National Park Service removal of earlier disposition needs to be confirmed. Zillah, as lake facilities should be documented, including the lake's first tourist steamer, is a primary fi sheries, docks,marine railway, etc. Based on historical subject for the park, and more lack of archeological evidence observed in complete information is needed to accurately historically developed areas, NPS efforts were interpret this subject. An accurate history is apparently extremely effective. Records and oral important to decide whether to expend histories should be researched to complete this additional resources to locate this site. gap in lake history. 2. Like, Zillah, E. C. Wa ters needs further Much of the information discussed above historical research. Its construction by the can be found in various archivesand collections. Pacific Launch Company in Tacoma is poorly Historical research conducted as part of this documented. An attempt should be made to report has indicated some repositories that may locate construction plans, which could clarify be particularlyprodu ctive: the Yellowstone Park discrepancies between reported vessel archives at Mammoth; Aubrey Haines' personal dimensions and those observed on site. Another files located in Tucson, Arizona; the Haynes question is why was this vessel anchored off photographic collection the Montana Historical Stevenson Island unused for so many years after Society; Museum of the Rockies archives; the its owner/builder was removed from the park Northern Pacific Railroad archives at the and his assets sold to Billy Hofer? Historical Minnesota History Center in St. Paul; and research may reveal the final disposition of E. C perhaps the Pacific Launch Company archives Wa ters ' engine, which may still be extant. in Tacoma, Washington. Other leads should be

132 Part II,Chapter 6 Ye llowstone National Park

sought to acquire additional information on these particularly those along its shores; human history issues. associated with the lake; and, particularly, a 7. One research domain that may prove history of exploration, exploitation and tourism particularly fruitful regarding aboriginal sites is of this unique lake resource within a park full of how Yellowstone Lake sites and life ways were unique resources. It provides results of affected by changing lake levels and the length investigations in areas around the lake, provides of human occupation around the lake. documentation of cultural resources This report provides background encountered, compiles some of the history of information relating to the creation and evolution those resources, and provides recommendations of Yellowstone Lake; its plant and animal for future studies, management, protection and communities; associated natural resources, preservation of those cultural resources.

133 Yellowstone National Park References

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Topping, E. S. MacMillan, London. 1968 The Chronicles of the Ye llowstone. Young, S. B. M. Ross and Haines, Minneapolis. 1897 Annual Report of the Acting Whittlesey, L. H. Superintendent of the Yellowstone 1988 Ye llowstone Place Names. Montana National Park to the Secretary of the Historical Society Press, Helena. Interior. US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Williams, L. and G. A. Wright 1980 Preliminary Archeological Survey of 1907 Annual Report of the Superintendent the East Shore of Yell ow stone Lake. of the Yellowstone National Park to Ms. on file, Department of the Secretary of the Interior. US Anthropology, State University of Government Printing Office, New York, Albany. Washington, D.C.

142