Motorcycle Riding Posture: a Review ⇑ Muthiah Arunachalam, Chirapriya Mondal, Gurdeep Singh, Sougata Karmakar

Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399

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Measurement

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Motorcycle riding posture: A review ⇑ Muthiah Arunachalam, Chirapriya Mondal, Gurdeep Singh, Sougata Karmakar

Department of Design, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India article info abstract

Article history: The incidence of fatalities with two-wheeler is more as compared to any other automotive in most of the Received 9 February 2018 south-east Asian countries. Out of the numerous causes of postural fatigue, uncomfortable riding posture Received in revised form 18 September is one of the major factors for motorcycle rider’s muscular fatigue which might lead to accidents or near 2018 accidents. Following a systematic literature review, the current paper has elucidated state of the art Accepted 6 October 2018 knowledge associated with motorcycle riding posture under the three sub-heading entitled as (a) Available online 15 October 2018 Rider’s adopted posture and various inﬂuencing factors (b) Posture prediction of the motorcyclist and (c) Posture evaluation. Readers of the present review would get fair insight regarding the effectiveness Keywords: of various tools and techniques used for posture evaluation and various research gaps pertaining to Two-wheeler Motorcycle the user-centered design of motorcycles to improve riding posture. Future research scope in the domain Motorbike of motorcyclist’s posture prediction and evaluation includes the development of country/region speciﬁc Posture databases for rider’s anthropometry, range of motion and comfort joint angle etc. for the proactive design Ergonomics of motorcycles targeting the intended user population. The current review would serve as a meaningful and valuable resource for the researchers engaged in automotive sectors with a special interest in motorcycle design. Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 390 2. Methodology...... 391 3. Review findings ...... 391 3.1. Rider’s adopted posture and various influencing factors ...... 391 3.1.1. Human factors associated with riding posture ...... 391 3.1.2. Design features of motorcycle ...... 392 3.1.3. Impact of environmental variables on motorcyclist’s posture ...... 393 3.2. Posture prediction of the motorcyclist...... 394 3.3. Posture analysis...... 394 3.3.1. Comfort/discomfort analyses using DHM ...... 394 3.3.2. Comfort/discomfort studies using posture evaluation tools and questionnaires ...... 394 3.3.3. Postural comfort/discomfort studies using equipment ...... 395 4. Conclusion ...... 396 References ...... 397

1. Introduction more as compared to any other automotive [1–4]. The plausible causes behind the road accidents could be linked to the motorcy- All over the world, a major cause of unnatural death is road mis- cle, its rider and the ambient environment [5]. Here, the authors hap. As per reports, the incidence of fatalities with two-wheeler is of the current papers, deﬁne ‘motorcycle’ as the motorized (pow- ered by petrol, diesel, battery/electricity etc. but not driven by human muscle force) two-wheelers which represent all kind of ⇑ Corresponding author. mopeds, scooters, electric bikes etc. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Karmakar). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2018.10.019 0263-2241/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399 391

Postural fatigue during riding, drunken driving and lack of skills view of riding posture and how the riding posture is affected by and/or training may be listed as the human factors associated with various human factors (physical characteristics, riding experience, motorcycle accidents. Generation of awareness regarding riding duration of riding, cognitive load etc. of the rider), design charac- safety and strict implementation of government laws can control teristics of motorcycle and environmental variables (road, weather drunken driving to some extent but proper training and practice and traffic conditions). If these factors negatively impact the rider’s canonlyimprovethelackofridingskills.Thecausesofposturalfati- adopted posture during riding, there is fair probability of perceiv- gue during riding include damagedroads,badweatherconditions, ing postural discomfort by the rider. The short-term and/or long- high vibrational impact from the motorcycle, inappropriate riding term postural distress and thereby muscular fatigue might lead posture, mental load, attitude and physiological aspects of the rider. to difficulty in easy maneuverability of the motorcycle, altered rid- In this context, it is extremely difficult to identify the most potent fac- ing behavior along with diversion of attention [6–8]. All these may tor affecting the riding posture and thereby discomfort/fatigue [2]. become the potential cause for the motorcycle accidents or near to Although the motorcycle accident is a multi-factorial phenomenon, accidents [9]. uncomfortable riding posture is one of the major factors for rider’s muscular fatigue [6–8] which might lead to accidents. To understand and define comfortable and/or optimal motorcy- 3.1.1. Human factors associated with riding posture cle riding posture, researchers should know about different posture Rider’s physical characteristics (anthropometrics, age, gender adopted by the riders in case of different types of motorcycles; fac- etc.), riding experience, duration of riding etc. are important deter- tors affecting/responsible for motorcyclist’s adopted posture; minants of adopted posture during riding. Among these, anthropo- available tools and techniques for rider’s posture evaluation; avail- metrics (human body dimension) is one of the crucial factors while able databases on motorcyclists’ anthropometry, total range of designing a motorcycle with intention of providing comfortable motions (ROM) and body joint angles during perceived comfort/ riding posture. It is observed that six key body dimensions are discomfort; posture prediction; and means for reducing postural commonly taken into consideration while designing a motorcycle. discomfort produced during motorcycle riding. As the information These anthropometric variables are stature, inner leg or crotch regarding aforesaid topics are discrete in nature and not well doc- height, knee height, buttock-knee length, acromion to grip length, umented or synthesized in a single resource, the authors of the cur- and hip breadth [10–12]. Other anthropometrics like trunk height, rent paper has attempted to collect all the relevant information of thigh circumference, popliteal to buttock length and knee opening motorcyclist’s posture and present the same through systematic dimensions are also been used by some designers/researchers [11]. review under different headings and subheadings to make the cur- Anthropometric data essential for motorcycle design are rarely rent paper a meaningful and valuable resource for the designer/e been reported from different countries particularly for the riders’ ngineers/researchers engaged in automotive sectors with special population. Many of the databases are for general population with interest in motorcycle design. mixed professions and the number of drivers/riders have not been mentioned separately in the sample size. Moreover, during devel- 2. Methodology oping an anthropometric database for motorcycle riders, both male and female participants have not been considered. Thus, the num- The literature on various topics related to motorcycle riding ber of male and/or female riders is not found in the database. posture was collected both from available hard copy resources like Besides, few key anthropometry e.g. buttock-knee length, acro- books and journals from various libraries and from electronic data- mion to grip length which required for a motorcycle design are also bases like Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SAE mobilus and missing. All these discrepancies have been shown in Table 1 with Google scholar. Various keywords and combinations of keywords, the example of few available anthropometric databases from dif- which were used in electronic search engines, include motorcycle, ferent countries like India [13–16],UK[10,12], Nigeria [17] and motorbike, two-wheeler, scooters, moped, comfort angle, preferred Malaysia [11]. Country/region specific anthropometric data of the motorcycle posture, riding posture, muscular fatigue of motorcycle motorcycle riders (both male and female) are essential for design- rider etc. ing motorcycle for the targeted user population. In majority of the After the initial search, the collected literature was screened countries all over the globe are lacking this type of databases. The based on various inclusion/exclusion criteria (language, year of usage of anthropometric data of general population as the repre- publication, relevance to current review etc.). Discarding the mul- sentative of motorcyclist population may have significant implica- tiple copies of the same literature obtained from various sources, tion. For example, the anthropometric data will directly affect the the number of literature published in the English language and fall height during an accident, since the center of mass varies during the time frame of 1965 to 2018 was accounted as 124. By among individuals [18]. Moreover, researchers Robertson and Min- reading the abstract of each research article, the available litera- ter, 1996 and Stedmon et al. (2008) [10,12] have found that the ture was then broadly categorized as articles dealing with factors anthropometric data of motorcyclists is significantly different from affecting motorcyclist posture (total 61 including supporting liter- general population in UK. ature), motorcyclist posture prediction (total 17 including support- The basal metabolic index (BMI) of a motorcyclist is an indicator ing literature) and motorcyclist’s posture analysis (total 46 of their regular lifestyle. It is correlated with the posture of female including supporting literature). All grouped literature was read motorcyclist but the same is true for male [19]. The force being completely and were analyzed with regard to their methods and exerted by the motorcyclist during riding increases with flexion findings. Gathered information was systematically reviewed under angle of wrist irrespective of rider’s weight However, riders with different headings to present the current state-of-art knowledge on lower weight (70 kg) have relatively less angular change than rid- motorcyclist’s posture. ers with higher weight (100 kg). Weight of the rider is an important factor for the determining postural comfort of the rider [20]. 3. Review findings Teenage motorcyclists having few years of riding experiences are prone to traffic errors and violations of traffic rules, irrespective 3.1. Rider’s adopted posture and various influencing factors of motorcycle types. The age and riding experiences have negative correlation with speeding behaviors of riders [21]. Robertson The study of various factors affecting/responsible for motorcy- (1987) [22] stated that there are no significant differences in the clist’s adopted posture is very much essential to get the holistic patterns of postural discomfort for rider due to the variation of age. 392 M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399

Table 1 Motorcycle design related anthropometric data [Mean (SD)] reported from different countries.

Robertson and Paiman et al. Chengalur Chakrabarty Lawrence Shamasundara and Kulkarni et al. Amrutkar and minter (1996) (2013) [11] et al. (2003) (1996) [14] (2013) [17] Ogale (1999) [15] (2011) [16] Rajhans (2011) [10] [92] [13] Source collected 1991–1996 2007–2008 1978–1981 1989–1994 201–2015 1996–1997 2009–2010 2011 Population UK population Malaysian American Indian Nigeria Indian Indian Pune, India (7–9 yrs.) Driver Population 140 233 0 34 160 1269 Not reported 70 among the sample Sample size 140 233 250 981 160 1410 4890 70 Gender Female and male Male Female and Female and Male Female and male Female and Female and Male male male male Weight 78.9 (14.7) – – 55.2 (11.3) – – 63.9 – Stature 1744 (100.7) 1201(75.2) 1680 1614 (87) 1658 (79) 1652 1624 – Crotch height 802.1 (64.2) 504.12 (41.8) – 762 (53) – – 711 762 (63) Knee height 530.7 (40.4) 346.09 (35.8) 525 511 (33) 515 (31) 481 455.5 551 (33) Buttock Knee 622.3 (38.7) 367.51 (36.3) 584 549 (44) 549 (38) – – 832 (51) Acromion grip 648.1 (49.3) – 779 – 689 – – – length Hip width 378.9 (31.7) 198.46 (33.8) 368 331 (45) – 347 – –

*All dimensions in the tables are in millimeter except weight in kg.

The riders experience is one of the influencing factors for movement [10]. It is noticed that none of the studies reported response time to road condition [23]. This finding supports [24] the correlation strength between rider’s clothing and postural that speed, gender, age, lack of concentration are plausible causes comfort/discomfort [20,39]. that delay response time to control the motorcycle in a traffic sit- Following the literature review, it is observed that very limited uation. Riding experiences of female and male motorcyclists have a research has been conducted on various human factor issues per- positive correlation with perceived postural comfort. The correla- taining to motorcyclist’s posture. Apart from physical characteris- tion strength is mentioned as 0.9%–2.6% for female and 1%–3.2% tics of the motorcyclists, other human factor issues (riding for male [19] The riding hours and female motorcyclist’s postural duration, experience, type of clothing, seating behavior etc.) which discomfort has a positive correlation, whereas in the case of male are also key players in determining postural comfort/discomfort motorcyclists this correlation is marginal [19]. are needed to be explored further. The seat reference point (SRP) is a location present at the far- thest frontward and lowest point on the seat of a motorcycle. The SRP differs across seat types as well as models of motorcycle. 3.1.2. Design features of motorcycle The SRP could be considered as appropriate representation of the The motorcycle is a fixed or non-adjustable mobile-workstation minimum seat height and the forward movement available to (vehicle) [33,39,40]. The excluded adjustable feature is the side- the motorcyclist [22] for a posture change. The motorcyclist’s seat- view mirrors [41]. Other automobiles (workstations) like car, truck, ing location is crucial for the location and feature of controls and off-road vehicles offers adjustable seating arrangements to assist displays [25]. The motorcyclist seating location vary according the driver in completing their tasks without minimum discomfort. to the motorcyclist’s behavioral pattern; it may vary across the seat The motorcyclist has to perform tasks like operation of throttle, depth and pan during riding. Few studies have been carried out by front/rear brake, levering etc. in a constrained riding postures pro- the researcher on motorcyclist’s seating comfort and contact viding few forward motions with respect to motorcycles [42]. surface pressure between rider and motorcycle [9,26–28]. Rider’s posture depends on the motorcycle’s interface components Literature survey reveals that there are negligible publications like seat/saddle, handlebar grip and foot rest/pad. The dimension of related to study of rider’s seating behavior. None of the researchers these components and placement/location are decisive to deter- investigated effect of seating behavioral pattern on rider’s postural mine human postures [43–45]. Nevertheless, the fuel tank dimen- comfort and the strength of correlation between them. sions are also important and it plays a significant role in The motorcyclists wear clothing like full sleeve shirts/protective determining posture of motorcyclist [46]. All these above men- jackets, helmets and boots. In some countries; e.g. India, helmet is tioned components act as key elements to define and classify a mandatory for safety of the riders (The Motor Vehicle Act, 1988) motorcycle [42,47]. However, as per usual practice, motorcycle [29–30]. It is reported that cognitive performance of motorcyclist manufacturers follow the [48]. Interface points are primary com- is marginally affected by wearing helmet [31,32]. The motorcy- ponents and significant for a motorcyclist’s posture. Thus, all the clist’s neck moment helps to come out of difficulty in viewing interface components should be designed considering ergonomic adjustable side mirrors [33]. In developed countries like U.K and principles. Historical researches indicated that motorcycle has USA, protective jackets are mandatory while riding. There are evolved from the bicycle [49–51]. Interfaces of motorcycle have many reported researches regarding the evaluation of thermal evolved with time. Current interfaces are significantly different comfort of wearing jacket by riders [34–36]. The jackets protect from its inception. Improvement of the motorcycles has been done motorcyclist from bad weather conditions like winter cold [37] in terms of safety features, engine capacity, reduction of vibration but the completely different scenario in summer season [38]. Many and shock, coping up with adverse environmental conditions etc. times, tight clothing can reduce the ease of control operation and but still there is a need for further research and development to makes it difficult to view mirrors. The heavy boots may restrict foot reduce postural discomfort of the riders [52]. Postural comfort M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399 393 may be enhanced by providing adjustments in handle grip and have studied the effectiveness of different shock absorbers or dam- footrests [53]. pers on hand-arm or whole body vibration from unwanted road conditions or uneven riding terrains [60–66]. Impact of vibration 3.1.3. Impact of environmental variables on motorcyclist’s posture on riders is not only dependent on the damper but also on the type During normal or emergency condition, rider has to operate of tyres and gyroscopic and aerodynamic characteristics [67,68]. various controls to accelerate/decelerate or stop the motorcycle. Motorcycle’s age, size and weight are used for prediction of vibra- Motorcyclists change their postures to balance the motorcycle tional exposure of the motorcyclist. According to Robertson (1987) during acceleration/deceleration and braking [54]. Acceleration/ [22], there is no significant difference in the patterns of postural deceleration and breaking behavior of the motorcyclist are discomfort among classes of motorcycle and engine capacities. dependent upon condition of the roads, traffic flow, weather Research of Nur Athirah Diyana et al. (2017) [69] revealed that conditions etc. Rider’s personal stress and riding behavior are the prolonged static-sitting posture, exposure of vibration from also highly associated with speeding or risky driving [55]. The motorcycle have a chance of causing musculoskeletal disorders cruiser motorcycles have commonly longer (larger) geometry as especially in lower back, neck, and shoulder. Moreover, it may be compared to other types. Posture of cruiser motorcyclists is concluded that the motorcycle features are more responsible than prudently leaning backward supported, where body weight is human factors for discomfort in posture. Thus, a possible solution transferred towards motorcycle’s C.G during breaking control could be of the designing an efficient motorcycle with effective fea- behavior [56]. Whereas, in the case of electric scooters, breaking tures to address the adverse effect of road and traffic conditions on control behavior is different from other motorcycles [57,58]. The motorcyclists. For example, Agostoni et al. (2012) [70] made design control operations (deceleration or breaking) of electric scooter interventions on motorcycle handlebar to reduce structural vibra- affect motorcyclists’ upper limbs leaning motion to maintain tion which is experienced on motorcyclist’s hand-arm. Although stability [59]. Consequently, their postural change is relatively the effect of weather/night-day conditions on driving posture and higher than other types of motorcycles like cruiser. The deceler- performance have been studied in case of four-wheeler vehicles ation/braking behavior is not found correlated with individual [71], similar studies on motorcyclist postural change has not been rider factors (e.g. age, BMI, riding hours and riding experience reported by the researchers. etc.) [56]. Following the literature review, it is observed while few vari- The road or terrain conditions like bumpy, flat/plain, slope etc. ables are well studied by the researchers and strongly associated also affect motorcycle rider’s posture. The damper system may with rider’s adopted posture, other variables are not that much wipe out the impact of vibration generated due to bad road condi- important in determining rider’s posture. Based on the degree of tions. The worst bumpy terrain like gravel roads or sandy bumpy association with the riding posture, all these variables have been roads may make suspension system ineffective. Many researches categorized into two groups as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 List of the important factors which affect rider’s posture. 394 M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399

3.2. Posture prediction of the motorcyclist Similar to ROM, motorcyclist’s perceived comfort joint angle (CJA) for various countries have been presented in Table 4. Gener- Posture prediction using DHM (Digital Human Modeling) soft- ally, the researchers for defining the rider’s posture (Fig. 1) con- ware or algorithms offers an estimation of human joint angles for sider eight relative joint angles. Researchers have used a defined posture [72]. There are two types of posture predictions goniometer and faro-arm to measure the joint angles during (i) Proactive approach using CAD systems [73] and (ii) Kinematic motorcyclist’s perceived comfort/discomfort [17,95–97]. Since approach based on statistical model [74,75]. The kinematic the motorcyclists and motorcycles are apparently different from approaches are mainly developed to generate computational mod- each other, results of motorcyclist’s CJA reported by various els to represent the biomechanical properties of human body [76]. researchers differ by about 10-degree (Table 4). The complexity of these methods is higher than proactive posture Databases of ROM as well as comfort joint angle are not avail- prediction using CAD/DHM software [77]. The proactive posture able for many countries. Thus, adoption of such databases from prediction is commonly used in motor vehicle studies [76–80]. one country might not be applicable for design and development The proactive approach is cost-effective and carried out to predict of motorcycles for another country. Moreover, there are missing posture before developing physical mockups or prototypes [81]. Its data against various DOF in many of the databases. Hence, there basic pre-requisites are CAD models of human, CAD model of vehi- is an urgent need of developing country-specific databases for cle and interfacing them following various references points [73]. ROM and comfort joint angle that could be utilized for defining The reference points of motor vehicle are hip joint point (H- point), appropriate representative manikin for motorcyclist for a particu- accelerator heel point (AHP), seat reference point (SRP), neutral lar country. This manikin will help in proactive evaluation of seat reference point (NSRP) and seating reference point (SgRP) motorcyclist’s posture to estimate the level of comfort/discomfort. [82]. These reference points are commonly used in proactive design and ergonomics evaluation of passenger car [83,84]. Robert- 3.3.2. Comfort/discomfort studies using posture evaluation tools and son (1987) [22] conducted the research on motorcyclist’s posture questionnaires and he asked the participants to seat on the motorcycle following In general, OWAS, RULA, REBA, QEC, Workplace Ergonomic Risk seat reference point (SRP). Assessment (WERA) and simple model for comprehensive evalua- Very limited number of researches has been reported pertaining tion of risks of musculoskeletal disorders (MODSI) are the most fre- to proactive posture evaluation of motorcyclists in CAD environ- quently used postural evaluation tools in academics and industry. ment. There is also rare information available regarding the selec- The assumptions and limitations are different from each other. Few tion of reference point for positioning digital manikin of earlier studies [20,98–100] related to posture evaluation of vehicle motorcyclist on CAD model of motorcycle. Thus, there is strong driver/motorcycle rider have used QEC, RULA, REBA and WERA as requirement of establishing proper research methodology by posture evaluation tools. These studies did not explain the reason defining an appropriate reference point for posture prediction of for considering the specific tool for that study. The posture evalu- the riders in CAD software. ation tools quite commonly consider the flexion/extension of major human body segments. However, other degree of freedom 3.3. Posture analysis e.g. the adduction/abduction of thigh/arm which is very crucial for defining motorcyclist’s posture [101,102] are not considered The purpose of posture analysis is to assess the level of in these tools during posture evaluation. Thus, the effectiveness comfort/discomfort of the motorcyclists and recommend design of these tools in motorcyclist posture evaluation is questionable. interventions enhance comfort during riding. The analysis may Competency level of postural assessment tools can be evaluated be performed using DHM in virtual environment, subjective based on six major factors [94]. These factors include (1) vibration assessment using questionnaire and objective evaluation using effect, (2) lower limb/upper limb joint angles (3) riding duration equipment/assessment tools. The postural distress can be evalu- (4) repetition of handlebar operations (5) coupling level of inter- ated using various equipment e.g. electromyography (EMG), heart face components and (6) contact stress. Comparative analysis of rate monitor, goniometer etc [85]. and postural evaluation tools various tools used for automotive posture evaluation has been pre- such as Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA), Rapid Entire Body sented in Table 5. The factor, which is present in a particular tool, Assessment (RABE), Ovako Working posture Assessment System has been indicated with ‘+’ signs whereas ‘À’ sign indicates the (OWAS), stain index, Quick Exposure Checklist (QEC) and so on. absence of any factor. Based on the normalized number (expressed as percentage) of constituent factors, present posture evaluation 3.3.1. Comfort/discomfort analyses using DHM tools have been ranked as mentioned in Table 6. The MODSI and In DHM software platforms, posture analysis can be performed WERA tools are considered as most comprehensive among the by defining comfort range of joint angles within the total range of tools under study. However, none of the postural evaluation tools motion (ROM). Some of the DHM software (e.g. Jack) consist of achieved 100% comprehensiveness. default comfort ROM values which are usually used in industrial Following the literature review, it is observed that researchers applications [86]. Researchers are consistently pursuing DHM used customized closed-ended type questionnaire for motorcy- based researches towards improving automobile design and ensur- clist’s discomfort/comfort studies. It contains Borg’s scale ing more comfortable driving postures [87,88]. Postural comfort [103,104] RGB pain scale, Likert ratings scale of 5 or 7 points differs from posture to posture [89,90]. [19,103,105,106]. Comfort and discomfort are two opposing issues As there is no ROM database specifically for motorcyclist popu- which should be measured with Likert higher rating of 11 for an lation, ROM database of general population is commonly consulted efficient measurement [107]. Other than these measuring scales, for motorcyclist posture evaluation. Few available ROM databases ranking system for discomfort/comfort and visual discomfort scale have been presented in Table 3 [14,91–93] along with selective are frequently used in pain assessments [108]. Not all these inter- degree of freedom (DOF). val scales are effective to measure the discomfort and comfort. The Since motorcycling is an activity with seating posture, the ROM questionnaire which comprises free modulus measure method of data of ideal seating posture can be adapted for evaluation of the measurement system is efficient enough and reduces the motorcyclist’s posture [94]. Although there are differences in biases of interval scale system [91]. ROM for different body joints between male and female but the However, the researchers specifically for evaluation of automo- differences are not significant [93]. tive posture have also formulated few standard questionnaires. M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399 395

Table 3 Comparison of ROM available from different resources.

Chengalur et al. Kee and karwowski Chakrabarti Koley and Sodhi (2003) [92] (2016) [91] (1996) [14] (2014) [93] S.No Joints/Body segments Common Possible Possible DOF in USA military 1956 USA Students India mixed occupation India DOF in sitting motorcycling (Age: 18–40) (Age: 20–28) (Age: 20–40) (Age: 26–54) 1 Neck Flexion Flexion 45 70 45 – Extension Extension 45 95 30 – Rotation Rotation 60 72 55 – Lateral Bending Lateral Bending 45 55 40 – 2 Lower back/Trunk FlexionExtension FlexionExtension 80 20–30 94- 40 10 – (Lumber + Thoracic) Rotation Rotation 45 69 – – Lateral Bending Lateral bending 35 34 40 – 3 Upper Arm/shoulder Forward Flexion Forward Flexion 180 194 180 – Backward Extension Backward Extension 60 72 45 – Horizontal Flexion Horizontal Flexion 130 116 135 – Horizontal Extension Horizontal Extension 50 32 – – Adduction Adduction 75 44 – – Abduction Abduction 180 132 – – 4 Elbow/Forearm Flexion to Extension Flexion to Extension 150 145 145 – Supination Pronation 80 87 90 – Pronation Supination 80 119 90 – 5 Wrist/hand Flexion Flexion 80 72 80 – Extension Extension 70 65 65 – Radial deviation Radial deviation 20 30 30 – Ulnar deviation Ulnar deviation 30 50 40 – 6 Hip/Thigh Flexion Flexion 120 45 70 115 Extension – 30 – 20 17 Abduction Abduction 45 76 – 35 Abduction Abduction 30 – 16 Internal rotation – 45 – 40 25 External rotation – 45 – 45 17 7 Leg/knee Flexion Flexion 135 – 90 76 Extension – – – 45 – Medial Rotation Medial Rotation – – 50 – Lateral Rotation Lateral Rotation – – 20 – 8 Ankle/foot Dorsiflexion Dorsiflexion 20 36 40 – Plantar flexion Plantar flexion 50 37 45 – Adduction – – – – – Abduction – – – – – Inversion – 35 – – – Eversion – 15 – – –

*All dimensions in the tables are in degree.

Table 4 Comparison of motorcyclist’s perceived comfort joint angles for different countries.

Barone and Curcio (2004) [95] Chou and Hsiao, (2005) [96] Lawrence, (2013) [17] Stefano Barone and giovanni Lo Iacono (2015) (n = 4) (n = 60) (n = 120) [97] Population Italy Taiwan Nigeria Italy

H1 – 159.3 159.5 –

H2 50 39.7 40 50

H3 140 140.2 139.3 128

H4 160 169.8 169.9 –

H5 110 103.4 103.8 101

H6 – 78.2 79.0 121

H7 –––93

H8 155 – – –

*All dimensions in the tables are in degree.

This type of questionnaire includes Motorcycle Rider Behavior tor is used to ﬁnd posture discomfort in terms of physiological dis- Questionnaire (MRBQ) [55], Rider Risk Assessment Measure tress and thereby altered heart rate [111]. The riding duration and (RRAM) [21] and Automotive Seating Discomfort Questionnaire rider’s heart beats per minute (bpm) are considered to determine (ASDQ) [109]. motorcyclist performance and postural comfort. As the heart rate is affected by psycho-social factors, estimation of postural com- 3.3.3. Postural comfort/discomfort studies using equipment fort/discomfort based on heart rate is sometimes mistaken [111– Apart from questionnaire studies, posture comfort level can be 113]. Thus, the heart rate monitoring is not an optimal method studied by bio-signal based equipment like electromyography to be used in postural comfort studies. Wan Fauzi et al. (2015) (EMG) and heart rate (HR) monitor [86,110]. The heart rate moni- [114] suggested that EMG should be used in addition to HR. 396 M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399

Table 5 Comparison of various posture evaluation tools based on the inclusion of different constituent factors.

Factors Tools OWAS RULA REBA MODSI QEC WERA Vibration – – – + + + Human body joint angles Wrist – + + + + + Lower Arm + + + + + – Upper Arm + + + + + + Trunk + + + + + + Neck – + + + + + Tight + + + + – + Leg + + + + – + Foot – – – – – – Duration – – – – + + Repetition – + + + + + Coupling – – + + – – Contact stress – – – – + + Normalized number of factors present (%) 38 62 69 77 69 77

The EMG is used to ﬁnd postural comfort based on the performance of motorcyclist’s skeleton muscles. EMG based study is more comprehensive and effective than heart rate studies. Differ- ent researchers have evaluated motorcyclist’s postural comfort in terms of electro-myographic activity of various muscles [6,7,115– 118]. The variables and muscles considered in such studies were more or less the same. The variables considered for these studies include mean power frequency (MPF), RMS amplitude, median frequency (MF) and maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Muscle groups mentioned were upper trapezius, triceps brachii, erector spinae, latissimus dorsi, extensor, carpi radialis, sternocleidomas- toid, gastrocnemius and biceps femoris.

4. Conclusion

The current paper elucidates a comprehensive literature review on motorcyclist’s posture and various posture evaluation techniques. This paper also discusses all possible influencing factors, which directly or indirectly affect the rider’s posture and thereby postural comfort/discomfort. Based on available literature, authors have tried to demonstrate the impact of various human factors (physical characteristics, riding experience, duration of riding, cognitive load etc. of the rider), design characteristics of motorcycle (dimension and location of interface components, motorcycle age, suspension systems, type of tyres, aerodynamic form etc.), and environmental variables (road, weather and traffic conditions) on rider’s perceived comfort. Available information related to motorcyclist’s posture has been presented under the three sub- heading entitled as (a) Rider’s adopted posture and various influencing factors (b) Posture prediction of the motorcyclist and (c) Fig. 1. Joint angles studied by the researchers during posture evaluation of Posture evaluation. motorcyclists. Identified influencing factors on motorcyclist posture have been broadly categorized as primary and secondary factors based on

Table 6 Ranking of posture evaluation tools used for automotive posture evaluation.

Tool Name Inventor Rank MODSI – Simple model for comprehensive evaluation of risks of musculoskeletal disorders [119] Manero Alfert (2011) 1 WERA – Workplace Ergonomic Risk Assessment [120] Rahman et al. (2011) 1 QEC – Quick Exposure Checklist [121] David et al. (2008) 2 REBA – Rapid Entire Body Assessment [122] Hignett and Mcatamney (2000) 2 RULA – Rapid Upper Limb Assessment) [123] Mcatamney and Corlett (1993) 3 OWAS – Ovako Working Posture Analyzing system [124] Karhu et al. (1977) 4 M. Arunachalam et al. / Measurement 134 (2019) 390–399 397 their degree of association with the adopted riding posture [15] B.V. Shamasundara, M.S. Ogale, Ergonomic study on Indian driving (Table 2). It is evident from the literature that very limited population (No. 990021), SAE Technical Paper (1999). [16] D. Kulkarni, S. Ranjan, V. Chitodkar, V. Gurjar, C.V. Ghaisas, A.V. Mannikar, researches have been carried out towards proactive posture evalu- SIZE INDIA-anthropometric size measurement of Indian driving population ation of motorcyclists in CAD environment. Current paper has (No. 2011-26-0108), SAE Technical Paper (2011). highlighted various research gaps pertaining to user-centered [17] I. Lawrence, ‘Ergonomic design of Motor Motorcycles in Nigeria’, 1 (November), (2013) pp. 313–339. design of motorcycles. Due ergonomic considerations are needed [18] John D. Lloyd, Biomechanics of solo motorcycle accidents, J. Forensic to be taken care of from the very beginning of motorcycle design Biomech. 7 (1) (2016) 1–6, https://doi.org/10.4172/2090-2697.1000125. and development to ensure better riding posture. Country/region [19] K. Karmegam, S.M. Sapuan, M.Y. Ismail, N. Ismail, M.T.S. Bahri, P. Seetha, Motorcyclist’s riding discomfort in Malaysia: Comparison of BMI, riding specific anthropometric databases, ROM databases and CJA data- experience, riding duration and riding posture, Human Factors and bases for motorbike riders are still lacking for most of the coun- Ergonomics In Manufacturing 23 (4) (2013) 267–278, https://doi.org/ tries. This hinders proactive design of motorcycles targeting the 10.1002/hfm.20317. [20] M.I.N. Ma’arof, I.N. Ahmad, N.R. Abdullah, S.A. Karim, Motorcycling riding intended user population. Thus, future research scope in the issues : understanding the phenomenon and development of ergonomics domain of motorcyclist’s posture prediction and evaluation include intervention in improving perceived comfort for prolonged riding, Int. Conf. development of such human factors databases. Moreover, there is Des. Concurr. Eng. (October) (2012) 15–16. also lack of standardized methodology for positioning rider mani- [21] T. Özkan, T. Lajunen, B. Dogruyol, Z. 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Noble, ‘MotorcycleSim’: an evaluation of rider interaction with an postural comfort/discomfort, electromyography study has been innovative motorcycle simulator, Comput. J. 54 (7) (2011) 1010–1025. found as the most reliable one due to its independence on psy- [26] S.P. Velagapudi, G.G. Ray, ‘Reliability and Validity of Seat Interface Pressure to chosocial factors. Quantify Seating Comfort in Motorcycles’, (August 2015b) pp. 1–8. [27] U.K.M. Shafieia, K. Karuppiaha, S.B. Mohd, G.Y.M. Tamrina, I. Rasdia, A.N. It is expected that the current systematic review would help Aliasa, The effectiveness of new model of motorcycle seat with built-in researchers/automobile designers or engineers to get an insight lumbar support, Jurnal Teknologi 77 (27) (2015) 97–103. of state of the art knowledge associated with motorcycle riding [28] M. Koyano, T. Kimishima, K. 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