ANTE PORTAS

ANTE PORTAS Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem

Inicjatywy integracyjne i koncepcje zbiorowego bezpieczeństwa w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej w XX-XXI wieku

ISSN 2353 – 6306 grudzień 2019

NR 2(13)

Rada Naukowa (Academic Council): Pierre ASSELIN, PhD, Prof. Tit. (San Diego State University, USA), Christian BARNA, PhD (Academia Naţională de Informaţii “Mihai Viteazul”, Romania), Carsten Sander CHRISTENSEN, PhD (), Seda DEMIRALP, PhD, Assoc. Prof. (Işık Üniversitesi, Turkey), Sheriff FOLARIN, PhD, Assoc. Prof. (Covenant University, Nigeria), Vojtech JURČÁK, PhD, DSc, Prof. Tit. (Akadémia ozbrojených síl generála Milana Rastislava Štefánika, Slovakia), Joseph Jon KAMINSKI, PhD, Assoc. Prof. (International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Juriy MAKAR, PhD, DSc, Prof. Tit. (Czerniowiecki Uniwersytet Narodowy im. Jurija Fedkowycza, Ukraine), Theo NEETHLING, PhD, Prof. Tit. (University of the Free State, RSA), Artur PATEK, PhD, DSc, Prof. Tit. (Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Poland), Vasile SIMILEANU, PhD, Assoc. Prof. (Asociatia de Geopolitica “Ion Conea”, Romania), Józef SMOLIŃSKI, PhD, DSc, Prof. Tit. (Uniwersytet Jana Kochanowskiego, Poland), Romuald SZEREMIETIEW, PhD, DSc, Assoc. Prof. (Akademia Sztuki Wojennej, Poland), Andrei ZNAMENSKI, PhD, Assoc. Prof., (University of Memphis, USA) Zespół redakcyjny (Editorial Board): Editor-in-Chief: Jakub Żak, PhD, Associate Editor-in-Chief, Technical Editor: Paweł GOTOWIECKI, PhD, Managing Editor: Natalia TOMASZEWSKA, MA, Members: Przemysław FURGACZ, PhD, Przemysław ŁUKASIK, PhD, Beata BELICA, MA, Olga JASTRZĘBSKA, MA, Aleksandra CIESLAR, MA, Statistic Editor: Karolina BORKOWICZ, MA, Linguistic Editors: Barbara BAKALARZ- KOWALSKA, MA, Melissa JENNINGS, MA, Thematic Editors: M. Kubilay AKMAN (Sociology), Marian CICHOŃ, MA (Security), Anna DOLIWA- KLEPACKA, PhD, DSc (Law), Janusz FALECKI, PhD (Defence), Isabela de Andrade GAMA, MA (Politology), Łukasz KARAŚ, PhD (Law), Wojciech ŁYSEK, PhD (Politology), Mieszko OZIĘBŁOWSKI, MA (Security), Adam PĄZIK, PhD (Law), Leszek SYKULSKI, PhD (Politology), Wioletta TOKARSKA-OŁOWNIA, PhD (Economy), Anatol WOJTAN, PhD, BEng (Defence), Vadym ZHELTOVSKYY, PhD (Politology) Recenzenci numeru (Reviewers for the Issue): Eka Beraia, PhD (external reviewer), Tomasz GAJEWSKI, PhD, (external reviewer); Craisor C. IONITA, PhD (external reviewer), Artur PATEK, PhD, DSc Prof. Tit. (external reviewer), Leszek SYKULSKI, PhD, Sergii SLUKHAI, PhD, DSc Prof. Tit. (external reviewer), Andrei ZNAMEMSKY, PhD, Prof. Tit. (external reviewer).

Kontakt z redakcją: email: [email protected]

CZASOPISMO RECENZOWANE Strona internetowa: www.anteportas.pl

ISSN 2353-6306

© Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu i Przedsiębiorczości w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim, Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski 2019

Wersją pierwotną czasopisma jest wersja elektroniczna. Czasopismo ukazuje się jako półrocznik

Czasopismo jest indeksowane w: Index Copernicus, ERIH Plus, Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, BazHum oraz Polskiej Bibliografii Naukowej

Projekt okładki: Mateusz Lomber Redakcja techniczna, korekta i adiustacja: Zespół

Wydawca:

Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu i Przedsiębiorczości w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim ul. Akademicka 12, 27-400 Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski tel. 041 260-40-41, email: [email protected] / [email protected]

Spis treści (Table of contents):

Od Redakcji (Editor’s Note)...... 9

I. Artykuły (Articles)

Paweł Gotowiecki The Intermarium paradox ...... 13

Marcin Miszczuk The Little Entente – expectations and outcomes ...... 21

Adam Kuź Integration processes in Central and Eastern in the 20th and 21st centuries ...... 37

Wiktor Możgin The Three Seas Initiative – an aspect of contemporary geopolitical competition for dominance in Europe ...... 45

Vakhtang Maisaia, Salome Kareli ‘Three Seas’ area pan-regional security provisions and its geopolitical conse- quences – security dilemma vs. security deadlock ...... 63

Aleksander Czichos Idea Trójmorza a stosunki polsko-litewskie ...... 79

Vadim Volovoj Is Lithuania ready for an unpredictable future?: the EU and NATO cases ...... 95

Leonid Gusev Political and economic interests of Germany in the countries of the Central and Eastern Europe ...... 101

Olga Jastrzębska Pro-Western policy of the new Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky as threat for possible Russian concept of Ukraine federalization ...... 107

Thornike Zedelashvili Geopolitical contours of modern information warfare Russian-US confrontation line from Baltic Sea to Black Sea ...... 119

Alika Guchua Cancellation of the Treaty of 1987 on the Eradication of Intermediate and Shorter-range Missiles and its impact on pan-regional security in aegis of ‘Three Seas’ area (Baltic-Adriatic-Blac Sea space) ...... 133

Khatuna Chapichadze The South Caucasian Union – challenging geopolitical concept revisited ...... 147

II. Analizy (Analyses)

Krzysztof Surdyk Intermarium jako koncepcja działań hybrydowych. Wczoraj i dziś ...... 157

III. Recenzje (Reviews)

Souad Mekhennet, Powiedzieli, żebym przyszła sama: za linią dżihadu, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 2019, ss. 580 (recenzent: Przemysław Furgacz) ...... 181

Anna Bałdyga, Znaczenie eksportu gazu ziemnego w polityce gospodarczej Federacji Rosyjskiej, Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Biznesu i Przedsię- biorczości w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim, Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski 2019, ss. 280 (recenzent: Wiktor Możgin) ...... 187

IV. Katedra Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego WSBiP w Ostrowcu Święto- krzyskim (Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski College’s Department of the National Security)

Department of National Security in the Academic Year 2019/2020 ...... 193

Dla Autorów (for Authors) ...... 195

Dla Recenzentów (For Reviewers)...... 196 S t r o n a | 9

OD REDAKCJI

Miło nam udostępnić Państwu kolejny numer czasopisma naukowego „Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”. Najnowsze wydanie poświęcone jest niezwykle aktualnemu tematowi, jakim są koncepcje współpracy środkowo-europejskiej w ramach Trójmorza. Europa Środkowo-Wschodnia od wieków była newralgicznym obszarem ścierania się wielkich koncepcji geopolitycznych oraz rywalizacji bloków militarno-politycznych. W XX w. było to współzawodnictwo Rosji/ZSRR i Niemiec, następnie zaś – w dobie „zimnej wojny” – bloków wschodniego i zachodniego. Dziś, po okresie redefinicji starych teorii i doktryn, Europa Środkowo-Wschodnia ponownie jest obszarem rywalizacji struktur euroatlantyckich oraz rosyjskiego ośrodka siły. Jednocześnie, przez ostatnie 100 lat, powstawały kolejne inicjatywy integracyjne mające na celu upodmiotowienie państw regionu. Czerpały one z intelektualnego dziedzictwa wielkich historycznych koncepcji, takich jak idea jagiellońska, zaś materializowały się w postaci regionalnych sojuszów oraz zrzeszeń o charakterze militarnym i polityczno-gospodarczym. Historia XX wieku pokazała, że ani koncepcje federacyjne czy konfederacyjne ani próby budowania konkurencyjnych bloków militarnych nie wytrzymały próby czasu i nie były w stanie przekształcić się w efektywny system zbiorowego bezpieczeństwa w tej części kontynentu, natomiast zakończenie „zimnej wojny” spowodowało rozpoczęcie procesów integracji większości państw regionu ze strukturami UE i NATO. Pomimo to przywódcy krajów między Bałtykiem, Adriatykiem a Morzem Czarnym nie rezygnują z kolejnych subregionalnych inicjatyw integracyjnych, mających na celu wzmocnienie potencjału tego obszaru w relacjach międzynarodowych – najnowszą tego typu inicjatywą jest Trójmorze. Publikowane w numerze artykuły dotyczą zarówno historycznych koncepcji współpracy w trójkącie mórz Bałtyckiego, Czarnego i Adriatyku, jak i aktualnych działań podejmowanych przez rządy zainteresowanych państw. Wprowadzeniem do tematu są teksty dotyczące m.in. roli ośrodków siły w budowaniu, często „przymusowych” bloków europejskich (Paweł Gotowiecki) oraz Małej Ententy i związanych z nią oczekiwań (Marcin Miszczuk). Wiele uwagi poświęcono stosunkom polsko-litewskim (Aleksander Czichos, Vadim Volovoj), procesom integracyjnym w obszarze Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej (Wiktor Możgin, Adam Kuź) oraz problematyce wybranych państw europejskich (Leonid Gusev, Olga Jastrzębska). Skupiono również uwagę na wyzwaniach i zagrożeniach obecnych w obszarze Morza Czarnego i ich wpływu na bezpieczeństwo europejskie (Thornike Zedelashvili, Alika Guchua, Vakhtang Maisaia, Salome Kareli, Khatuna Chapichadze). Znakomitym uzupełnieniem tej tematyki jest analiza autorstwa Krzysztofa 10 | S t r o n a

Surdyka dotycząca wykorzystania koncepcji Międzymorza do działań hybrydowych. Mamy nadzieję, że zaprezentowane artykuły przybliżą Państwu skomplikowaną tematykę współpracy środkowo-europejskiej. Z nowym, 2020 rokiem czasopismo „Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem” zmieni formułę wydawniczą skupiając się na publikacji tekstów wyłącznie w języku angielskim. Zdajemy sobie sprawę, że ważkość podejmowanej na łamach czasopisma tematyki wymaga możliwie szerokiego odbioru i wymiany spostrzeżeń nie tylko w Polsce, ale w jak najszerszym międzynarodowym środowisku naukowym. Życzymy przyjemnej lektury!

Zespół redakcyjny „Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

S t r o n a | 11

EDITOR’S NOTE

We are pleased to share the newest issue of the scientific journal “Ante Portas - Security Studies”. The latest edition concerns a very current topic, which are the concepts of Central European cooperation within the Three Seas Initiative. Central and Eastern Europe is a sensitive area of clashing great geopolitical concepts and the rivalry of military-political blocs. In the 20th century the above mentioned area was dominated by the competition between Russia/the USSR and Germany, later in time of “”, by eastern and western blocs. Presently, after a redefinition of old theories and doctrines, Central and Eastern Europe again became an area of rivalry between the Euro-Atlantic structures and the Russian power. At the same time, through over the last 100 years, we can observe the emergence of integration initiatives aimed at empowering the countries of the region. They base on intellectual heritage of great historical concepts, such as the Jagiellonian idea and they materialized in the form of regional military and political-economic alliances and associations. The history of the 20th century showed that neither federation nor confederation concepts, nor attempts to build opposing military blocks withstand the passage of time and were not able to transform into an effective system of collective security in this part of the continent. However the majority of the countries in the region embarked on the integration process of the EU and NATO initiated after the end of the “Cold War”. Nevertheless, the leaders of the countries between the Baltic, Adriatic and Black Sea did not abandon further sub-regional integration initiatives aimed at strengthening the potential of this area in international relations – the most recent initiative of this type is the Three Seas Initiative. The articles published in the issue concern both historical concepts of cooperation in the triangle of the Baltic, Black, and Adriatic seas, as well as current actions taken by the governments of the European countries. The introduction to the topic is texts on, among others, the role of power centers in the creation of European blocs (Paweł Gotowiecki) and Little Entente and expectations connected with it (Marcin Miszczuk). Much emphasis was put on the Polish-Lithuanian relations (Aleksander Czichos, Vadim Volovoj), integration processes in Central and Eastern Europe (Wiktor Możgin, Adam Kuź) and problems of selected European countries (Leonid Gusev, Olga Jastrzębska). Attention was also focused on the challenges and threats present in the Black Sea area and their impact on European security (Thornike Zedelashvili, Alika Guchua, Vakhtang Maisaia, Salome Kareli, Khatuna Chapichadze). An excellent supplement to this topic is the analysis wrote by Krzysztof Surdyk regarding the use of the concept of Intermarium for hybrid-war activities. 12 | S t r o n a

We hope that the presented articles will introduce you to the complex topics of Central European cooperation. With the new year 2020, the journal “Ante Portas – Security Studies” will change the journal’s formula and will publish texts only in English. We are aware that the importance of the subjects published in the journal requires the widest possible reception and exchange of views not only in Poland but in the international scientific community. We wish you pleasant reading!

Editorial Board “Ante Portas – Security Studies”

S t r o n a | 13

I. ARTYKUŁY (ARTICLES)

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem” 2019, Nr 2(13) DOI: 10.33674/20191

Paweł GOTOWIECKI1 Poland

THE INTERMARIUM PARADOX

Abstract: The paper concerns the concept of Intermarium from a historical perspective, seen from the Polish point of view. The author presents the genesis of this concept, its historical premises, unsuccessful attempts to build a collective safety system in Central and Eastern Europe in the 20th century, and finally reflects on the chance of contemporary integration initiatives in the area between the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea. In his speech, the author focuses on the title Intermarium paradox, indicating that in the twentieth century integration attempts had no chance of success, because none of the countries in this part of the continent was a sufficient centre of power – while the unification of Central and Eastern Europe was undertaken by external centres of power, on by the coercion principles.

Keywords: Intermarium, Central and Eastern Europe, Józef Piłsudski, Jagiellonian idea

Introduction

I will begin this essay with a short historical anecdote. After the Second World War, there was a fierce debate among the Polish political emigration in the United Kingdom on the vision of post-war Europe after the liquidation of the Soviet empire. Among the various concepts, the Intermarium concept was relatively popular. In 1948, in one of the discussions in the émigré press, Polish émigré journalist and conservative politician Stanisław Cat-Mackiewicz

1 Paweł Gotowiecki, PhD, historian, Rector of the College of Business and Entrepreneurship in Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski. Email: [email protected] 14 | S t r o n a admitted that Intermarium is a very beautiful and noble idea worthy of popularization. But the problem with this idea is that it is currently being implemented by Joseph Stalin2. Let's take a closer look at this amazing conclusion. Historically, the Intermarium doctrine takes into account the vision of building an alliance of Central and Eastern European countries, symbolically located between the Baltic, Black and Adriatic seas, which are intended to create a regional security system, constituting an effective barrier against an external powers (by the way, one of researchers who introduced the concept of Central and Eastern Europe to scientific discussion, was a Polish medievalist Oskar Halecki)3. In the 20th century, despite attempts made, such an alliance was not successfully built. On the other hand, there was a real, though temporary unification of this geographical and political region made three times – the first one was the German concept of ‘Mittleeuropa’ during the Great War; the second one – a partial vassalisation, and the partial conquest of Central and Eastern European countries by the Third Reich, the third one – the sovietization of Central European countries after the Second World War as a part of the . In each case, domination over the region was achieved through an external power centres – German or Russian. So, are we not facing a historical paradox? To implement the concept of Central , there was needed a centre of power able enough to bring together smaller state entities. Because in the 20th century in the Intermarium area there was simply no such power centre, only the external power centres conducting policy of a superpower nature were able to unify this part of the continent – by the method of conquest.

So where do the dreams about Intermarium come from?

From the Polish perspective, the natural reference to all federal concepts in Central and Eastern Europe was the so-called Jagiellonian idea. In the Middle Ages, under the scepter of the Jagiellonian dynasty, it was possible to implement the geopolitical concept, which many historians compared to the Carolingian universum or the concept of Otto III. Thanks to the personal union, and then the real union between the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it was possible to create a state organism that became a real center of power, a late-medieval superpower capable of expanding north, east and south. The area of influence of the Jagiellonian monarchy included: Poland, the vast territory of Lithuania at that time, including the lands of today's Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine, while the political influence of this state organism

2 S. Mackiewicz, Dywagacje prasowe, „Lwów i Wilno”, 18.01.1948, No. 56, p. 1. 3 See more: O. Halecki, The Borderlands of Western Civilization. A History of East Central Europe, New York 1952; Idem, The Limits and Divisions of European History, Notre Dame 1962. S t r o n a | 15 additionally extended to the principalities of Moldova and Wallachia, and therefore today's Romania. The Polish-Lithuanian state was located between the Baltic and Black seas, and took into account the Jagiellonian dynastic offensive – it extended its influence to the south, towards the Czech and Hungary, to the Adriatic coast. At the same time, taking into account the organizational formula of the Polish-Lithuanian state, it was an ideal model for later federal concepts, as it was an example of a voluntary union of two independent states. The Polish-Lithuanian experiment, however, consisted not only of the brilliant political strategy of the Jagiellonian monarchs. After all, the civilizational development of medieval Poland, not to mention the historical development of Lithuania, which can safely be called one of the youngest European nations, did not promise a rapid transition from the phase of building the foundations of statehood to the phase of the empire. After all, the Jagiellonian dynasty managed to do what the Premyslid dynasty in the Czech failed to do – to create a state much more durable than the life of its creators. It was possible due to the fact, that at the end of the fourteenth century the area that we call Central and Eastern Europe was a kind of geopolitical void, there was no competitive center of power that would be able to dominate the area between the Smolensk Gate and the Moravian Gate, or the power which would be able to interfere the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian monarchy to dominate the region. Certainly it was not Germany, which was in the age of defragmentation, it was not Ruthenia – which had just liberated itself from Tatar rule, it was not the Teutonic Order – which was a well-organized state organism, but due to the nature of its statehood it was deprived of the possibility of becoming a power, it was not Hungary – entering the era of finally losing rivalry with Turkey for dominance in the Balkans. Not only space but also time played its role. 50 years earlier, a Polish-Lithuanian union would not be possible due to the lack of internal cohesion of Poland. 50 years later, Lithuania would probably be in the orbit of Moscow's influence and Orthodoxy, and the history of this part of the continent would have been completely different. The Alliance of Poland and Lithuania was born in the only possible time. The geopolitical prosperity I wrote about did not last long and the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth was influenced by external powers, which eventually led to the partition and collapse of statehood at the end of the 18th century – although this phenomenon had both external and internal causes. It was an event of great importance for the geopolitical system in Central and Eastern Europe – it was no coincidence that Edmund Burke wrote that the partitions of Poland were a shock to the European system based on the balance of power4. It should be noted, however, that this balance of power was again achieved with the end of the Napoleonic era, and the Congress of Vienna in

4 E. Burke, The History of Europe, „The Annual Register for the Year 1772”, 1773, p. 2. 16 | S t r o n a

1815 stabilized the limits of the influence of the great powers – Russia, Prussia and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in Central and Eastern Europe. This stabilization resulted from the balance of power, but also from a partially community of common interests in maintaining the geopolitical status quo. The end of the Great War, the defeat of Germany, the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy, and the revolution in Russia drastically changed the political map of Central and Eastern Europe. Historical countries – such as the Czech and Poland – have returned on to the arena of history, and new countries have emerged. After stabilizing the borders, a discussion emerged on the creation of a security system that would unite the countries of Central and Eastern Europe against external powers seeking to revise the borders set by the Versailles Treaty. In this way, the concept of Intermarium was created in Polish political thought, referring in the sphere of ideas to the tradition of the Jagiellonian dynasty policy, focused on seeking allies against revisionist tendencies from the West and East – from Germany and Russia, and then from the . In its most mature form, it adopted the name of the ‘Third Europe’ project, developed by the Polish Foreign Minister Józef Beck in the second half of the 1930s5.

But did such a concept have any chance of success?

I think that the answer to this question is definitely negative, for at least three basic reasons. First of all, the concept of collective interest of the Intermarium area countries in relation to the interwar period is a false, ahistorical one. From today's point of view, it is easy to state that the course of events between 1918 and 1945 was, in principle, unfavourable to all, without exception, medium and small players on the political map of Central and Eastern Europe. But this is a post factum statement that in any way reflects the diagnosis of the political situation formulated at that time. It should be noted that Versailles Europe, including Central and Eastern Europe, was characterized by a strong division into winners and defeated, which caused different countries to formulate the strategic goals of their policy in a different way. A classic example of this was the Little Entente, an agreement signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia, originally directed against Hungary and the possibilities of restoring the Habsburg dynasty. In this way, Polish policy faced an unsolvable dilemma – the interests of the two Central European countries most favourable to Poland, namely Romania and Hungary, were contradictory, and their antagonism was a much greater determinant of their foreign policy than seeking alliances against other European countries. A similar problem occurred in the case of possible Polish-Yugoslav cooperation – although it was possible

5 See more: M. Kornat, The Polish Idea of ‘The Third Europe’ (1937–1938): A Realistic Concept or an Ex-post Vision?, „Acta Poloniae Historica” 2011, vol. 103, pp. 101-126. S t r o n a | 17 de facto only within a larger political and military bloc (although Yugoslavia had largely foreign policy priorities other than Poland – primarily neutralization of Italian danger – this certain rapprochement between the two countries took place in the era of the office of Prime Minister of Yugoslavia by Milan Stojadinovic in 1935-1939)6. An even greater challenge for Polish policy was (caused by border conflicts) aversion (or even hostility) of countries such as Lithuania or Czechoslovakia. The freezing of relations with Kaunas hindered the construction of some military-political bloc with the Baltic States and , while the mostly bad relations with Czechoslovakia basically paralyzed the effectiveness of Polish foreign policy in the Balkans. Both of these countries did not intend to build any alliances with Poland, because in Poland itself they saw a threat to their international interests or even territorial integrity. For most of the interwar period, Czechoslovakia did not treat the German issue as a real threat, but was focused on seeking agreement with the USSR. Also the Ukrainian issue and the real support that Czechoslovakia provided for the Ukrainian independence movement against Poland should be added to this complex matter. While, political relations with Lithuania improved scarcely 1938, in the face of the increasingly unstable political situation in this part of the continent. Balkanization, conflicts of interest and mutual conflicts of Central and Eastern European countries basically prevented their mutual agreement. To this should be added autarchy and a lack of deeper understanding for deepening economic unification. This meant that, for example, Little Entente did not have a chance to become something more than just a diplomatic combination without major integration aspirations. And this is one of the reasons why – in my opinion – this alliance has brought more disintegration than consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe. The second factor in minus is the issue of foreign policy priorities. Well, for the Polish diplomacy, the construction of the Intermarium was not to be an alternative to the Versailles-Riga system, based on alliances and guarantees with the former Entente countries, but it was to complement it. Unfortunately, Poland's disadvantage here was a complete misunderstanding of the essence of the policy of Western countries, especially French policy. Paris was not intere- sted in either Poland replacing Russia as an ally flanking Germany or in the construction of the Intermarium block. The interwar French security system – barriere de l'Est – was based on the same principles as it was based in the 17th and 18th centuries – interventions in Poland, instrumental support of the Bar Confederation and anti-Habsburg uprisings in Hungary. The French did not need a partner in Warsaw, just as they did not need a partner in Prague or

6 See more: B. Simić, Poseta pukovnika Jozefa Beka Jugoslaviji maja 1936 [in:] Jugoslavija i Poljska u XX veku, M. Pavlović, A. Zaćmiński, P. Wawryszuk (ed.), Beograd 2017, pp. 129-142. 18 | S t r o n a

Bucharest, while these capitals played a role in the great game that France played on the political map of interwar Europe. The third factor against Intermarium, and in my opinion the most important one, was the issue of strength. I wrote in the introduction of my article that the Intermarium paradox is that in the twentieth century it was influenced by external powers, and there was no power centre in Intermarium itself, which would be able to bring together smaller state entities. Poland was certainly not such a centre of strength. French historian Louis Eisenmann wrote: “It was a misfortune of Poland that it was revived at the same time too weak to be a superpower, and too strong to be satisfied with the position of a medium state”7. These are true words. Poland had ambitions to play a real policy in the Intermarium area, but Poland lacked of strength, resources and economic potential. In the interwar period, Poland was too weak to, for example, counterbalance the strong German influence in Finland or in some Balkan countries, and this weakness prevented the implementation of effective foreign policy. Whether in the federal or confederate variant, limited to independent states or related to the idea of Prometheism – Poland was simply too weak to become a regional centre of power capable of integration activities. Even in the case of an alliance with Romania, a country with which Poland would seem to have specific political interests, Polish politics did not manage to go beyond ultimately worthless gestures. This was, among others, because Romania, especially when Nicolae Titulescu (1932-1936) was the Minister of Foreign Affairs, adhered to the doctrine that Europe is divided into large and small countries. In this division, neither Poland nor Romania were included in the great states, and Romanian security depends on its neutralization8. Such was the geopolitical reality of the 1921-1939 period. Why 1921, not 1918? I believe that the only chance for Poland to achieve the status of an European power, and thus achieve the position of strength, was the victory of the Józef Piłsudski federation concept from 1918-1920, including first of all the victory in the play for Ukraine. The situation that occurred in the Intermarium area in 1918 can be compared to the situation described in the second half of the fourteenth century, at the time of the conclusion of the Polish-Lithuanian Union. For several years, as a result of Germany's defeat and the revolution in Russia, there was a geopolitical void. If Polish politics managed to fill this void by implementing federal policy, including Warsaw, Vilnius, Riga, Minsk and Kiev, and extending its influence on Hungary and Romania, towards the Black Sea and Adriatic Sea, history could have taken a different course. At that time, there could be a repetition of the situation in which Russia would be pushed away from the Smolensk gate and removed

7 L. Eisenmann, La Question de Teschen, “La Vie des Peuples” 1920, vol. 1, p. 837. 8 C. V. Bianu, The historical Background of Russian-Romanian Relations, “Eastern Quartlerly”, 1949, Vol. 2, No 2, pp. 11-12. S t r o n a | 19 from influence on European politics, and the recovery tendencies in Germany would be effectively stopped by the strong guarantor of the Versailles system, which would become the Intermarium federation. Of course, these are only speculations, but in my opinion if we are talking about the Intermarium concept at all, then Poland's winning the Eastern issue was a conditio sine qua non of implementing this concept. This did not happen – while in the fourteenth century Krakow beat Moscow in the race to rule over Vilnius, in the early twentieth century Moscow proved to be stronger than Warsaw in the struggle for Kiev. This determined the history of this part of the continent for the next 100 years.

Conclusion

Passing from historical considerations to the present, it should be noted that the latest history of integration initiatives in the Intermarium area does not give any particular optimism. All kinds of regional pacts that were created or attempted to create were in fact of little value, while the real unification of the region was carried out under Pax Germanica, Pax Sovietica or recently Pax Americana – naturally not making equality between the first two and the third. Does this mean that the Central and Eastern European nations are doomed to be an object and not a subject of history? And are any regional integration initiatives doomed to failure? I don't think so. In 1947, the Polish émigré journal titled “Intermarium” noted: “The meaning of almost all disputes on Intermarium can be embraced and reduced to a fairly simple formula: these disputes result from the contradictions between historically justified aspirations and the current ethnic reality”9. Currently, this problem has largely – though not entirely – disap- peared. Countries in the Intermarium area can, in configurations that were unthinkable in the interwar period – such as the Visegrad Group – shape and redefine the principles of cooperation and collaboration. Despite the fact that we are still dealing with the primacy of national interest over thinking in community categories, this part of the continent is slowly being unified. Unification is taking place in the political but also in the economic field. And although there are still more questions than answers and still centrifugal factors play an important role, thinking about the integration of this part of the continent into a larger community, which is the , has shifted from the category of idealistic concepts towards a real, perhaps visionary political doctrine. 40 years ago, Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, the future Pope John Paul II, wrote about the borders of Europe: “I am convinced that the division into Western and Eastern Europe, which has been dominant for over 30 years, has, to some extent, displaced the average way of thinking and expressing the

9 Nasze spory, „Intermarium. Biuletyn”, 1947, No 7, p. 13. 20 | S t r o n a identity of Central Europe”10. Since then, a lot has changed and it is hard to doubt that the integration of the Intermarium area must take into account the common political and economic interest of the region's states, but must be based on something deeper and more stable – the acceptance and understanding of the historical identity and unity of this part of the continent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Bianu C. V., The historical Background of Russian-Romanian Relations, „Eastern Quartlerly”, 1949, Vol. 2, No 2  Burke E., The History of Europe, „The Annual Register for the Year 1772”, 1773  Eisenmann L., La Question de Teschen, „La Vie des Peuples” 1920, vol. 1  Halecki O., The Borderlands of Western Civilization. A History of East Central Europe, New York 1952  Halecki O., The Limits and Divisions of European History, Notre Dame 1962  Kornat M., The Polish Idea of ‘The Third Europe’ (1937–1938): A Realistic Concept or an Ex-post Vision?, „Acta Poloniae Historica” 2011, vol. 103  Mackiewicz S., Dywagacje prasowe, „Lwów i Wilno”, 18.01.1948, No. 56  Nasze spory, „Intermarium. Biuletyn”, 1947, No 7  Simić B., Poseta pukovnika Jozefa Beka Jugoslaviji maja 1936 [in:] Jugoslavija i Poljska u XX veku, M. Pavlović, A. Zaćmiński, P. Wawryszuk (ed.), Beograd 2017  Wojtyła K., La frontiera l’Europa:dove?, “Vita e pensiero”, 1978, No 4-6

10 K. Wojtyła, La frontiera l’Europa:dove?, “Vita e pensiero”, 1978, No 4-6, p. 162. S t r o n a | 21

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20192

Marcin MISZCZUK1 Poland

THE LITTLE ENTENTE – EXPECTATIONS AND OUTCOMES

Abstract: This article presents information concerning a European regional pact, formed during the interwar period – the Little Entente. The aim of the study is to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of an alliance between the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the history of its creation. The influence that the Little Entente made on the history of Europe is very often overlooked. Though the alliance ultimately did not survive the strong pressure of the European powers, effective organisational structures and the successes of common foreign policy were a guideline for the integration of the Central and Eastern European countries in the future. The deliberate way in which foreign policy was conducted improved significantly alliance members position on the international area. The first part of the article relates to the historical background and describes both the historical and political environment of interwar Europe as well as indicates the most important moments during the process of the creation of an alliance. The next part describes links between the Little Entente and the French government. The main part of the study refers to the successes this alliance achieved as well as to the events that contributed to the collapse of this pact. This paper contains also a part connected with the heritage of the Little Entente. The last part of an article summarises the considerations of the content.

Keywords: the Little Entente, Edvard Beneš, Hungarian revisionism, Czechoslovakia, European regional pacts,

Introduction

The creation of the Little Entente happened during the interwar period. This alliance can be appraised among other European regional pacts that were

1 Marcin Miszczuk, MA, Military Training Centre for Foreign Operations, Kielce. Email: [email protected] 22 | S t r o n a signed during that time. Besides the Little Entente, there were created also the Balkan Pact and the Baltic Entente2. Each of these alliances was located in the Central and Eastern Europe region. The foundation of each alliance was based on different backgrounds, however, some typical and common aims for this group of pacts can be specified. First of all, gaining defence abilities. Cooperation between European countries in the military field was obvious. The First World War changed the perception of military conflicts and created the direction for both: internal and foreign affairs. Namely, regional pacts were established often in order to provide mutual protection in the case of armed conflicts. Secondly, the economy was another reason for building an international alliance in interwar Europe. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire caused a massive revolution on the socio-political stage. The creation of new borders and dividing territory of the old empire as well as changes on econo- mical grounds gave a perspective for European leading powers to expand their incomes. The alliances’ main intention was to prevent the biggest European states from gaining a monopoly in this area at that time. Finally, states which were linked by alliances could achieve more on the international stage. The countries of each regional pact were forced to take up a common direction of their foreign policy with the aim of pushing through valuable ideas. Alliances which appeared as a community toward an interna- tional audience was more effective. This paper contains information about political background connected with the foundation of the Little Entente as well as indicates the main political aims of the alliance. The information that the following paper contains, also describes the real outcomes of the Little Entente and their impact on international politics. This article also discusses the heritage of this pact, pointing out to the subsequent regional alliances in Europe that were based on the models created by the Little Entente.

Historical background

The peace treaty between the Entente Powers and the Kingdom of Hungary was signed on the 4th of June 1920 in Trianon (France). This was an official end of the First World War between these countries. As result, new borders of Hungary were established and its territory reduced by 2/3’s. 25 percent of the population found themselves in neighbouring countries. Members of the Little Entente were inheritors of the Kingdom’s territory. In consequence, Hungarian revisionism was the main trend in the foreign policy

2 H. Batowski, Między dwiema wojnami 1919 – 1939. Zarys historii dyplomatycznej, Kraków 2001, p. 179. S t r o n a | 23 of Hungary after 1920. Shared perspective on Hungarian revisionism was uniting countries of the Little Entente for almost 17 years3. Budapest remained the only place in the region apart from the Soviet Union, in which the communist system was preserved. As part of the protest following the announcement of the peace agreement, the liberal government resigned. Hungarians were reluctant to think about the prospect of losing Slovakia and Transylvania. The nationalist sentiments, that were increasingly common in the Hungarian society utilized by Béla Kun, a communist leader. He led to the takeover of power by the communists, with no opposition from social democrats or military representatives. As a result, the Hungarian army launched an offensive against Slovakia. The new constitution was approved at a rapid pace and numerous references were announced. The obligation of forced labour was imposed on peasants and clergy. All branches of industry were nationalized. The Hungarian Soviet Republic did not receive the support of Soviet Russia, so the Romanian army entered Budapest and the Hungarian Soviet Republic came to the end4. The failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic was caused by categorical reforms. Communists turned intelligence and entrepreneurs against their Government. The gradual political disaster which resulted in desertions in the army was the beginning of the end for the Hungarian Soviet Republic. After- ward, Miklós Horthy came to power and headed a provisional government. Even though the monarchy was still a mandatory political system, nobody was elected. M. Horthy as a regent was in power during the interregnum time5. The European environment was an active background influencing the creation of a new alliance. What should be mentioned, some disproportions and conflicts appeared among the Allied Powers. France had to find a stable partner in Eastern Europe to fulfil both its political and economical needs. On the other hand, the United Kingdom wanted to weaken French policy in the region to the disadvantage of defeated Germany. This was a chance to establish an export of its goods to Germany and restore trade relations with Russia. Germany did not want to resign from revisionism aimed at the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, particularly Poland. Bolshevists wanted to conquer entire Europe, masking coercion and tyranny with slogans of freedom and progress presented on the international area6. The Little Entente was not an initial idea in the terms of unification of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. First references to the idea of the of Middle Europe appeared during the First World War7. In

3 Ibidem, p. 45. 4 N. Davies, Europa. Rozprawa Historyka z Historią, Kraków 1999, pp. 991-992. 5 A. Czubiński, Europa dwudziestego wieku. Zarys historii politycznej, Poznań 1997, pp. 91-92. 6 W. Roszkowski, Historia Polski 1914- 1990, Warszawa 1992, p. 40. 7 P. Wandycz, Z dziejów dyplomacji, Wrocław 1989, pp. 124. 24 | S t r o n a autumn 1918, Romanian politician, Take Ionescu presented a similar idea during his performance in Geographical Society in Paris. He supported the concept of uniting nations within the region, which would have been established after the disintegration of the Dual Monarchy. The core of his idea was a strong alliance between Romania and Serbia. Lack of communication and different foreign policy aims contributed to the failure of this concept8. Even if the idea of the Little Entente appeared much earlier, Edvard Beneš became known as the founder of this regional alliance. In 1919, Czech states- man founded a scheme of a military pact, which linked Yugoslavia, Czecho- slovakia, and Romania against the threat from vindictive Empire of Hungary9. Beneš never admitted that this alliance is intended mainly to prevent the members of the Little Entente from Hungarian aggression. He justified the creation of this pact mainly for ideological and economical reasons. Despite his efforts and proactive attitude, talks and negotiations with other allies took some time and ended with the common statement in peace treaty conferences in Saint-Germain, and Trianon10. During the entire process of forming a new alliance, E. Beneš was the most active politician, who led to the final organisational success. The signing of the Defence Convention with Yugoslavia on the 14th of August 1920 was a very important event during the whole Little Entente’s history. It guaranteed mutual help in case of an unprovoked attack from Hungary. Soon after the meeting in Belgrade, Beneš conducted talks with Romanian government, but at that point, due to indecisiveness of Romanian politicians, negotiations were postponed11. A crucial moment, that occurred in the early stage of the Little Entente’s existence happened on the 26th of March 1921. It was an attempt of restoration for the Habsburgs on the Hungarian throne. Romania and Yugoslavia officially protested in front of the Hungarian government. French officials also supported the alliance in this matter. The most aggressive attitude toward this case was presented by Czechoslovakia. Prague even considered the use of armed forces to prevent Charles I from attempting to return to the throne. As the historical facts show, this attempt was not successful, however, it strengthened the ties between the alliance states. Romania realised afterward that Hungarian threat is possible and increased its efforts to formalise the alliance by signing a paper with Czechoslovakia12. The Romanian Government reached an agreement with the First Czecho- slovak Republic decision-makers on the 23rd of April 1921, when they signed

8 A. Essen, Polska a Mała Ententa 1920 – 1934, Kraków 1992, pp. 14. 9 B. Bankowicz, M. Bankowicz, A. Dudek, Leksykon historii XX wieku, Kraków 1996, pp. 332. 10 Ibidem. 11 A. Essen, op. cit., p. 26. 12 Ibidem, pp. 54-55. S t r o n a | 25 the formal papers. On the 7th of June 1921, Yugoslavia signed an agreement with Romania. A few months later, on the 22nd of February 1922, as a result of the conference in Geneva, a significant document was signed. Its content gave the impression that there was a political conflict between the countries forming the alliance. The main problem was an unrelated activity of Beneš. He considered himself a representative of the Little Entente during talks in the capitals of Great Britain and France. The Prime minister of Romania, Ion Brătianu made it a point of honour to discredit Beneš during the conference in the European area due to his self-proclaimed decisions13. Eight years later, on the 27th of June 1930, Yugoslavia and Romania have completed formal political and economical arrangements. During the confe- rence in Štrbské Pleso, members of the alliance were debating mainly about the measures which were needed to be taken in order to improve the economic situation of the Little Entente. It was founded that trade treaties between each member need to be formalised. What are more, allies regulated the issue concerning cyclical meetings of the foreign affairs ministers14. An Organisational Pact was signed on the 16th of February 1933 in Geneva. This document became a formal and stable connection between the states. This action was taken to protect their safety from the consequences of Benito Mussolini’s plan, who wanted to redirect German territorial conquests toward Eastern European countries and the Balkans15. This document confirmed the cooperation of three states, which until then were linked only through bilateral agreements. This action was taken also in order to set the alliance’s foreign policy details in a more precise way16. The Organisational Pact created three important elements of the organisational structure: The Permanent Council, The Secretariat of the Permanent Council and The Economic Council of the Little Entente17. The most important result of the creation of those instruments was the unification of obligations, which united Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia with other countries as well as the extension of the validity of the alliance conventions18. An expression – the Little Entente was used for the first time in Hungarian newspaper, Pesti Hírlap as a result of the first public appearance of those three allied countries in front of the Supreme Council of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers on the 25th of February 1920. This name was created in

13 Ibidem, pp. 79-80. 14 Ibidem, p. 228. 15 H. Batowski, op. cit., p. 179. 16 Ibidem, pp. 211. 17 Pact of Organisation of the Little Entente. Signed at Geneva, February 16, 1933, Mfa.gov.rs, 5.10.2009, (31.12.2019). 18 A. Essen, op. cit., pp. 267-268. 26 | S t r o n a intention to underline the weakness of the new European pact, compared with powerful members of the Triple Entente. Even if this term had an unfavourable meaning, it was shortly established in official diplomatic language19.

French influence

French diplomacy wanted to strike while the iron is hot. First and foremost, they wanted to keep and secure the territorial states that arose after the peace treaty in Versailles. Opinions about French influence on the Little Entente are still divided. France wanted to tighten the knots with Eastern European countries to expand their influence: both in political and economical areas. To prove these words, in 1920 a French motor company, Schneider- Creusot became a shareholder in Škoda company and French economic influences began to be noticeable also in the clothing industry20. France has given their support for the Little Entente, among other things to prevent stability in Europe from the Hungarian revisionism21. The culmination point of the change of French diplomatic attitude towards the countries of Central and Eastern Europe was the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As a result of the disintegration of the empire, it created a gap in French foreign policy which was needed to be filled with a strong partner22. The process of supporting the Little Entente by France was confirmed by several formal agreements. The first of them was signed on 25th of January 1924 with Czechoslovakia. Its core was connected with mutual defence from potential aggression of the Soviet Union23. To improve its’ position in this part of Europe, France also signed agreements with Romania (1926) and Yugoslavia (1927). However, they were not as binding and formal as the one signed with Czechoslovakia24. Another linking factor for France and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe was the failure of the White Movement in Russia, which meant that Bolshevism became a direct danger for European countries. In order to prevent the spread of , France wanted to create some kind of barrier, consisting of Central and Eastern European countries. France showed great political commitment to the liberation of the countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania during the First World War, therefore these countries had a debt of gratitude towards France. To execute

19 Ibidem, p. 15. 20 Ibidem, p. 39. 21 H. Batowski, op. cit., p. 110. 22 A. Essen, op. cit., p. 21. 23 H. Batowski, op. cit., p. 111. 24 Ibidem, p. 138. S t r o n a | 27 that plan, France started to insert its foreign policy aims to amongthose key countries25. One of the most important aims was preventing Austria from being incorporated by Germany. The effort was profitable because the provisions on prohibiting Austria from being annexed to Germany were included in the peace treaty document. The political future of Austria was one of the topics of the conference in Prague, attended by foreign ministers of Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland on the 28th of August 1922. Representatives also decided that a split between France and Great Britain should be avoided. Decision-makers concluded that close contacts with the Polish government should be maintained26. France wanted to support Hungary in the area of economics after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During unofficial negotiations, French politicians suggested, that peace treaty from Trianon can be reconsidered, strengthen a war weakened state27. French diplomacy was pushing through the conception of a new pact which would link Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia together. The political direction of the new pact was intended to be strongly anti- German28. Poland presented a warm attitude towards France in this case. In the aftermath, on the 19th of February 1921, both sides signed a declaration. This agreement guaranteed help in the case of German military aggression, as well as cooperation during peacetime. The alliance with France ruled out cooperation with Great Britain, where the echoes of German anti-Polish propaganda could still be heard29.

The successes of the alliance

It is needed to be underlined, that the Little Entente was the first regional pact formed after the First World War. It was created in order to become a strong barrier against Hungarian revisionism, contributing to preserving the stability of stormy interwar Europe. Even if the result did not fully meet initial expectations, the very process of creating and introducing organisational structures was a breakthrough in the integration of European countries30. Through the establishment and several years of alliance’s activity, the opinion about Central and Eastern European countries has improved a lot. This was a clear signal that the members of the alliance could be treated on an equal footing with Western European countries and that they are able to conduct an independent foreign policy and establish economic relations. The concept that

25 Ibidem. 26 A. Essen, op. cit., p. 104. 27 H. Batowski, op. cit., p. 27. 28 A. Essen, op. cit., p. 21. 29 W. Roszkowski, op. ct., pp. 41. 30 P. Wandycz, op. cit., pp. 123-124. 28 | S t r o n a the countries of Central and Eastern Europe are not capable of living independently and are not able to achieve their political objectives has been denied once and for all. The founding of the Little Entente created an opportunity for leaders of member states to develop their countries. As history has shown, Edward Beneš made a great benefit of this, turning Czechoslovakia into a major player in the region31. Undoubtedly, this alliance laid the foundations for the process of integration of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Considering the turbulent history of Yugoslavia and the dynamic history of this part of Europe, it should be appreciated that this alliance has established some common standards for members of the Little Entente. It was the beginning of the process of forming future regional alliances. Thanks to the Little Entente, consolidation of next regional alliances was accompanied by an efficient organisation and effective structures which enabled to consolidate seemingly different interests32. It should be underlined, that mainly for Czechoslovakia, partnership in the Little Entente was very valuable. It tightened the cooperation with France and was helpful to pursue interests in the political area of Europe. Czechoslovakia has become an axis of alliance and major player in the European area. E. Beneš is seen as an author of the success of Czechoslovakia foreign policy, thanks to his ability to anticipate favourable opportunities and consistency in action. Not without importance is also the achievement of the main objective, namely assured safety from Hungarian revisionism, which was a binder for the Little Entente33.

The fall of the Little Entente

The process of collapse of the Little Entente was influenced by several political and economical factors. First and foremost, the growth of importance of the monarchical system in each member state, as well as the pursuit of isolationism, presented particularly by Czechoslovakia caused deterioration of cooperation within the Little Entente. Economical weakness was caused, among other things by the unprofitable plans for the movement of goods between the countries. Czechoslovakia provided machines and vehicles, however, Yugoslavia and Romania did not have funds for the purchase of such goods. On the other hand, these two countries had better opportunities for agricultural production and Czechoslovakia could not buy the surplus harvest34.

31 Ibidem, p. 123. 32 Ibidem, p. 130. 33 A. Essen, op. cit., p. 301. 34 P. Wandycz, op. cit., p. 123. S t r o n a | 29

The significant human losses caused by the participation in the Balkan Wars (more than 100 thousand victims) and the First World War did not stop the high demographic growth of the Balkan countries. The people living in the area lived mainly from agriculture and animal breeding. It should be underlined, that in Yugoslavia a very small percentage of the area was urbanised35. The issue of a high margin of trading goods was also a problem for the partner countries That vicious circle has led to a deterioration in the economic situation and a loosening of the ties between the states36. The issues connected with political systems in Yugoslavia and Romania were bone of contention for ruling powers in Czechoslovakia. Representatives of industry preferred an authoritarian monarchy because existing unofficial connections and trade privileges could be still guaranteed. An opposition represented like Beneš – intellectualists and politicians, perceived democracy as a golden mean on the road to the unification of the Little Entente. One thing is certain – as a result of ambiguous internal policy of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania slowly became economically dependent from Germany37. In the late period of the Little Entente existence, different conceptions, intended to recover its’ high position in world politics appeared. First of them was a plan created by Milan Hodža. He presented the idea of economical cooperation between countries of the Little Entente and what is interesting with Austria and Hungary. The idea was to create an alternative to the influence of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Germany, as the biggest economic forces, however, the plan has not been successful38. Beneš tried to transform the existing pact into a powerful superpower, with its foreign policy and military abilities. This conception was presented soon after the German offensive in Rhineland. This plan intended to encourage France to the convergence of interests in the international area. French government saw the alliance with the Little Entente as a clear dissociation from Germany. In the long term, Beneš’s plan can be seen only as a bluff against Germany, which had no chance of success from a military point of view39. Remilitarisation of Rhineland was a key point of future events in Europe. In practice, Germany armed and prepared this zone for the war. This area closed the way for the French army to help its allies in Central and Eastern Europe if necessary. Yugoslavia has refrained from maintaining an alliance with France because the government considered France to be a country that had given up part of its territory to the Germans without a fight and which, in

35 P. Eberhardt, Między Rosją a Niemcami. Przemiany narodowościowe w Europie Środko- wo-Wschodniej w XX w., Warszawa 1996, p. 285. 36 P. Wandycz, op. cit., pp. 122-123. 37 Ibidem. 38 Ibidem, p. 126. 39 Ibidem, pp. 127-128. 30 | S t r o n a the case of aggression, would not provide any support to the countries such as Yugoslavia and Romania. Even with strong commitment of E. Beneš, who hoped to modify the alliance's objectives to adapt it to the existing threats, these were unfeasible assumptions40. The faith in France as a hope for protection against German expansion collapsed. The last session of the Little Entente in Bled resulted in accepting the remilitarisation of Hungary, which was the exact opposite of the Little Entente’s credo. Czechoslovakia, which in 1938 was in direct danger of German aggression, still believed in the strong intervention of France, which had not carried out an independent foreign policy for a long time41.

The heritage of the Little Entente

According to international integration theories, principles of the pact can be associated with Charles Deutsch's theory of communication. The foundations on which the alliance was based were to result in the achievement of security and peace in practice, and not only in terms of a formal union of nations. The integration of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia, in line with the communication theory, was intended to minimise the likelihood of armed conflicts, while preserving the distinctiveness and independence of the member states. The creation of the Little Entente resulted in an increased sense of security for the inhabitants of these countries. This alliance retained the independence of the member states. In line with Deutsch's theory of communication, independent nations and their inhabitants are an important part of social life. Communication theory places the integration of states as the most important element to reduce the risk of armed conflict. The difference between the communication theory and the functional integration theory lies in the formulation of the essential objective of uniting countries. Deutsch's theory considers security and peace to be an overarching objective, as opposed to functionalism theory, where the most important aspect of integration is economic prosperity. Foundation of the Little Entente led to the unification of the objectives of the societies of Central and Eastern European countries and the creation of common political institutions and economic ties42. The foundation of the Little Entente led to the creation of communication and mutual contacts between member states. The founding of the alliance allowed the establishment of a political and economic community, as well as to the exchange of arts and culture. In Deutsch's integration theory, war is not a way of conducting politics. The exchange of views and culture of supranational

40 Ibidem, pp. 128-129. 41 H. Batowski, op. cit., p. 313. 42 P. Borkowski, Polityczne teorie integracji międzynarodowej, Warszawa 2007, pp. 81-85. S t r o n a | 31 societies is a factor that strengthens further the sense of integration43. Creation of the Little Entente gave rise to a social movement that promoted the idea of a community of Balkan states. Between 1930 and 1933, four Balkan conferences were held, attended by representatives of the field of culture, science, economy, and politics. Representatives of Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Romania, and Bulgaria discussed the common problems of the Balkan countries, which in turn led to the establishment of numerous relations in the field of politics, culture, and economy. These events were not formal, they were based on a spontaneous willingness to cooperate and exchange experiences among the peoples of Balkan culture circles44. The Balkan conferences also focused on various forms of economic cooperation. Participants shared a common interest in the export of cereals, tobacco, and other products and as well to facilitate the means of trade communication. A couple of efforts have been made to formalise economic cooperation. As a result, a draft of the Balkan Customs Union, the Balkan Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and the Chamber of Agriculture were founded. The Balkan conferences contributed to the establishment of Balkan Entente in 193445. This alliance united Greece, Yugoslavia, Romania, and Turkey. The main reason for the establishment of the Balkan Entente was the intensification of the fascist tendencies in Germany and . Security of borders and the maintenance of the current territorial order were at the heart of the new pact. The Little Entente was a point of reference for the newly formed alliance, both in its statutory and organisational dimensions46. The Little Entente was a model for the subsequent trilateral collaboration between the Kingdom of Romania, the Independent State of Croatia and the Slovak Republic during the Second World War. The reason why these countries allied was the fear of a further danger from the Hungarian revisio- nism. The loss of substantial territory in favour of Hungarian expansion led to the creation of a pact between the countries in May 1942. Hungary had the support of Germany and therefore the agreement failed. What makes the alliance of 1942 similar to the Little Entente is the fact that it was also directed against Hungarian revisionism, and included three countries that belonged to the group of Central and Eastern European countries47.

43 M. Zając-Frąs, Teorie i modele integracji europejskiej, “Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie” 2011, No 852, pp. 9-10. 44 W. Dobrzycki, Historia stosunków międzynarodowych 1815-1945, Warszawa 2007, pp. 418- 419. 45 J. Tomaszewski, Z. Sladek, Próby integracji ekonomicznej Europy Środkowej i południowo- wschodniej w latach 30 XX w., „Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka” 1979, No 3, p. 381. 46 W. Dobrzycki, op. cit., p. 420. 47 M. Tejchman, Attempts to Form Antirevisionist Alliances inside the Axis: Croatian, Slovak and Romanian Collaboration against Hungary (1941–1943), “West Bohemian Historical Review” 2012, No 2, pp. 147-158. 32 | S t r o n a

The idea of integration of the Balkan states was intensively taken up by the authorities of Yugoslavia and Greece – in-exile during the emigration era in Great Britain. It was planned to create the Balkan Union to guide the foreign, defence, and economic policies of both countries. The British Government was involved in helping to organize the future grouping in the form of consultations of an expert group, addressed by Prime Minister . Unfortunately, mutual mistrust and the desire to push through the interests of individual nations led to the failure of the idea of integration, which was present in immigration circles during World War II48. The Balkan states were once again called upon to cooperate closely with Czechoslovakia in 1955 when the was established. Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania, together with the Soviet Union, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, and Poland, allied to respond to the threat of strengthening the combat readiness of Western Germany. The Warsaw Pact gave way to the defence policy of the Eastern Bloc countries for almost 40 years. The organization was a counterweight to NATO and continued to exist until 199149. The Little Entente was an excellent manifestation of regionalism, a process of cooperation between countries located in geographical proximity. Regionalism is by no means a static process. It is a dynamic influence of countries that, apart from geographical proximity, are characterized by an equal political system, common history, or cultural patterns. The cooperation of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe within the framework of the Little Entente led to the creation of transnational organisational structures and the formulation of several documents and treaties. This is another fact confirming the classification of this alliance as a manifestation of regionalism. Actions implemented by the states led to the cooperation of member states above the political threshold. Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia represented the same objectives and interests. Regionalism is characterised by the implementation of cooperation in one or more areas of state functioning. The Little Entente, as an alliance, was formed for primarily defensive reasons. Attempts at economic integration of the Little Entente countries were a secondary goal for the politicians of these countries50. The factors that characterised the majority of regional alliances (geogra- phical proximity, similar history, politics), bringing countries of the Little Entente closer in the interwar period, gave a push to the integration of Central and Eastern European countries in the late 20th century. The earliest form of such cooperation, founded at the end of the last century was the Central European Initiative (CEI). It was established in 1989. Initially, it consisted of

48 K. Łastawski, Historia integracji europejskiej, Toruń 2008, pp. 43. 49 J. Barcz, E. Kawecka-Wyrzykowska, K. Michałowska-Gorywoda, Integracja Europej- ska, Warszawa 2007, p. 39. 50 A. Czyż, Współpraca regionalna państw Grupy Wyszehradzkiej. Doświadczenia i perspektywy, Katowice 2018, pp. 28-31. S t r o n a | 33 four countries – Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. Today, it brings together 18 Central and Eastern European countries, among them: Albania, Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Macedonia, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Hungary, and Italy. The overarching goal of the Central European Initiative is to support the development of the countries that used to belong to the Communist Bloc. Establishing contacts, assistance, and dialogue on many levels was supposed to help develop a market economy, support the development of democracy and equal opportunities. The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is an example of an organization that unites the Balkan and Central European countries, inheriting the legacy of the Little Entente. Initially, the signatories of the agreement were Poland, Czechoslo- vakia, and Hungary, while in its current form CEFTA includes Northern Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. Participating in CEFTA was to prepare the countries applying for membership of the European Union economically. Another objective was to overcome stagnation in trade between the countries of the Eastern Bloc and to increase their political cooperation51. The present-day organisation, which consists of three member states, located close to each other and sharing common traditions, culture, and political objectives, is the Visegrad Group. On the 15th of February 1991, the authorities of Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary signed a declaration that gave rise to close cooperation between these countries in pursuit of European integration. Besides, the countries undertook an effort to create a free trade area to support economic development in Central and Eastern Europe. In the defence sphere, they aimed to obtain membership in NATO. The Visegrad Group links nowadays Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia with common goals, which include promoting democracy, abolishing all forms of remnants of the totalitarian system, supporting the development of modern democratic countries, striving for integration with the European political and economic system. Additionally, sessions or meetings of ministers of these countries are held before the meetings of the Council of the European Union. The Visegrad Group inspires as well as the integration efforts of the Balkan States. Following the example of the Visegrad International Fund, the Balkan states created the Western Balkans Fund, whose resources are used to finance economic, cultural, and social projects. The unquestionable benefit of the Visegrad Group is the creation of a multinational European Union Battle Group called the Visegrad Battle Group, which is on standby duty within the European Quick Reaction Force under Polish command. In addition to soldiers of the Visegrad countries, it also includes a Croatian component52.

51 Ibidem, pp. 48-50, 150. 52 Ibidem, pp. 75-78, 163, 214. 34 | S t r o n a

Conclusion

The Little Entente can be considered from many perspectives. This alliance existed in the troubled interwar period and was located between the two biggest aggressors on the continent. Founded for a variety of reasons, it became a strong and resilient political formation. Its formalised structure, divided to achieve specific goals that transcend national boundaries was a milestone on the road to the integration of European countries in future. The concept of integration of Central and Eastern European countries was invented by Tomáš Masaryk, however, his prominent student and successor, E. Beneš, put this idea into practice. Throughout the alliance’s lifetime, Czechoslovakia was the strongest link in this pact, while Beneš was without doubts the most influential politician. Focusing on the aims of the alliance, many of them were achieved. The Little Entente protected its members from Hungarian revisionism and contributed to peacekeeping in this part of the world. The Little Entente strengthened the position of the member states in the international area, enabling them to establish political and trade relations with the European Powers. The Little Entente brought the countries of Eastern and Central Europe closer to France. Thanks to mutual interests and economic correlations, it showed that those countries could be perceived as valuable allies. This alliance inspired afterward countries in the Central and Eastern Europe to integrate, in many dimensions. Many alliances and organisations formed in this circle of civilisation were based on the concept of the Little Entente. This process of integration was a manifestation of regionalism and influenced significantly integration processes of countries from similar cultural circles. The collapse of the Little Entente was reinforced by economic weaknesses. Differences in economic policies caused difficulties in mutual trade between the member states. A big crisis in the European economy forced Yugoslavia and Romania into the embrace of the German economy. What is more, the political position of the monarchy in those countries strengthened, which was as an opposition to the vision of Beneš democracy as the most favourable system for the unification within Europe. Even though the Little Entente did not survive and was not the longest alliance in history, it should be underlined that it was a milestone to the process of integration of European countries and peacekeeping tools in the interwar period. Its organisational structures and political competencies helped to achieve significant successes in international policy and to maintain border security.

S t r o n a | 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Bankowicz B., Bankowicz M., Dudek A., Leksykon historii XX wieku, Kraków 1996  Barcz J., Kawecka-Wyrzykowska E., Michałowska-Gorywoda K., Integracja Europejska, Warszawa 2007  Batowski H., Między dwiema wojnami 1919-1939. Zarys historii dyplomatycznej, Kraków 2001  Borkowski P., Polityczne teorie integracji międzynarodowej, Warszawa 2007  Czubiński A., Europa dwudziestego wieku. Zarys historii politycznej, Poznań 1997  Czyż A., Współpraca regionalna państw Grupy Wyszehradzkiej. Doświadczenia i perspektywy, Katowice 2018  Davies N., Europa. Rozprawa Historyka z Historią, Kraków 1999  Dobrzycki W., Historia stosunków międzynarodowych 1815-1945, Warszawa 2007  Eberhardt P., Między Rosją a Niemcami. Przemiany narodowościowe w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej w XX w., Warszawa 1996  Essen A., Polska a Mała Ententa 1920-1934, Kraków 1992  Łastawski K., Historia integracji europejskiej, Toruń 2008  Pact of Organisation of the Little Entente. Signed at Geneva, February 16, 1933, Mfa.gov.rs, 5.10.2009,  Roszkowski W., Historia Polski 1914-1990, Warszawa 1992  Tejchman M., Attempts to Form Antirevisionist Alliances inside the Axis: Croatian, Slovak and Romanian Collaboration against Hungary (1941–1943), “West Bohemian Historical Review” 2012, No 2  Tomaszewski J., Sladek Z., Próby integracji ekonomicznej Europy Środkowej i południowo-wschodniej w latach 30 XX w., „Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka” 1979, No 3  Wandycz P., Z dziejów dyplomacji, Wrocław 1989  Zając-Frąs M., Teorie i modele integracji europejskiej, „Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie” 2011, No 852

36 | S t r o n a

S t r o n a | 37

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20197

Adam KUŹ1 Poland

INTEGRATION PROCESSES IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE IN THE 20TH AND 21ST CENTURIES

Abstract: The purpose of the paper is to answer the question: what is the main reason why the Central and Eastern Europe countries did not enter into fruitful and long- term cooperation both in the interwar period and after the collapse of the Soviet Union despite a far-reaching commonality of interests? Conflicts between these countries are not decisive factors in their lack of integration. The degree of integration is proportional to the degree of involvement in Central and Eastern Europe of powers that could act as an external hegemony. In the interwar period, the United States, England and France, and after 1989, the United States had the right potential to undertake such a task in its interest. None of them, however, took up such a role in the long run. Attempts to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to date, starting from the Versailles conference, indicate that the American protectorate is a necessary factor for implementing closer forms of cooperation between these countries.

Keywords: Central and Eastern Europe, Little Entente, Central European Initiative, Three Seas Initiative, Visegrad Group

Introduction

A close political and economic relationship among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe would bring them immense economic benefits and increase their sense of security. From a world policy point of view, such a union would contribute to stabilizing the political situation in Europe. Such attempts were made both in the interwar period and after the collapse of the

1 Adam Kuź, MA, a retired history teacher, author of several interdisciplinary scientific articles (in the field of history, political science) on various aspects of geopolitics. Email: [email protected] 38 | S t r o n a

Soviet Union. Yet, it all ended in a spectacular defeat or remained only on paper. Therefore, it is very important to clarify the factors that shaped this state of affairs and to understand what elements might contribute for possible reintegration. In my paper, I try to examine those factors and elements in the context of the policy of powers that have a decisive influence on European policy: England, France, and the United States.

The failure of President Woodrow Wilson's European project

As a result of World War I, a geopolitical vacuum was created in Central and Eastern Europe, and independent states were formed on the ruins of empires. In 1919, the British scholar Halford Macinder drew far-reaching conclusions from that fact by making the following thesis: “Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island; Who rules the World Island commands the World”2. It was a kind of appeal to the statesmen at the Versailles conference deciding on the post-war order in Europe. Mackinder's ‘realistic’ approach is often opposed to the alleged idealism of US President Woodrow Wilson. In fact, the only decision-maker at the Versailles conference who understood the geopolitical significance of Central and Eastern Europe was Wilson3. That was demonstrated by the peace program he presented to Congress on January 8, 19184. Of the 14 Wilson’s points, in Poland we know the 13th best of all. Point 10 was relevant to the peoples of Austria-Hungary, point 11 to Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro, and point 12 to nationalities which were under the Turkish rule. We do not know exactly how Wilson imagined the post-war order in Europe under the American protectorate because his concept was rejected by the US Congress. In that situation, he also had to succumb to the British pressure to limit American influence in Europe5. What came out of the Wilson-League of Nations concept was actually a negation of its original idea. Isolationism did not benefit the Americans because they had to join World War II.

Little Entente as a missed opportunity to stop Germany

Little Entente was founded in 1921 on the initiative of the first Czechoslovak president Tomasz Masaryk. It included Czechoslovakia, Romania,

2 H. J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, London 1919, p. 194. 3 M. Ádám, Woodrow Wilson and the Successor States. “Danubian Historical Stadies”, Vol. 1. No. 4. Budapest, 1987. 4 Address of the President of the United States Delivered at a Joint Session of the Two Houses of Congress, January 8, 1918, Hathi Trust Library Online (31.12.2019); Interpreta- tion of President Wilson's Fourteen Points by Colonel House, (31.12.2019). 5 J. Levy, The Intermarium: Wilson, Madison, & East Central European Federalism, PhD dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2006, pp. 134-138. S t r o n a | 39 and Yugoslavia. This agreement was caused by fear of revisionism on the part of Hungary, which lost three-quarters of its territory at the Versailles conference6. The alliance of these three countries was under the political and military patronage of France. The mutual relations between Poland and Little Entente were bad, because both Poland and Czechoslovakia aspired to the role of hegemon in Central and Eastern Europe. The conflict over Zaolzie region, inhabited by 90% of the Polish population, was also significant. This area was occupied in January 1919 on the instructions of Masaryk7. After gaining the independence, Poland concluded a military alliance with France and Romania. Thanks to such an alliance system, France was able to control Central and Eastern Europe politically. In the early 1930s, France completely abandoned the alliance policy to balance Germany's potential. In 1930, French Foreign Minister Aristides Briand proposed the creation of a federation union headed by France, Great Britain, and Germany. This idea was completely unreal8. After Hitler came to power, France moved to a defensive position, which, combined with appeasement policy, accelerated the outbreak of World War II and the total defeat of Paris. French resignation from the role of a hegemon in Central and Eastern Europe led to a general decline in the importance of the Little Entente. Romanian Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu tried to counteract that with no result by strengthening contacts within the Little Entente9. In February 1934 he was the initiator of the Balkan Agreement, which included Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Turkey. However, it did not play a greater role without the support of France.

Heartland as a crumple zone

After the US withdrawal, the United Kingdom could take over the role of a protector against pivotal states in Central and Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the British government throughout the interwar period consistently pursued a policy contrary to Mackinder's advice, treating Heartland as a crumple zone. During the Versailles conference, Prime Minister David Lloyd George was against the creation of strong Poland10. In the face of Hitler's pressure, the United Kingdom refused to grant a guarantee to Czechoslovakia, also discouraging France from doing so, which led to the Munich conference on September 29-30, 1938 and, consequently, to the liquidation of the Czechoslovak state11. The appeasement

6 M. Ádám, The Little Entente and Europe (1920-1929), Budapest 1993, p. 114. 7 R. Szporluk, The Political Thought of Thomas G. Masaryk, New York 1981, p. 115. 8 P. Bernard, H. Dubief, T. Forster, The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938. The Cambridge History of Modern France, New York 1985, p. 161. 9 A. Dubicki, Nicolae Titulescu: portret polityka i dyplomaty, Łomianki 2010, pp. 14-20. 10 M. Howard, The Legacy of the First World War, [in:] Paths to War: New Essays on the Origins of the Second World War, ed. R. Boyce and E. M. Robertson, London 1989, p. 46. 11 R. A. Cole, Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource, “New England Journal of History”, 2010, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 1-30. 40 | S t r o n a policy pursued by Arthur Neville Chamberlain at the expense of Czechoslovakia did not prevent the outbreak of World War II. Concluding the August 25, 1939 treaty with Poland, the British government was aware that it was unable to provide Poland with a real military assistance. The only goal was to gain time12. A similar maneuver His Majesty's Government pursued with regards to Yugoslavia, where, on March 27, 1941, the regency was overthrown by British machinations, which led to the appointment of underage Peter II. The new pro- British government broke off the existing agreement with Germany counting on British guarantees. The result was a German attack and the , which was plunged into a bloody conflict. The Allies' attitude to the Polish cause at the Yalta and Tehran conferences, where practically entire Central and Eastern Europe was given to Stalin, shows a total disregard for the geopolitical role of the area between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea. Although it is an open question whether the Allies could successfully oppose Stalin under those circumstances, the fact remains that without supplies under lend-lease, the Red Army was not capable to conduct warfare.

Central European Initiative and the breakup of Yugoslavia

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in Central and Eastern Europe, just like after World War I, a geopolitical vacuum emerged. That enabled the creation of the Central European Initiative aimed primarily at opposing German hegemony in Europe. On November 11, 1989, Quadragonale was formed on the initiative of Italy, which included Austria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Italy. In 1990, Czechoslovakia joined the initiative, creating the Pentagonale, and in 1991 Poland too followed the trend, creating the Hexagonale. This form of cooperation of Central and Eastern European countries was effectively stopped as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia initiated in June 1991 by Slovenia and Croatia, which Germany immediately recognized as independent states. The attitude of Americans to that issue revealed itself in the Bush administration completely ignoring the CIA report published in the fall of 1990 New York Times’ issue that strongly warned about the consequences of Yugoslavia’s break up and a possibility of a bloody ethnic war13.

Three Seas Initiative with German participation

An attempt to rebuild Hexagonale was the Three Seas Initiative established by the presidents of Poland and Croatia. Its first summit took place in Dubrovnik on August 25 and 26, 2016. It brought together 12 EU countries: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania,

12 M. Peszke, The British-Polish Agreement, “Journal of Slavic Military Studies”, 2011, p. 654. 13 L. J. Cohen, Broken Bonds. Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and Balkans Politics in the Transition, Boulder-San Francisco-Oxford 1995, p. 218. S t r o n a | 41

Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary. However, this was not an initiative that was an alternative to the European Union and Germany. Hexagonale’s official documents have repeatedly stated that the Initiative is pro-European and complementary to existing forms of European cooperation. It is an infrastructure project, not a political or geopolitical one, which does not concern military cooperation but it is only an informal platform for obtaining European funds14. The structure defined in this way does not give an opportunity to create any political entity under an American patronage that might somehow curb a German influence in Europe. Therefore, the declarations of President Donald Trump at the second Summit of the Initiative in Warsaw did not bring any practical results15. Poland supported Germany's request to participate in the work of the Initiative as a partner country and the third summit in Bucharest was also attended by German Foreign Minister Heiko Maas, President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker and Commissioner for Regional Policy Corina Cretu. That is a clear signal as to the further direction of the Initiative's activities.

Geopolitical dilemmas of the Visegrad Triangle

In 1991, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary formed the so-called The Visegrad Triangle, which after the fall of Czechoslovakia on January 1, 1993, covered four countries. Cooperation within the Visegrad Group is declarative rather than real due to the conflicting interests of individual countries16. It is limited to meetings of prime ministers every six months and annual meetings of presidents. The reason for the lack of effective cooperation within the Visegrad Group is not disputes between individual countries but their different geopolitical preferences. Currently Poland is strengthening military and political ties with the United States. The Czech Republic focuses on closer integration within EU organizations. In turn, Hungary prefers cooperation with Russia, Turkey, and Germany. In relation to the European Union, the Visegrad countries spoke with one voice only on the issue of emigration policy. However, this is not sufficient for lasting cooperation in other fields in the face of various geopolitical preferences.

14 The Second Summit of the 3 Seas Initiative. Joint Declaration, (17.04.2019) 15 Trump Trip to Poland Forces 3 Seas Summit Change, Fox News, 13 June 2017, (31.12.2019); FACTBOX Three Seas Initiative Summit in Warsaw, CNBC, 4 July 2017, < https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-poland-usa-trump-factbox/factbox-three-seas-initiative- summit-in-warsaw-idUKKBN19P0U1> (31.12.2019). 16 B. Góralczyk, Współpraca Wyszehradzka: geneza, doświadczenia, perspektywy, Warsza- wa 1999, p. 8. 42 | S t r o n a

Conclusion

The attempts to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to date, from the Little Entente to the Visegrad Triangle, do not promise any optimistic results. In fact, the question is whether it is possible to accomplish that very integration in the first place. Yet, despite the historical experience, there are indications that such a project could be implemented17. The history to date has indicated that the American protectorate is a necessary precondition for implementing closer forms of cooperation among the countries of this area. Currently the first time in history, the United States is looking for it’s a good market to sell her hydrocarbons18. The condition of the long-term supply of liquefied gas to Central and Eastern European countries might secure the American influence in this region19. The latter can be a great opportunity for Central and Eastern European countries that, on one hand, would like to avoid the trap of a dependent development caused by close relations with German economy, and, on the other hand, to ward off the military threat coming from Russia20. The potential for a possible union of the "Three Seas" zone countries under the umbrella of the USA would bring together 100 million people, which both demographically and economically would be comparable with the potential of both Germany and Russia. Such a union would effectively stop Germany's tendency toward economic and ideological domination in the area, and Russia's aspiration for political and military domination, stabilizing our region of Europe for many years forward.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Ádám M., The Little Entente and Europe (1920-1929), Budapest 1993  Ádám M., Woodrow Wilson and the Successor States. “Danubian Historical Stadies”, Vol. 1. No. 4. Budapest, 1987  Address of the President of the United States Delivered at a Joint Session of the Two Houses of Congress, January 8, 1918, Hathi Trust Library Online

17 G. Friedman, From the Intermarium to the Three Seas, Geopolitical Futures, 7 July 2017, (31.12.2019). 18 J. Bekić, M. Funduk, The Adriatic-Baltic-Black Sea Initiative as the Revival of ‘Intermarium, Institute for Development and International Relations Brief, February 2016, (31.12.2019). 19 M. J. Chodakiewicz, Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas, New Brunswick 2012, p. 11-12. 20 R. D. Kaplan, Europe’s New Medieval Map, Wall Street Journal, 19 January 2016, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 43

 Bekić J., Funduk M., The Adriatic-Baltic-Black Sea Initiative as the Revival of ‘Intermarium, Institute for Development and International Relations Brief, February 2016,  Bernard P., Dubief H., Forster T., The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938. The Cambridge History of Modern France, New York 1985  Chodakiewicz M. J., Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas, New Brunswick 2012  Cohen L. J., Broken Bonds. Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and Balkans Politics in the Transition, Boulder-San Francisco-Oxford 1995  Cole R. A., Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource, “New England Journal of History” (2010) Vol. 66, No. 2  Dubicki A., Nicolae Titulescu: portret polityka i dyplomaty, Łomianki 2010  FACTBOX Three Seas Initiative Summit in Warsaw, CNBC, 4 July 2017, < https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-poland-usa-trump-factbox/ factbox-three-seas-initiative-summit-in-warsaw-idUKKBN19P0U1>  Friedman G., From the Intermarium to the Three Seas, Geopolitical Futures, 7 July 2017,  Góralczyk B., Współpraca Wyszehradzka: geneza, doświadczenia, perspektywy, Warszawa 1999  Howard M., The Legacy of the First World War, [in:] Paths to War: New Essays on the Origins of the Second World War, ed. R. Boyce and E. M. Robertson, London 1989  Interpretation of President Wilson's Fourteen Points by Colonel House,  Kaplan R. D., Europe’s New Medieval Map, Wall Street Journal, 19 January 2016,  Levy J., The Intermarium: Wilson, Madison, & East Central European Federalism, PhD dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 2006  Mackinder H. J., Democratic Ideals and Reality, London 1919  Peszke M., The British-Polish Agreement, “Journal of Slavic Military Studies”, 2011  The Second Summit of the 3 Seas Initiative. Joint Declaration,  Szporluk R., The Political Thought of Thomas G. Masaryk, New York 1981 44 | S t r o n a

 Trump Trip to Poland Forces 3 Seas Summit Change, Fox News, 13 June 2017, S t r o n a | 45

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20193

Wiktor MOŻGIN1 Poland

THE THREE SEAS INITIATIVE – AN ASPECT OF CONTEMPORARY GEOPOLITICAL COMPETITION FOR DOMINANCE IN EUROPE

Abstract: Today, Europe is a very dynamic area in which various processes of political, economic, military, and socio-cultural nature occur. One of these processes concerns the establishment in 2015 of the Three Seas Initiative, integrating the area of the countries that joined the European Community after 2004 with one exception, which is Austria, which belongs to the group of the so-called ‘Old Union’. The emergence of a new structure within the European Union has been negated from the very beginning by the most important entities in Europe and beyond because the Russian Federation also did not approve the establishment of the Three Seas Initiative, perceiving it as a direct threat to the implementation of its neo-imperial policy in Central and Eastern Europe. Nevertheless, the establishment of the Three Seas initiative was dictated by many factors of historical, political, economic, and military nature. This article presents the issues related to the process of shaping the subjectivity of Central and Eastern European countries in the context of contemporary challenges caused by the economic crisis and the potential danger of the Russian Federation, which aims is to destabilize this region and pull it back into its sphere of influence. The role which played the Three Seas Initiative within the European Union is an issue that requires constructive analysis. This is possible by indicating the main reasons for establishing this structure and international processes that are implications of its functioning.

Keywords: The Three Seas Initiative, geopolitics, international relations, European integration, imperial politics, political pragmatism, international security.

1 Wiktor Możgin, PhD student at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow (cultural studies). Email: [email protected] 46 | S t r o n a

Introduction

In 2015, the presidents of Poland Andrzej Duda and Croatia Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović announced an initiative to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and parts of the Balkans under the broadly understood concept of the Three Seas. The context of reconciliation in one structure of such countries as: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Hungary boils down to the needs in the field of economy, communication infrastructure, technological development and security, especially energy, which are the priority development areas of these countries. The common denominator that connects all these countries, in some respects, all except Austria, is their belonging to the socialist bloc, which resulted in significant asymmetry in economic development in relation to the so-called ‘Old Union’. The Three Seas concept is directed primarily at ensuring economic and political stability in the region of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. In this context, it is also worth pointing out its geopolitical significance, because this structure includes the area of so-called ‘buffer states’. According to the theoretical assumptions of geopolitics, which go back to the roots of the concept of Rimland by Nicholas Spykman, the region of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans is a coastal band of the ‘world island’ on which, according to the assumptions of this American researcher, there will be a confrontation between the superpowers, because the one who will exercise control over this area will occupy a leading position in the competition for world domination2. The importance of this region in the concepts of policies implemented by the then powers, which were the United States on the one hand, and the Soviet Union on the other, is demonstrated by the permanent state of struggle, having the ideological, economic and military nature. If in 1968 there were strikes initiated in the Paris Sorbonne and having an ideological basis, because they were directed against Gaullist rule identified with , and traditionalism3, that in the same year in Czechoslovakia teaches to the so-called ‘’, when social protests aimed at liberalizing the economy and obtaining civil liberties, met with a brutal reaction from the Soviet Union, which, implementing the assumptions of Operation Danube, introduced the armies of Warsaw Pact countries and brutally suppressed the actions of protesters4. The competition for domination over the area of ‘buffer states’, which in geographical terms coincides with the area of the Three Seas Initiative, continues to this day. However, today the strategic assumptions of the major players have been redefined. This is mainly

2 N. J. Spykman, American’s Strategy in World Politics. The United States and The Balance of Power, New Brunswick 2007, pp. XXVII-XXIX. 3 D. Singer, Prelude de Revolution. France in May 1968, Madison 1970, pp. 34-45. 4 R. Kwapis, Praska Wiosna, Toruń 2004, pp. 142-148. S t r o n a | 47 due to the presence of the Three Seas Initiative countries in the structures of the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Nevertheless, control over the area of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans is a strategic goal of the most important global players. This results, for example, from the theoretical assumptions of the concept of foreign policies of the United States and Russia. In 1997, Alexander Dugin published the book Fundamentals of Geopolitics5, in which he presented the most important postulates of modern Russian geopolitics based on antagonistic foundations arising from imperial policy, which was implemented by the Soviet Union and is currently being continued by the Russian Federation. In turn, the American vision of world order was presented by Zbigniew Brzezinski in his fundamental work The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy And Its Geostrategic Imperatives6. Published in 1997, it was at the same time a response to the Russian concept of the balance of power on the world stage, as well as the American version of foreign policy implemented by successive American governments. Despite the passage of several dozen years since the publication of these significant geopolitical works, the assumptions contained therein are still valid. The countries of Central and Eastern Europe and parts of the Balkans united in the Three Seas Initiative are a significant counterbalance to the interests of global players today. In this context, one should not forget about the pragmatic intentions of such entities as Great Britain, France, or Germany. What's more, the Three Seas area is located directly on the so-called ‘New Silk Road’ (Belt and Road Initiative), which leads from Asia to Europe. It follows that China is another entity for which this region is important from the point of view of the implementation of strategic assumptions and economic expansion, which in the modern world has become one of the vectors of development of the economies of individual countries around the world. China's growing investment presence in this region is a challenge for the states so-called ‘Old Union’, and especially for the German government, which significantly changed its rhetoric in relation to the Three Seas Initiative, trying to establish ever closer relations with its members7. It is therefore worth analyzing thoroughly the process of shaping the subjectivity of the Three Seas initiative on the international stage. Interesting in this context is also the issue of omitting a country like Ukraine among its members. Therefore, it is justified to pose a number of questions and find the answers to which the purpose of this article is. First of all, it is worth considering the political and economic conditions for the creation of the Three Seas Initiative. Secondly, the importance of creating a new international creation within the European Union should be analyzed. And thirdly, it is reasonable to

5 A. Dugin, Osnovy geopolityki, Моscow 2000, pp. 17-34. 6 Z. Brzeziński, Wielka szachownica, Warszawa 1998, pp. 12-18. 7 Ch. Hasselbach, R. Romaniec, Trójmorze coraz ważniejsze dla Niemiec, (12.12.2019). 48 | S t r o n a find the answer to the question of why Ukraine or other countries in close proximity to this structure and not belonging to the European Union were not among the members of the Three Seas Initiative. In this context, Ukraine is a special case, because its authorities in 2016 were invited to participate in the first Summit of the Three Seas initiative, which was held in Dubrovnik, but for reasons not explained yet, nobody went to this meeting, which in the long run diminished the chances this country to participate in this structure8.

Conditions for establishing the Three Seas initiative

Analyzing the perspective of the Three Seas Initiative in the region of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans, should be presented with a broad spectrum of conditions, that have played a significant role in this process. This article will present historical, political, economic, and military aspects initiating the establishment of this international structure. Historical conditions. It is no accident that one of the initiators of the Three Seas concept was Polish President Andrzej Duda. This idea is deeply rooted in the history of Polish politics in the region of Central and Eastern Europe, whose vectors were not directed only on the East-West line, but primarily North-South. Analogies to the modern initiative of the Three Seas can be traced back to the time of the first Polish-Lithuanian Union, or by placing it in the time perspective – in the 15th and 16th centuries – during the operation of the Jagiellonian bloc, which included the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Hungary and The kingdom of Czech Republic9. Nevertheless, the basis of the current Three Seas Initiative was the 20th- century thought of Polish geopolitics. Identified with the figure of Józef Pilsudski, Intermarium initiative assumed the creation of a multinational and multicultural confederation, which would include Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Finland was also planned to join this structure. Józef Pilsudski believed that the creation of this kind of confederation would affect the balance of power in this region by levelling influence from both Germany and Russia10. Interesting is the historical fact that all Western countries together with the Soviet Union have protested the idea of establishing a confederation of states in the region of Central and Eastern Europe. The only country that supported Józef Pilsudski's initiative was France. The lack of support from the

8 V. Trybus, K. Novikova, Arkhitektory Mizhmorya, (10.12.2019). 9 M. Sienkiewicz, Koncepcja Trójmorza w polityce zagranicznej Polski po 2015 roku, „Dyplomacja i Bezpieczeństwo”, No. 1(4)/2016, pp. 140-142. 10 T. Gajowniczek, Rosja a „Międzymorze” w polskiej myśli politycznej w XX wieku. Wybrane zagadnienia, „Zeszyty Wschodnie”, 2004, No. 1, pp. 76-79. S t r o n a | 49 international community and involvement in the process of negation of Józef Stalin's Polish idea became the reason for departing from the idea of Intermarium, which remained at the conceptual stage. However, at the beginning of the 1940s, the idea of creating a confederation of states that would occupy the area between the Baltic, Black, Aegean and Adriatic Sea returned thanks to the Polish government in exile led by Władysław Sikorski. The first stage of implementation of these plans was joint negotiations between representatives of Greece, Yugoslavia, Czechoslo- vakia, and the Polish government in exile, which took place in 1942 under the authority of Great Britain. The integration concept was based on the creation of two blocks – Polish-Czechoslovakian and Greek-Yugoslavian. However, these ideas, like the idea of Intermarium by Józef Pilsudski, did not meet with the approval of other emerging countries in the anti-Hitler coalition. On the one hand, France announced its protest because it was afraid that after the war, the newly formed confederation would demand compensation in the form of territorial and financial benefits. In turn, Russia has denied the creation of the Polish-Czechoslovak alliance because of fear of thwarting the plans of Joseph Stalin regarding control over Central and Eastern Europe11. Another attempt to implement the project integrating the countries of Central and Eastern Europe was the concept of Jerzy Giedroyc and Juliusz Mieroszewski. In 1974 an article by the two researchers appeared in the Paris Culture, which spoke about the inseparable relationship between the independence of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine. This work contained a quasi-law, which was often invoked by Polish political elites, saying that the independence of countries such as Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine conditions the independence of the Polish state. Hence the famous saying that “without independent Ukraine, there will be no independent Poland”, which is very often used in the context of Polish-Ukrainian relations. This thought, which was included in the pages of the Paris Culture, played an important role in the process of shaping the political awareness and geopolitical opposition in the Polish Peoples Republic and then governing Poland after 198912. The historical retrospective clearly indicates that the modern concept of the Three Seas has solid theoretical and ideological foundations. The initiative of Andrzej Duda announced in 2015 differs from that proposed by Józef Pilsudski at the beginning of the 20th century. Nevertheless, it was the beginning of the 21st century that became the moment of establishment of the confederation of states in the region of Central and Eastern Europe, which is

11 V. Shevchuk, V. Rozhdayev, Plan „Mezhdumor'ye” – Britaniya podderzhit, Frantsiya ne protiv, Ukraina i Pol'sha sdelayut, (10.10.2019). 12 A. Stępnik, Ukraina, Litwa i Białoruś w "Zeszytach Historycznych" (1962-1991), [in:] Jerzy Giedroyc. Redaktor. Polityk. Człowiek, ed. by K. Pomian, Lublin 2001, pp. 57-62. 50 | S t r o n a systematically moving towards strengthening its subjectivity in the international arena. Political conditions. The European Union as a significant player in the international arena has been in a serious crisis in the last decade – ideological, economic, and socio-political. There has been a clear decline in confidence in the European community of states, one of the manifestations of which is the issue related to Brexit13. The problem is primarily the departure by the Union of the basic ideas on which the integration process was based. Namely, the ideas of sovereignty and equality of states in EU structures. The current practice related to the decision-making process indicates that not all entities participate in it, and the decisions are often dictated by the strongest players belonging to the so-called ‘Old Union’, as a result of which the interests of Member States from Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans are ignored. For several years, a term such as ‘Two Speed Union’ has been circulating in public space. This tendency is a negative sound of the condition in which the Community is now. However, the reasons for this state of affairs should be seen in the inaccuracies and imperfections of integration processes reaching back several dozen years. Already in 1981, Greece joining the Community gained confidence and was admitted to the group of European countries. On the other hand, the enlargement of the Union, which took place in 2004 and the following years, clearly indicated differences in development resulting primarily from the experience of individual countries. Nevertheless, the assumption of the integration process is to shape stable foundations in economic development and to eliminate all conflict-causing factors that may lead to destabilization of the European Union. This situation fits into the context of the Eurocentric attitude prevailing among some politicians, but it is worth remembering that every actor on the international arena tries to pursue their particular interests, and the Community is often a tool used for this purpose. One of the problems facing the European Union today, and which implies many negative consequences within the Community, is the migration crisis. Social programs and the revision of legal systems in some countries allowing for easy political asylum or refugee status have become an attractive bait for many thousands of immigrants14. The effect of the migration crisis within the Union is the progressing ideological polarization between the political elites of individual members of the Community. If at the beginning of the 21st century there was a liberal- centred political orientation in practically all countries, then the beginning of

13 A. Sofuł, J. Ziarno, Polska na szerokim tle. Rozmowa z Konradem Szymańskim, „Magazyn Gospodarczy Nowy Przemysł”, No. 1/2017, pp. 16-17. 14 R. Prostak, Wspólny europejski system azylowy a kryzys imigracyjny w Europie, [in:] Nowe wyzwania integracji europejskiej, ed. by H. Tendera-Właszczuk, W. Bąba, M. Zajączkowska, Warszawa 2016, pp. 168-174. S t r o n a | 51 the second decade of the 21st century brought a re-evaluation of ideological assumptions and a shift of this orientation to the left or right. In France, for example, the National Union has gained in importance, whose main postulate is to restore France to the power it lost because of the loss of national ideas and values. In Poland or Hungary power is exercised by right-wing groups whose ideological basis is the protection of traditional values and support for national development initiatives. In turn, in Greece, the prime minister is a represent- tative of a radical leftist grouping. In this context, the creation of the Three Seas Initiative in the region of Central and Eastern Europe is an implication of the deteriorating condition within the European Union. The program assumptions that accompanied the establishment of this structure indicate that it will constitute a significant impact on the policy implemented by the Community. The point is not that the Three Seas Initiative is an alternative to the Union, but that the countries of Central and Eastern Europe gain importance in the decision-making process and be able to implement economic, infrastructural and socio-political assumptions to restore intra-Community stability15. Also, the Three Seas initiative will constitute a coherent ideological buffer between the democratic West and the authoritarian Russian Federation. Economic conditions. The aspect mentioned in this article about the post- socialist past of Central and Eastern European countries (except Austria) and part of the Balkans is a direct implication of development asymmetry concerning the so-called ‘Old Union’. Taking into account economic indicators, there is a clear picture of this disproportion between the countries that joined the Union in 2004 and subsequent years, and the countries that formed the Community up to this moment. It is interesting that at the time of the enlargement of the European Union in 2004, the ratio of GDP per capita of the richest and poorest country within the Community was 7.2. In 2015, this ratio decreased to 5.916. The list of economic development indicators for individual EU countries shows that the favourable economic situation existed until 2009 when after the economic crisis in which the Community found itself, this tendency slowed down radically. In this context, the Three Seas Initiative for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and parts of the Balkans has become a real opportunity to overcome economic stagnation. Priority development directions were set at the annual summits held since 2016 (the first took place on August 25-26, 2016 in Dubrovnik). The plans relate

15 M. Szułdrzyński, Krzysztof Szczerski: Trójmorze nie jest alternatywą dla UE, (15.11.2019). 16 M. Maciejewski, Zróżnicowanie kondycji gospodarczej państw Unii Europejskiej, „Studia Ekonomiczne. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach”, No. 319/2017, pp. 118-119. 52 | S t r o n a primarily to such areas as the economy, logistics, and communication infrastructure and technologies. The breakthroughs can be considered the summits in Warsaw in 2017 and Bucharest in 2018. The President of the United States Donald Trump was present at the Warsaw meeting of the Three Seas Initiative, who expressed unambiguous support for the idea of this structure and the implementation of projects proposed by participants of the summit. In Bucharest, a joint Development Declaration was adopted, taking into account the most important projects and plans for their implementation17. The summit in the Romanian capital was also significant for two other reasons. Namely, Germany has gained the status of an observer state, which may mean that Berlin is interested in the Three Seas Initiative and is ready for constructive actions. Also, the Declaration adopted in Bucharest established the Three Seas Investment Fund, the funds from which will be allocated to the implementation of joint projects. The improving economic conditions in the countries of the initiative testify to the growing competitive capacity of this region within the Union. Also, the investment policy they implement with the China Three Seas Initiative is a significant stimulus affecting the economic development of the region18. It is also interesting that China is conducting latent economic rivalry in the area with the United States. In this context, the skilful policy of the Three Seas Initiative countries aimed at taking advantage of favourable economic conditions may affect the development of this region in the coming years. Military conditions. In 1918, the idea of Intermarium by Jozef Pilsudski was mainly directed at ensuring the security of the Rzeczpospolita (Commonwealth). Geopolitical concepts were based on the justification for building a strong alliance of states that would counterbalance Germany on the one hand, and Russia on the other. The military character of Intermarium was a direct result of conceptual assumptions. On the other hand, the Three Seas Initiative proposed by Andrzej Duda and Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović does not in its essence assume the military nature of this structure. This is an extremely interesting aspect because there has been a redefinition and a different approach to the issue of threat. Nowadays, the military context does not result directly from the functional and structural assumptions of the initiative. This is one of the main differences between the idea of an alliance of Central and Eastern European countries today and the one that existed at the beginning of the 20th century.

17 Joint Declaration of the Third Summit of the Three Seas Initiative, (12.11.2019). 18 W. Jakóbik, Trójmorze między Unią a Chinami, (14.11.2019). S t r o n a | 53

The experience of the last few years indicates that Russia is returning to the international arena implementing its neo-imperial policy19. Referring again to the assumptions of geopolitics theory and rivalry of powers mentioned in this article, it can be concluded that the area of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans is the object of interest from both the United States and Russia, and in the current economic conditions – also China. The contemporary policy of the Russian Federation is primarily directed at destabilizing the situation in individual countries of the region. In this context, it is worth recalling the famous interview conducted by Grzegorz Gorny with Alexander Dugin in 1998. Then the Russian geostrategist said: “Russia in its geopolitical and sacral-geographical development is not interested in the existence of an independent Polish state in any form. It is also not interested in the existence of Ukraine. Not because we don't like Poles or Ukrainians, but because these are the laws of sacred geography and geopolitics”20. This declaration indicates Russia's intentions to take control of these countries. However, it is worth looking at this aspect from a broader perspective. In this context, mention should be made of Russia's involvement in the Balkans, the war waged in eastern Ukraine – a country directly bordering the European Union, or the presence of Russian troops in Transnistria. Not to mention the destabilization in Central and Eastern Europe caused by the information war waged by Russian propaganda structures21. The prospect of direct invasion by the Russian Federation is a problem that individual countries are struggling with. In this context, the establishment of the Three Seas Initiative is a necessary instrument to regulate the situation in this region. All initiative countries are members of NATO, which creates a strong structure protecting them against Russian influence. It is also worth mentioning the direct bilateral relations of the United States with individual members of the Initiative. For example, during the Three Seas Summit in Warsaw, a bilateral agreement was signed between the United States and Poland on the supply of American Patriot systems armed with Lockheed super missiles22. In turn, the Hungarian parliament agreed to the stationing of the American armed forces on the territory of this country23. Croatia, on the other hand, has signed a bilateral agreement on the delivery by

19 T. Święchowicz, Imperium zła. Reaktywacja, Łódź 2014, pp. 10-14. 20 G. Górny, Rosja nie jest zainteresowana istnieniem niepodległego państwa polskiego, (16.11.2019). 21 A. Sołdatow, I. Borogan, KGB/FSB. Władcy Rosji, Warszawa 2015, pp. 15-17. 22 Z. Lentowicz, Umowa na system Patriot podpisana. Dostawa za 4 lata, (21.11.2019). 23 Wojska USA będą stacjonować na Węgrzech. Jest zgoda parlamentu, (21.11.2019). 54 | S t r o n a the U.S. army of several dozen Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, which after modernization will be used by the Croatian armed forces24. Therefore, strengthening the defence potential has become one of the factors conditioning the establishment of the Three Seas Initiative. In the conditions of potential destabilization of the Central and Eastern Europe region, preventive actions of individual countries will undoubtedly play a positive role in the future.

The importance of the Three Seas Initiative in the region of Central and Eastern Europe

The emergence of the Three Seas initiative on the political map of the world caused a stormy reaction from both Western countries and institutions, as well as the Russian Federation. For the authorities in the Kremlin, the establishment of an alliance of states in Central and Eastern Europe is a direct obstacle to the implementation of their strategic plans to control the region. Control, which is directed primarily at the market of energy raw materials and transmission infrastructure. Russia sees the hidden interest of the United States in the creation of the Three Seas Initiative, which wants to reduce the energy dependence of the region's countries on the raw materials supplied by Russian companies, thereby entering the European market with much more expensive U.S. liquefied gas. Russian analyst of the European energy market Igor Yushkov said that Americans want to oust Russian raw materials from Europe, thus realizing the assumptions of their superpower policy25. The energy sector is not the only area that worries the Russian Federation. Your Three Seas initiatives also strengthen their military capabilities by purchasing modern defense systems and conventional weapons. The bilateral agreements between Poland and the United States mentioned in this article on the purchase of American Patriot systems armed with Lockheed super missiles, or the agreements between Zagreb and Washington on the delivery of Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, are an exemplification of the factors causing Russia's fears of strengthening countries in the region of Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, Poland is strengthening not only through cooperation with the United States. Then, when Berlin and Paris negated the participation of the Polish state in the Main Ground Combat System (MGCS) project, which aims to construct a new tank, Warsaw began negotiations with the Korean Hyundai Rotem concern about the purchase of 800 tanks and the technologies necessary for their operation. Completing this type of investment will allow Poland to

24 J. Palowski, Bradleye jadą do Chorwacji, (12.12.2019). 25 K. Gorshenin, Energeticheskoye prikrytiye: v kongresse SSHA prizvali pomoch' stranam „Trimor'ya” snizit' „zavisimost” ot Rossii, (2.12.2019). S t r o n a | 55 build military power in the region because it will have more modern tanks than Germany and France put together26. Fears caused by the creation of the Three Seas Initiative also came from the European Union, as well as from individual members. However, from the very beginning it was declared that this structure would not constitute an alternative to the European Community. Within the European Union, by the time the Three Seas Initiative had been set up, there were already structures associating Member States. It is worth mentioning in this context, for example, the Weimar Triangle or the Visegrad Group. Nevertheless, these structures were created in the early 1990s, when most countries were not yet associated in the European Community. Today, however, the emergence of such a large alliance of member states within the Union could raise concerns, but it is worth remembering the economic, political, and military aspects that determine the creation of the Three Seas Initiative. In this context, it is not only a ‘protective umbrella’ of the European community against Russia's neo-imperial policy but also an effective mechanism that drives the economic development of the entire European Union. This aspect results from the findings of the Member States agreed at the annual summits of the Three Seas Initiative. During the meeting in Ljubljana, the perspective of implementation of 48 priority projects in the field of economy as well as communication and transmission infrastruc- ture was adopted. These include the modernization of the Croatian port in Rijeka, the construction of the Baltic Pipe gas pipeline, which is to connect , Denmark, and Poland, and in the longer term also other countries of the region. Also, it was agreed to extend the LNG terminal in Swinoujscie for transhipment and regasification of liquefied gas, as well as the construction of a similar terminal on the Croatian island of Krk. On the other hand, in the area of transport infrastructure, were agreed with the next stages of construction of north-south relationship route of the Via Carpatia linking the Lithuanian Klaipeda with the Greek Thessaloniki and construction of a railway route in Slovenia between the port of Koper located on the Adriatic coast and a significant from the point of view of transport infrastructure railway junction in Divaca27. The Three Seas Initiative is therefore directed towards ensuring stability in the development of the Central and Eastern Europe region. The implication of this process is also the growth and the improving economic situation of the entire Union. Comments saying that the Three Seas Initiative is an alternative to the European Community are unjustified because the structural cohesion of

26 A. Widzyk, „Die Welt”: Niemcy i Francja wykluczają Polskę z projektów zbrojeniowych, (31.12..2019). 27 Ya. Serhiyenko, Samit „Trʹokh moriv”, (23.11.2019). 56 | S t r o n a the Union is guaranteed by EU law and restrictions threatening its non- compliance.

The process of integration of the Three Seas Initiative with countries which are not members of the European Union

In the context of reflections on the future of the Three Seas Initiative, the important question is whether it will ever expand to include non-members of the European Community? Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, or Balkan countries are a priority development direction, however, remaining at this stage in the form of negotiations conducted by individual countries. Given the complexity of the situation that has evolved in Central and Eastern Europe, in this article the author will deal with countries east of the Three Seas Initiative demarcation line. At this point, the issue of participation in an alliance of a country like Ukraine deserves special attention. If the issue of integration of the Three Seas Initiative with Belarus or Moldova is somewhat clear and boils down to the negation of their participation in the structure of the alliance, which is an implication of their relationship with the Russian Federation, then the problem related to Ukraine is much more complex. It manifests itself primarily in the historical context associated with the integration idea that was formed at the beginning of the 20th century. This article has already discussed the concept of the alliance of Intermarium by Józef Pilsudski and his successors, including Władysław Sikorski and representatives of the Paris Culture Jerzy Giedroyc and Juliusz Mieroszewski. Nevertheless, it was the last two of these researchers who particularly emphasized the importance of joining Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Belarus. In this context, Ukraine is becoming an important component – with its exit to the Black Sea, extensive territory and natural resources – forming, together with the other countries, the Baltic-Black Sea bridge, the creation of which has been negated from the very beginning by many countries with the Russian Federation headed28. This historical context boils down not only to the issue of the Polish integration concept but also to the assumptions of Ukrainian geopolitics, which on a large scale began to develop in the 19th and early 20th centuries and saw Poland as an enemy of the Ukrainian state. Interestingly, the creators of Polish geopolitics proclaimed the danger of both Germany and Russia. By contrast, Ukrainian geopolitical concepts were directed at opposing Poland and Russia29. Mikolay Michnowski, Stefan Rudnicki, or Yuriy Lypa are just the tip of the

28 W. Kowalski, Polska w sojuszach „od morza do morza"? Duda chce wskrzesić idee Piłsudskiego, planuje nowy blok państw, (11.12.2019). 29 P. Eberhardt, Słowiańska geopolityka. Twórcy rosyjskiej, ukraińskiej i czechosłowackiej geopolityki oraz ich koncepcje ideologiczno-terytorialne, Kraków 2017, p. 99-103. S t r o n a | 57 ideological mountain of the Ukrainian geopolitical concept. Their postulates regarding integration processes in Central and Eastern Europe and Eastern Europe boiled down to cultivating first and foremost the importance of the Ukrainian state30. At this point, one can hypothesize that the rivalry at the beginning of the 20th century on the Poland-Ukraine line for who would play a leading role in the process of forming the bloc of countries in Central and Eastern Europe led to the failure of all the actions of the then authorities in this direction. However, in the 21st century, when the countries of Central and Eastern and Eastern Europe had the experience of World War II and the communist regime that lasted in this region until 1989, the perspective of antagonisms arising on the axiological and ideological level became secondary. Realism and pragmatism in international relations count in today's world. Therefore, when the idea of creating the Three Seas Initiative in Ukraine arose, it was widely commented on by specialists and analysts. It was claimed that Ukraine's accession to this alliance would be a strong blow to the Russian Federation. In this context, the issues of both military and energy security were put first. The position on the validity of Ukraine's accession to the Three Seas Initiative was propagated only by expert circles. In contrast, Ukrainian decision-makers adopted a different position on this issue, because the then President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko was invited to the first summit of the alliance, which took place in 2016 in Dubrovnik. However, for unexplained reasons, he did not go to this meeting31. Ukrainian experts explained the fact that Kyiv did not want to oppose the interests of Berlin and Paris. The Three Seas Initiative was seen as a potential threat to French, German, and British interests. From the very beginning of the conclusion of the agreement on the establishment of the Three Seas Initiative, the European Union, as well as its members, referred to the alliance of countries of Central and Eastern Europe with some distance. The attitude of EU structures in this context has changed very quickly, because at the summit in Warsaw in 2017, together with representatives of the Three Seas Member States, the President of the United States and high EU officials participated. Ukraine has also changed its rhetoric, but this did not help in obtaining the invitation to participate in the Warsaw summit. By its actions and disregarding signals sent to it by individual members of the Three Seas Initiative, Kyiv has missed the opportunity to participate in this structure, thus losing the opportunity to increase its economic, infrastructural and military potential32. In the current situation of

30 M. Siudak, Ukraińska geopolityka. Wybór tekstów źródłowych, Częstochowa 2017, pp. 14-20. 31 A. Bondarenko, Intermarium: kryza hlobalizatsiyi vzhe v Yevropi?, (13.12.2019). 32 V. Semkiv, Ilyuziya Mizhmor'ya, (13.12.2019). 58 | S t r o n a

Ukraine, participation in this alliance would be a significant factor by which the Ukrainian state could improve its position in the international arena.

Conclusions

In 2015, on the initiative of Polish President Andrzej Duda and a President from Croatia, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, an alliance of 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, known as the Three Seas Initiative, was established. There were many reservations about the creation of a new integration structure within the European Union. Disapproval was reported in the same way individual countries belonging to the so-called ‘Old Union’ as well as representatives of EU institutions. Nevertheless, from the very beginning, the Three Seas Initiative did not assume the idea of being an alternative to the European Union. At that time, many conditions were indicating the need to establish a structure in the Central and Eastern Europe region that would be a platform for achieving the goals of EU countries that were admitted to the Community after 2004 (excluding Austria, which joined the European Union in 1995). These countries occupy an area which in theoretical concepts of classical geopolitics occupy the so-called ‘buffer area’, between the West and the Russian Federation. For this reason, the obvious reason for the emergence of an alliance of countries in this region is to take care of security on both the military and energy levels. Opposition to the neo-imperial policy of the Kremlin, which seeks dominance in Central and Eastern Europe, is one of the key strategic elements of the Three Seas concept. It is believed that the constructive idea of the Three Seas Initiative goes back to the beginning of the 20th century and refers to the concept of Intermarium by Jozef Pilsudski. However, it is worth noting that the two concepts are fundamentally different, because the Three Seas concept proposed by the presidents of Poland and Croatia bases its assumptions on the idea of economic and technological development, while the concept of Intermarium was more military aimed at balancing forces in Central Europe Eastern Europe. Also, today's Three Sea Initiative geographically covers a different area than what was assumed by Jozef Pilsudski. It is also worth paying attention to the fact that at the beginning of the 20th century the creation of a confederation of states was assumed, while the Three Seas Initiative is only an alliance consisting of the economic and infrastructural cooperation of Central and Eastern European countries. In this context, the military aspect should not be overlooked. It is not the main goal of cooperation, but it significantly strengthens the position of this structure in the international arena. United States support is of particular importance for the functioning of the Three Seas Initiative. Washington skilfully uses the situation, because on the one hand it develops economic relations with this region, on the other hand it S t r o n a | 59 uses this area as a platform of competition not only with Russia, but also with China, which dramatically increases its presence in this region through direct financial investments. The multi-faceted nature of the phenomenon described means that the Three Seas Initiative is becoming increasingly the subject of political debate in many countries around the world. There is no doubt that the alliance of countries in the region of Central and Eastern Europe is an effective tool used by individual Member States, thereby strengthening its subjectivity on the world stage. The implementation of strategic economic and infrastructure projects contributes to the increase of the investment attractiveness of a given region. How it will look and at what pace it will develop in the future remains an open question. Whether it joins the Three Seas Initiative, Ukraine, or maybe Belarus, Moldova, or Serbia and Albania is a fundamental question for the shape of contemporary international relations and geopolitical theory. Ukraine, which has missed its chance to participate in this structure, has today changed its rhetoric and wants to join the group of Three Seas countries. Thus, what the future of the Three Seas Initiative will look like is an excellent research platform, which implies the need for further research and analysis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Bondarenko A., Intermarium: kryza hlobalizatsiyi vzhe v Yevropi?  Brzeziński Z., Wielka szachownica, Warszawa 1998  Dugin A. G., Osnovy geopolityki, Moscow 2000  Eberhardt P., Słowiańska geopolityka. Twórcy rosyjskiej, ukraińskiej i czechosłowackiej geopolityki oraz ich koncepcje ideologiczno- terytorialne, Kraków 2017  Gajowniczek T., Rosja a „Międzymorze” w polskiej myśli politycznej w XX wieku. Wybrane zagadnienia, „Zeszyty Wschodnie”, 2004, No. 1  Gorshenin K., Energeticheskoye prikrytiye: v kongresse SSHA prizvali pomoch' stranam „Trimor'ya” snizit' „zavisimost'” ot Rossii,  Górny G., Rosja nie jest zainteresowana istnieniem niepodległego państwa polskiego,  Hasselbach Ch., Romaniec R., Trójmorze coraz ważniejsze dla Niemiec, 60 | S t r o n a

 Jakóbik W., Trójmorze między Unią a Chinami,  Joint Declaration of the Third Summit of the Three Seas Initiative,  Kowalski W., Polska w sojuszach „od morza do morza"? Duda chce wskrzesić idee Piłsudskiego, planuje nowy blok państw,  Kwapis R., Praska Wiosna, Toruń 2004  Lentowicz Z., Umowa na system Patriot podpisana. Dostawa za 4 lata,  Maciejewski M., Zróżnicowanie kondycji gospodarczej państw Unii Europejskiej, „Studia Ekonomiczne. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach”, No. 319/2017  Sienkiewicz M., Koncepcja Trójmorza w polityce zagranicznej Polski po 2015 roku, „Dyplomacja i Bezpieczeństwo”, No. 1(4)/2016  Palowski J., Bradleye jadą do Chorwacji,  Prostak R., Wspólny europejski system azylowy a kryzys imigracyjny w Europie, [in:] Nowe wyzwania integracji europejskiej, ed. by H. Tendera-Właszczuk, W. Bąba, M. Zajączkowska, Warszawa 2016  Semkiv V., Ilyuziya Mizhmor'ya,  Serhiyenko YA., Samit „Trʹokh moriv”,  Singer D., Prelude de Revolution. France in May 1968, Madison 1970  Siudak M., Ukraińska geopolityka. Wybór tekstów źródłowych, Częstochowa 2017  Sofuł A., Ziarno J., Polska na szerokim tle. Rozmowa z Konradem Szymańskim, „Magazyn Gospodarczy Nowy Przemysł”, No. 1/2017  Sołdatow A., Borogan I., KGB/FSB. Władcy Rosji, Warszawa 2015  Spykman N. J., American’s Strategy in World Politics. The United States and The Balance of Power, New Brunswick 2007  Stępnik A., Ukraina, Litwa i Białoruś w „Zeszytach Historycznych" (1962-1991), [in:] Jerzy Giedroyc. Redaktor. Polityk. Człowiek, ed. by K. Pomian, Lublin 2001  Shevchuk V., Rozhdayev V., Plan „Mezhdumor'ye” – Britaniya podderzhit, Frantsiya ne protiv, Ukraina i Pol'sha sdelayut S t r o n a | 61

 Szułdrzyński M., Krzysztof Szczerski: Trójmorze nie jest alternatywą dla UE,  Święchowicz T., Imperium zła. Reaktywacja, Łódź 2014  Trybus V., Novikova K., Arkhitektory Mizhmorya,  Widzyk A., „Die Welt”: Niemcy i Francja wykluczają Polskę z projektów zbrojeniowych,  Wojska USA będą stacjonować na Węgrzech. Jest zgoda parlamentu,

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S t r o n a | 63

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/201911

Vakhtang MAISAIA1 Georgia

Salome KARELI2 Georgia

‘THREE SEAS’ AREA PAN-REGIONAL SECURITY PROVISIONS AND ITS GEOPOLITICAL CONSEQUENCES – SECURITY DILEMMA VS. SECURITY DEADLOCK

Abstract: The geostrategic area that generally could be labelled as the ‘Three Seas’(TSI) pan-region (Baltic Sea-Adriatic Sea-Black Sea geostrategic space) has already been described as a hotspot and as an unstable zone caused by interference of not only global but also regional hegemon powers. The main cause of instability by the global power actors is defined as being described as a ’New Cold War’ game where Eastern and Central Europe as well as the Black Sea zone are becoming a new geostrategic ‘Rimland’ for the game. The area is the primary sphere of major interests for political regional organizations, including the EU and NATO, with increasing importance of the area from a geostrategic standpoint. The instability clause is being inspired by new challenges – violent non-state actors (like DAESH, Al-Qaida, etc.), black transit transactions (drug and arms smuggling), all types of terrorist entities, separatism war-gamers, low intensified conflicts, violent human rights violations, etc. All of these factors lead toward the emergence of a hybrid warfare concept r in regional security stability. Asymmetric challenges imposed by hybrid warfare initiators caused more. Unfortunately all these new challenges cause the development of new types of security infringement with involvement of non-state actors in regional geopolitics can be newly identified as ‘National Security Deadlock’ – political ruleship of the country and special conditions of political condition when any decision taken by the political leadership more increases risks occasion from internal as well as external

1 Vakhtang Maisaia, Ph.D. in politics and military science; Professor Caucasus International University and Honorable of the University of Business and Entrepreneurship in Ostrowiec Swietokrzyski. Email: [email protected] 2 Salome Kareli, Ph.D. Student at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University. 64 | S t r o n a origins. The jargon introduced and invented by the author of the abstract, namely linked with the situation in the geostrategic area, including the Caucasus region. even actors of international security systems also inflame the situation in the region and reach up to a level of security dilemma. Hence, two security challenges are competing at the area and causing the most dangerous situation on the spot.

Keywords: National Security Deadlock, New Cold War, Three Seas Concept, hybrid warfare, Maritime Dominance, ‘Fourth generation war’, Rimland, violent non- state actors, Al-Qaida.

Introduction

Launched in 2015 by Croatian President Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović and Polish President Andrzej Duda, the initiative creates a political platform to promote connectivity among nations in Central and Eastern Europe by supporting infrastructure, energy, and digital interconnectivity projects. The initiative gets its name from the three seas that border the region: the Baltic, Black, and Adriatic Seas. The twelve states that are part of the initiative are Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Three Seas Initiative aims at stimulating more rapid development of the region stretching between the Baltic, Black and Adriatic Seas3. This is to be achieved through both high level and multi-stakeholder commitment to boosting connectivity among Member States, with special focus on infrastructure, energy and digital interconnectivity. In addition to that, an initiative in July 2017 was created as a Business Forum with the objective of bringing together economic entities interested in economic cooperation, aimed at enhancing economic bonds within the region4. this approach is setting a new dynamic of cooperation among the countries lying at the Eastern border of the EU on the North – South Axis that will advance economic growth and help to bridge the East – West economic gap, within the EU. The four main features of the cooperation are outlined here: 1. The Initiative seeks to contribute to the economic development of Central and Eastern Europe through infrastructure connectivity, mainly but not exclusively on the North-South axis, in three main fields — transport, energy and digital; 2. The second objective is to increase real convergence among EU Member States, thereby contributing to enhanced unity and cohesion

3 D. A. Wemer, The Three Seas Initiative Explained, (31.12.2019). 4 Three Seas Initiative Summit, Bucharest 17-18.09.2018, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 65

within the EU. This approach avoids artificial East-West divides and further stimulate EU integration; 3. The Initiative is intended to contribute to the strengthening of transatlantic ties. The US economic presence in the region provides a catalyst for an enhanced transatlantic partnership; 4. The initiative is being supported by the USA entirely and concluded as a key instrument to promote Trans-Atlantic solidarity with the European allies. The enormous financial aid would be invested into concrete project realization, probably LNG delivery and other ones. Moreover, the USA overwhelmingly provides support to the ‘Three Seas Initiative’ in order to curb the Russian sponsored ‘International North-South Transport Corridor’ propounded in the aegis of informal cooperation Russia-Azerbaijan-Iran involving the official national railway transport network. Informally the corridor labels as Estonian- Azerbaijani corridor as Estonia joined the North-South transport corridor in November 20165 and subsequently the joint Estonian- Azerbaijani parliamentary group has been formed in the Estonian Parliament together with joint Intergovernmental Commission for Trade and Economic Cooperation6.

Three Sea Initiatives Project in the context of the ‘Fourth Generation War’: A New Era of Warfare for Maritime Dominance

Confrontation between states has happened through various strategies and tactics over the years. The form and character of the confrontation gradually changes and becomes more flexible. Consequently, a significant challenge to determining real threats is h the study of the new forms of conflict, tactics and instruments to ensure the correct response to it and the improvement of a defence policy concept. One of the foremost national interests of the hegemonic players in the international arena has always been to maintain or increase power at the regional or pan-regional level. To achieve this, as William S. Lind7, author of The Fourth Generation War, explains, humanity has waged three different generations of wars, and now, with the convention war, more sophisticated tactics have been added. “…[The fourth generation war] – an evolved form of insurgency that employs all available networks – political, economic, social,

5 Estonia Joining North-South International Transport Corridor, (31.12.2019). 6 L. Mamedova, Estonia, Azerbaijan May Expand Ports Cooperation, (31.12.2019). 7 W. S. Lind, K. Nightengale, J. F. Schmitt, J. W. Sutton, G. I. Wilson, The Changing Face of War: Into the Fourth Generation, “Marine Corps Gazette”, October 1989, pp. 22-26. 66 | S t r o n a military – to convince an opponent’s decision makers that their strategic goals are either unachievable or too costly.” Although there is a dispute between military analysts over the term, what is mentioned as a fourth-generation war and conventional war combined with asymmetric threats can be defined as a unified/hybrid warfare8. According to NATO Secretary General, Jens Stoltenberg, the hybrid threat is not a new one, ”Hybrid is the dark reflection of our comprehensive approach. We use a combination of military and non-military means to stabilize countries. Others use it to destabilize them”9. However, it is the fact that the international security system is exactly threatened by the novelty of using these new combinations and tactics, which aimed at destabilization, in such a way that it is difficult to prove its culpability. The reality is not unambiguous and the margin declines. Nowadays, when we are dealing with the protection of national interests, and defending it from the dangers of hybrid warfare, one of the main challenges of the countries is Russia's foreign policy and the campaign to establish regional revisionism and international influence. It is no doubt that in the post-Cold War era, the struggle for influence certainly continues. During this period, there was a clear manifestation of Russia's soft (non-military) power and the disintegration of state institutions through groups loyal to the Kremlin on the territory concerned, which in turn weakened the country's economic, political and social system overall. Experts think that the future threat from Russia is that it has several sectorial dominances, giving it the power to manipulate. Russia’s strategy is based on this principle, to be inconsistent in some particular aspects. For example, Russia's foreign policy, which is considered to be formed according to the so-called ‘Gerasimov Doctrine’, includes a classic example of hybrid warfare tactics and actions. According to this doctrine, open military action can only be taken at a stage when certain political goals are achieved through non-military action and the ultimate success of the conflict is required. Therefore, it is interesting to study why Russia needed to use this fourth-generation war tactic first in Georgia in 2008 and then in Ukraine in 2014? what final plan did Russia have for these conflicts? We suppose, that one of the determinants of this may be maritime dominance. Maritime dominance is an excellent scenery for hybrid warfare, mixing psychological warfare with kinetic covert operations.

8 W. S. Lind, J. F. Schmitt, G. I. Wilson, Fourth Generation Warfare: Another Look, “Marine Corps Gazette”, December 1994, p. 35. 9 J. Stoltenberg, Keynote speech by NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg at the opening of the NATO Transformation Seminar, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 67

As mentioned above, a hybrid threat is not only a threat to one country, but also a global one. It is a clear confirmation that Russia continues to build military bases on annexed or occupied territories, which is a real threat not only to the region, but also to the entire Black Sea region. After the war between Russia and Georgia in 2008, the 7th Abkhazian military base was formed in the town of Gudauta, as a result of the reform of the 58th Army and 131st Brigade. In addition, the military bases of the Southern Military District are located in Transcaucasia – on the Occupied Territories of Georgia – 4th base Tskhinvali region – in Tskhinvali and Java. The military units and units of the Southern Military District are located in three administrative units of the Russian Federation – the South, the North Caucasus and on the annexed territory of Ukrainian Crimea – since 2014.

Map 1: The ‘Three Seas Initiative’ concept.

Source: Own work.

As a political counsellor, Boris Toucas has analyzed Russia’s behaviour in the Black Sea Region, the purpose of its hybrid warfare for the Russia Crimea is a military source, on the other side he doubted, that Turkey is a stronghold for Russia, and the Turkish Strait is a strategic outpost. On this basis, the ultimate goal for Russia is to gain access and military presence in the eastern 68 | S t r o n a

Mediterranean, as to balance the U.S. and NATO expansion eastward, and its presence in the Aegean and central Mediterranean10. Before we start thinking about this scenario, given the nature of hybrid war itself, it is necessary to focus not on the ways in which Russia achieves its results, but on the consequences. Political actions are often dictated by economic factors. Whenever there were security issues with Russia in the region, one of the solutions was energy independence and the elimination of manipulation leverage. Eastern Europe and partly Central Europe have always been a direct target of the Russian empire, a space where the Kremlin has always wanted to keep its feet firm. for the last 300 years this space has always been vulnerable to Russian political and economic influences. During the Soviet period, the region was governed directly by Moscow directives. The source of Russia's manipulation is gas, economics and propaganda, there is a big difference between Central Europe and Eastern Europe, and they are on different planes. The severity of the issue lies in the fact that the agenda of the new threat to its core include components, which require a response on a global scale. However, until now the majority of the measures taken were on the local level and were not mistaken from international security policy. During the report we will focus on developing an international uniform approach for the ‘Three Seas Initiatives’ member countries as well as for Eastern and western European countries for effective response to threats due to hybrid warfare. For security purposes, we will consider efforts to elaborate a coordinated strategy and unite public opinion. As we have seen, the idea of TSI emerged soon after Russia’s annexation of Crimea, which indicates that member states not only want to overcome communist-era legacies but also that a good number of them are motivated by the desire to create an alternate trading block that would mitigate reliance on Russia. Poland’s former first Minister for European Integration, Jacek Saryusz- Wolski11 acknowledged that regional strategic cooperation is beneficial for all parties involved and for Europe as a whole – but he rejected the idea of a military alliance. He argued that such an alliance would provoke Russia to test the TSI’s seriousness and also, it would erode the deterrent effect of the Atlantic alliance.

10 B. Toucas, The Geostrategic Importance of the Black Sea Region: A Brief History, (31.12.2019). 11 J. Saryusz-Wolski, In between security arrangements: the Trojan horse of military Intermarium, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 69

On the other side, Russia wants to portray itself as an unpredictable power capable of an all-out attack, in reality, as we have mentioned before it has preferred hybrid methods and avoided open military confrontation. Even in the turmoil of early 2014, Russia used ‘little green men’ without insignia to occupy Crimea, it still does not admit it’s military presence in Donbas and continues to claim that soldiers spotted there are more volunteers. It behaves in this way as the would likely view an open military attack as a red line, making business as usual with Russia impossible. Based on this, the primary goal of TSI members must be to deal jointly with hybrid threats. The majority of TSI states are, to varying extents, dependent on energy supplies from single supplier: Russia. Consequently, the objective is to reduce reliance on hydrocarbon imports from the Russian Federation and bolster the energy security of members by diversifying the regional market’s energy supply and facilitating new gas- related initiatives. The initiative has been proposed in order to promote a whole spectrum of security provisions including political, economic, military, social and information, in the three sea area but also in real cases for the promotion of geopolitical stability in the so-called ‘Wider Black Sea’ region, encompasses namely these three seas: Black Sea (itself), Adriatic Sea and Baltic Sea. Moreover, the initiative has a very solid historic background and the one has not been introduced accidentally but with configuration and due to concrete geopolitical reality. The initiative has three main pre-historic background that are to be identified as follow: 1. the Prometheus Project launched in 1934 in Poland, aimed at creating an anti-Bolshevik coalition among the nations of the Caucasus, Balkans and East European regions; 2. The EU sponsored special geoeconomic project TRACECA and launched in 1992 promoting West-East transport corridor and enhancement global trade and economic development; 3. The regional security initiative, GUAM endorsed by the Georgian side (one of the authors of the initiative was Professor Vakhtang Maisaia, by that time he used to be President Shevardnadze’s Chief State Advisor on Caucasus Regional Security Affairs in 1997-1999) and promoted four states: Georgia, Azerbaijan, Ukraine and Moldova. It is possible to create a special matrix of the ‘Three Seas Initiative’ geopolitical identification as shown below:

70 | S t r o n a

Figure 1: ‘Three Seas Initiative’ matrix.

Source: Own work.

The Black Sea Region is one of the main factors in the make-up of security and stability in Europe and Asia. In addition to the numerous other issues in the region, ethnic conflicts, ongoing state-building processes, the presence of vast natural resources, and strategic transport and energy corridors means that the region is an extremely important and sensitive area. In geographical terms it is difficult to specify the boundaries of the Black Sea Region, since there are numerous regional and sub-regional structures. In the post-Cold War period, there has been a large measure of openness to several neighbouring areas, such as the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and the Caspian region. This kind of openness makes it difficult to define both the nature of the region and its borders. It is reflected in terms such as Black- Caspian Seas Region and Black-Mediterranean Seas Region. Some analysts have even argued that the Black Sea Region is simply an intellectual invention. In order to avoid confusion, this policy report is based on the definition adopted by the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). S t r o n a | 71

At the end of the Cold War, the states around the Black Sea regained their freedom and escaped from a bipolar conceptual straitjacket. This historical event not only marked the start of a move towards independence, democracy and market economy, but also unleashed hitherto suppressed ethnic, national and territorial conflicts, and even . From the early 1990s onwards the region witnessed armed conflicts and an increase in political tension. Political and territorial disagreements such as border disputes and clashes between both peoples and states are the main reason why the prospects for regional security cooperation are rather bleak. The Black Sea basin was of secondary importance for the Euro-Atlantic community during the 1990s as it focused on stabilizing and integrating central and eastern European countries from the Baltic to the Black Sea. However, in the 21st century the changing global and regional balances created new political and security dilemmas for the Black Sea Region. The global and regional powers increasingly supported competing political and security agendas which, although they occasionally contradicted each other, were clearly interlinked. After 11 September 2001, the US increased its involvement in the region, for example with new programs in Georgia and Ukraine. This went hand in hand with the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) enlargement processes and global political developments. The differing approaches to the creation of security and stability in the region led to tension and rivalry between the regional actors. In the post-Cold War period, the Black Sea Region failed to develop a cooperative security vision or structure in which the regional actors would have been the principal stakeholders. The Russian-Georgian War in August 2008 showed quite clearly that the initiatives designed to pacify the region had not produced a security system capable of preventing or containing internal and interstate conflicts. One lesson that can be learned from the August 2008 crisis is that the interplay of regional and global forces will continue to dominate future political and military issues in the region. It remains to be seen whether the war in August 2008 will lead to a new cooperative security environment in the Black Sea Region. Finally, all kinds of security issues ranging from energy security to environmental degradation and from terrorism to illegal trafficking in arms, human beings and drugs continue to be unresolved as a result of international rivalry. Another important issue is energy security. The need to achieve energy supply diversity on the one hand and the risks associated with energy dependency on Russia on the other show the importance of gas and oil from other sources being piped to the European markets through the region. The energy dispute between Russia and Ukraine in late 2008 and early 2009 clearly illustrated the importance of energy security for the region and the EU. In addition to exploration, production and transport-related problems, oil and 72 | S t r o n a natural gas have become one of the main security issues in the Black Sea Region, which as the principal energy transit route, is also a testing ground for the interaction between producer, consumer and transit countries. This means that the region is not only a potential hub. There are also numerous rivalries. Finally, a number of problems associated with soft security issues which range from environmental concerns to the potential for social unrest and economic collapse need to be analyzed, especially if there is a likelihood that they will disrupt political stability and security in the region. Potential destabilizing threats such as the global financial crisis also need to be kept under review, as does the impact of the crisis on the countries in the region or on the redefinition of the roles of the regional powers, and the opportunities arising from a redefinition of the global economic environment. By and large, the Black Sea region is also increasing of geoeconomic importance especially with regard to developing energy security provisions in aegis of the European Union via the import and providing transit opportunities from the Caspian Basin, Middle East and Central Asia and becoming some kind of energy gateway that is so important for providing and fostering security and stability implications in the Pan-European Area. It is interesting to underpin that energy security in the Wider Black Sea region is defined by the concrete scientific and academic analytical school approaches reflected in international relations, like interdependence theory12.

Geopolitical Classification of the Black Sea Region – Wider Black Sea Implication for the World Politics

The above mentioned passage depicted geographical implications for the Black Sea region, but due to the geopolitical transmission and transformation after bipolar system demolition in contemporary international relations, regional security has increased steadily. There are several indications why the region has become so important and unique in the post Cold War period; first of all, the very unique geopolitical implication of the region. The region is primarily accessible to the ‘Three Oceans’ line (Nord, Atlantic and Indian Oceans – see Map 2) via the gateways of the Black Sea Basin, the Persian Gulf and Central Eurasia. Moreover, concrete geopolitical determinants of importance within the region are considered with three main criteria having pure geopolitical meaning.

12 I. Chifu, A. Sauliuc, B. Nedea, Energy Security Strategies in the Wider Black Sea Region, Bucharest 2010, p. 9. S t r o n a | 73

Map 2: The Black Sea Region applicability toward ‘Three Oceans’ line.

Source: Own work.

These unique geopolitical indications are sought to be as following: 1. Combination of three concepts: Talasokratia + Telurokratia + Montekratia; 2. ‘Eurasian Balkan’ acronym for spurring new asymmetric challenges; 3. Key international energy gateway providing unlimited delivery of energy resources to international markets. Nevertheless the geopolitical implication is only at the so-called ‘macro’ level of analysis and is fitted to Pan-regional classification and global political relevance of the region. In order to provide a so-called ‘micro’ level of analysis and importance of the region in aegis of the regional and local implications there are some approaches to make classification of the Black Sea region. The classification is based on classical geopolitical identification, similar to that of British geopolitical school founder, Professor Helford Mackinder’s ‘Heartland Theory’. According to his theory Mackinder divided the global geopolitical system into three main territorial areas: ‘Pivot Area’ (or another way ‘Heartland’), ‘Inner or Marginal Crescent’ and ‘Lands of the Outer or Insular Crescent’13. Even Mackinder endorsed simplistic dictum based on which he identified the then world order: “Who rules East Europe commands the

13 G. O’Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics: the Politics of Writing Global Space, London 1996, p. 33. 74 | S t r o n a

Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; who rules the World-Island commands the World”14. In this respect, based on classical geopolitical methodology it is possible to define geopolitical identification of the Black Sea region. Having considered the above-mentioned passage, it is necessary to figure out the following possible configuration. The configuration is clearly identified regional geopolitical architecture in three concrete circles, similar to that of the British classical geopolitical school approach: - Black Sea Basin – ‘Inner Core Ring’ – namely six littoral states of the Black Sea itself (Bulgaria, Turkey, Ukraine, Georgia, Russian Federation); - Black Sea Region – ‘Outer Core Ring’ – the land and seascape from the Balkans to the Caucasus and fro Ukrainian and Russian steppe to Anatolia; - Wider Black Sea Region (Area) – ‘Close Outer Ring’ – the territory encompasses the following geopolitical spaces MENA, Caspian Basin, South and Eastern Europe. Considering the geopolitical classification is important to clarify the dispositional characteristics of the regional ‘circles’. The scheme means demonstrating true geopolitical content each of the ‘circles’ – for instance, Black Sea Basin associated with ‘Talassokratia’15 geopolitics, Black Sea Region – associated with ‘Montecracy’16 geopolitics and Wider Black Sea Area (Region) – associated with ‘Telurokratia’17 geopolitics. Roughly, this is the geopolitical modality of the Black Sea region and following the British geopolitical school founder Mackinder’s dictum is very possible to create the same version for the regional dimension and if the dictum exists, the one is to be as follow: “Who rules Black Sea Basin commands the Eurasia (Post-Soviet Space); who rules Black Sea Region commands the Pan-Europe; who rules Wider Black Sea Region commands the World Politics”. This interesting approach contains historical provisions detrimentally influencing the regional geopolitics. The most important and critical challenge is the fact that there are a large number of actors and clashing interests within the Black Sea Region. In security terms the region suffers from several historical legacies. The Black Sea Region used to be treated as a ‘passive area’ and analyzed as the periphery of more significant geographical units. Thus the Black Sea basin has been variously described as the backyard of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, as an extension of Soviet zone of influence, as the frontier of Europe, and, finally, as the extension of the Mediterranean world.

14 R. D. Kaplan, The Revenge of Geography, New York 2013, p. 74. 15 Talassokratia – geopolitical means sea power domain in politics. 16 Montecracy – geopolitical jargon implies influence of mountainous geographic terrain on foreign political and military strategic decisions. 17 Telurokratia – geopolitical jargon means land power domain in politics. S t r o n a | 75

Moreover, the existence of several distinct sub-regions within the Black Sea Region, i.e. the Caucasus, the Balkans and to a certain extent the Mediterranean, Eastern Europe and the Middle East, is another factor that destabilizes the area. Time and again sub-regional identities have prevented the emergence of a Black Sea identity, created instability, and impeded the establishment of a comprehensive regional security framework. There are both regional and non-regional actors in the Black Sea Region, and three principal actors exert varying degrees of influence on the available security policy options (reflection of the passage is below). At present time, The Black Sea region is becoming very important to world markets because it has large oil and gas reserves that are only now beginning to be fully developed (taking into consideration the energy resources of Azerbaijan, the Ukraine, Romania, Russia, transit potency of Georgia, Bulgaria, Turkey and a very closed disposition toward the Caspian Basin). Developing these resources has resulted in competition both between companies to get the contracts to develop this potential, and between nations to determine the final export routes. According to experts of the RAND Corporation the Caspian oil potential today is 2% of the world's total (Venezuela has one-fourth of such reserves; Iraq, one-seventh; and Saudi Arabia, one-seventeenth). Therefore, the Caspian Sea region's oil and gas potential and the Black Sea region's transition ability have attracted much attention since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Due to the unique geopolitical location, the Black Sea region interlines four very important areas: the Middle East, the Central Europe, the Central Asia and Western Europe thus more raising political status of the region for the international society. The nations in the Black Sea region and nearby "gateways" (term used by the American scientist Saul B. Cohen18 and in this context means geographical one for key passages of the Black Sea for shipping of oil and gas)-the Caucasus – Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Turkey, Romania, Russia, Bulgaria are already major energy producers and exporters, and production will increase with additional investment, technology, and the development of new export outlets. The Caspian Sea is 700 miles long and contains 6 separate hydrocarbon basins. However, the importance of the Caspian Sea strategic reserves is difficult to consider by exclusion of the South-East Europe and the South Caucasus regions. The South Caucasus' strategic importance cannot be overestimated: it is a link between the North and the South (Russia and the Persian Gulf), it is a source of oil and gas for the European and Pacific markets19. Besides one should perceive the regional geopolitical perspective. The Caucasus has an important geopolitical role to play as a link between the North and the South (Central Eurasia, which is Russia, and the Middle East) and the West and the East (Western Europe-the Balkans-the Caucasus-Central Asia-Southeast Asia-the Far East). The true

18 D. Minix, S. Hawley, Global Politics, New York 1998, pp. 50-51. 19 V. Maisaia, The Caucasus-Caspian Regional and Energy Security Agendas – Past, Contemporary and Future Geopolitics: View from Georgia, Brussels 2007, pp. 15-17. 76 | S t r o n a mechanism of managing resources distribution requires stable and cohesive political stability. It drives all nations to engage into a new relationship mechanism and by joint effort to build democratic, free-minded societies and rigid statehood. Otherwise to say the broader Black Sea-Caspian-Central Asian dimension, bringing in all countries of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea, would be based on the existing mechanism of the Organization for the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) of which the countries of the Caucasus and the South-East Europe are members. The BSEC organization itself would be upgraded operationally, with full membership now appropriate for the EU in view of the status of Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey as accession candidates, and possible association links with the South Caucasus as well as their membership in NATO. institutionalization might lay the foundation for further development of the Black Sea reserves in order to benefit all participating nations and societies. This is a real chance for the the success of regionalization, achieving integrative negotiation ends.

Conclusion

The hybrid challenge is of great concern to most Wider Black Sea nations. A comprehensive coordinated strategy is needed, involving both NATO and EU countries as well as the institutions themselves. The structural and functional recommendations described here could form the building blocks of such a strategy and provide a framework for stopping hybrid action in the future. The main option is that, if you can achieve maritime dominance by the contemporary, fourth generation war tactics, you can have influence in many dimensions. Due to the revisionist policies of hegemons in the international arena, it is difficult to prevent events, however it is possible. The main thing is to get ready. Although the Three Seas Initiative is more economic in nature, if it succeeds, it can be one of the strongest leverage points in terms of security and a dignified response to the hybrid threats. To summarize, the biggest challenges in opening-up the Black Sea Regional frontier today are still remaining and these are the resolution of offshore maritime boundaries, petroleum legislation and economics (getting oil and gas to the market). The region has a highly complex geographical and political landscape, as is so often the case where individually one country’s political leadership’s decisions and activities is not enough and results in a National Security Deadlock. Only by addressing these issues the countries can seriously come together and reap the benefits of political partnerships, trade balance, security of supply and revenue/taxation/fiscal balance.

S t r o n a | 77

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Chifu I., Sauliuc A., Nedea B., Energy Security Strategies in the Wider Black Sea Region, Bucharest 2010  Estonia Joining North-South International Transport Corridor,  Kaplan R. D., The Revenge of Geography, New York 2013  Lind W. S., Nightengale K., Schmitt J. F., Sutton J. W., Wilson G. I., The Changing Face of War: Into the Fourth Generation, “Marine Corps Gazette”, October 1989  Lind W. S., Schmitt J. F., Wilson G. I., Fourth Generation Warfare: Another Look, “Marine Corps Gazette”, December 1994  Maisaia V., The Caucasus-Caspian Regional and Energy Security Agendas – Past, Contemporary and Future Geopolitics: View from Georgia, Brussels 2007  Mamedova L., Estonia, Azerbaijan May Expand Ports Cooperation,  Minix D., Hawley S., Global Politics, New York 1998  O’Tuathail G., Critical Geopolitics: the Politics of Writing Global Space, London 1996  Saryusz-Wolski J., In between security arrangements: the Trojan horse of military Intermarium,  Stoltenberg J., Keynote speech by NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg at the opening of the NATO Transformation Seminar,  Three Seas Initiative Summit, Bucharest 17-18.09.2018,  Toucas B., The Geostrategic Importance of the Black Sea Region: A Brief History,  Wemer D. A., The Three Seas Initiative Explained,

78 | S t r o n a

S t r o n a | 79

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20194

Aleksander CZICHOS1 Polska

IDEA TRÓJMORZA A STOSUNKI POLSKO-LITEWSKIE

(THE IDEA OF THE THREE SEAS AND POLISH-LITHUANIAN RELATIONS)

Abstrakt: Koncepcja Trójmorza powróciła w polskiej polityce zagranicznej w formie projektów regionalnych, realizowanych przez kraje Europy Środkowo- Wschodniej, a obejmujących przede wszystkim transport, bezpieczeństwo energetyczne i cyfryzację, nie zapominając jednak także o bezpieczeństwie militarnym. Celem wspólnie podejmowanych przedsięwzięć jest szybkie nadrobienie wieloletnich zaległości regionu, aby dorównać krajom Europy Zachodniej. W Trójmorze zaangażowało się 12 państw regionu, od Bałtyku po Morze Czarne i Adriatyk wyraźnie zaznaczając, że zawarte przez nie porozumienie nie stanowi konkurencji ani dla UE, ani dla NATO. Przy wielu wspólnych punktach działania ujawniają się różnice, wynikające z własnych interesów niektórych krajów. W projekt Trójmorza wpisują się stosunki polsko-litewskie, które po wielu latach chłodnych i obojętnych, uległy istotnej poprawie, po wyborach prezydenckich na Litwie, wygranych przez Gitanasa Nausedę. Już pierwsze spotkania prezydentów Polski i Litwy wykazały ich zbliżone stanowiska wobec wielu kwestii dotyczących obu krajów, z nadzieją na dalszy korzystny rozwój kontaktów dwu- i wielostronnych w regionie, prowadzących do szybkiego jego rozwoju gospodarczego.

Słowa kluczowe: Trójmorze, interesy państw regionu, relacje polsko-litewskie, Polska, Litwa.

1 Aleksander Czichos, absolwent Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego i Uniwersytetu Humanistyczno- Przyrodniczego w Częstochowie, obszar prowadzonych badań obejmuje systemy polityczne, geopolitykę, geostrategię, stosunki międzynarodowe, bezpieczeństwo narodowe oraz bezpieczeństwo informacyjne. Email: [email protected] 80 | S t r o n a

Abstract: The Three Seas concept has returned in Polish foreign policy in the form of regional projects implemented by the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Covering primarily transport, energy security and digitization, but not forgetting about military security. The goal of jointly undertaken undertakings is to quickly catch up the region's many years of arrears with Western Europe. Twelve countries from the region, from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea, got involved in Three Seas stating that the agreement does not constitute competition for the EU or NATO. At many common points of this action differences arise due to personal interests of some countries. Polish- Lithuanian relations are part of the Three Seas project, which improved after a long time, after the presidential election in Lithuania won by Gitanas Nauseda. The first meetings of the presidents of Poland and Lithuania have already shown their similar positions on many issues concerning both countries. It is hope for further favourable development of bilateral and multilateral contacts in the region.

Key words: Three Seas, interests of the countries of the region, Polish-Lithuanian relations, Poland, Lithuania.

Ewolucja koncepcji Trójmorza w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej – rys historyczny

Idea Trójmorza, kontynuująca koncepcję Międzymorza, oparta jest na wspólnych interesach ekonomicznych, obronnych i politycznych państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, ale przede wszystkim na wspólnym dzie- dzictwie historycznym i kulturowym. W stosunkach polsko-litewskich pojęcie Międzymorza sięga czasów Kazimierza Wielkiego, opisując monarchię łączącą Bałtyk z Morzem Czarnym. Koncepcja kontynuowana była w polskiej polityce zagranicznej przez kolejne stulecia, aż do epoki jagiellońskiej, gdy podpisanie Unii w Krewie (1385 r.), a następnie kolejnych dwustronnych porozumień, po Unię Lubelską (1569 r.) stało się na ponad 200 lat podstawą współpracy polityczno-militarnej w ramach Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. Kolejne burzliwe dla Polski stulecia zahamowały rozwój współpracy państw regionu, choć myśl o tym funkcjonowała nadal, w kontekście uniezależnienia się od silnych sąsiadów – Niemiec i Rosji. Odrodziła się w XIX w. w polityce księcia Adama Czartoryskiego, widzącego konfederację Rzeczypospolitej z Czechami, Rumunią, Słowacją, Słowianami Południowymi i Węgrami. Powróciła w okresie międzywojennym, gdy wiele państw regionu odzyskało niepodległość z dążeniem do utrzymania niezależności, zwłaszcza wobec Niemiec i ZSRR, w oparciu o tradycje Unii Polsko-Litewskiej. Idea ta lansowana była przez Józefa S t r o n a | 81

Piłsudskiego, myślącego początkowo o federacji państw regionu, a następnie o ich sojuszu, dla obrony przed agresją ze strony ZSRR. W 1921 r. podpisano Traktat Ryski i zaczęto myśleć o włączeniu do współpracy państw bałkańskich i Czechosłowacji. Pojawiła się też koncepcja Związku Bałtyckiego, łączącego Polskę, kraje bałtyckie i Finlandię oraz – wysunięta przez Józefa Becka – koncepcja „Trzeciej Europy”, nie powiązanej z Wielką Brytanią i Francją. Wszystkie one miały na celu zapewnienie Polsce bezpieczeństwa, wobec trudnego położenia geopolitycznego oraz ekspansywnej polityki Niemiec i ZSRR. W okresie II wojny światowej odnowiła się idea utworzenia federacji Czechosłowacji, Polski, Litwy i Węgier, ewentualnie Rumunii, z założeniem współpracy z federacją grecko-jugosłowiańską. Podpisano nawet (1942 r.) porozumienie o powołaniu Rady Planowania Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej. Próby tej współpracy nie przyniosły efektów, w związku z różnymi stanowiskami stron wobec Niemiec i ZSRR. Próby dwu- i wielostronnej współpracy państw regionu kończyły się niepowodzeniem, wobec obaw o dominację RP. Porozumieniu nie sprzyjały także konflikty graniczne z Czechosłowacją, Ukrainą i Litwą2. Sytuacja geopolityczna po II wojnie światowej na dziesięciolecia zahamowała rozwój współpracy państw Międzymorza, choć wśród polskiej opozycji demokratycznej nadal funkcjonował projekt określany jako ABC – Adriatyk, Bałtyk, Morze Czarne, dotyczący krajów Europy Środkowo- Wschodniej. W 1946 r. w Rzymie, podczas spotkania Klubu Federalnego Środkowo-Europejskiego, podpisano Kartę Wolnego Międzymorza, która w 12 postulatach wykazała wspólne interesy krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej oraz zagrożenia dla zamieszkujących ten obszar 160 mln mieszkańców. W Karcie podkreślono wspólną tożsamość, historię i dziedzictwo kulturowe tych państw oraz wskazano konieczność stworzenia konfederacji państw, ze wspólną polityką zagraniczną, obronną i gospodarczą. W ówczesnej Polsce

2 W. Gizicki, P. Łoś, Geopolityka Trójmorza, „Przestrzeń Społeczna” 2019, nr 1(17), ss. 123-125; A. Balcer, Trójmorze – myślenie życzeniowe czy ?, (30.12.2019); G. Baziur, Trójmorze jako koncepcja bezpieczeństwa rozwoju ekonomicznego Europy Wschodniej, „Przegląd Geopolityczny” 2018, nr 23. s. 25; J. Dutka, Wpływ realizacji geopolitycznej koncepcji Międzymorza na bezpieczeństwo militarne Polski i Europy Wschodniej w XXI wieku, „Przegląd Geopolityczny” 2016, nr 16, ss. 121-128; M. Sienkiewicz, Koncepcja Trójmorza w polityce zagranicznej Polski po 2015 r., „Dyplomacja i Bezpieczeństwo” 2016, nr 1/(4), ss. 139- 141; L. Sykulski, Geopolityka. Skrypt dla początkujących, Częstochowa 2014, ss. 118-129; P. Cieplucha, Prometeizm i koncepcja Międzymorza w praktyce polityczno-prawnej oraz dyplomacji II RP, „Studia Prawno-Ekonomiczne” 2014, XCIII, ss. 39-41, 51-52; P. Kular, Międzymorze – utopia czy alternatywa?, (23.12.2019); P. Ukielski, Inicjatywa Trójmorza w polskiej polityce zagranicznej, „Studia Europejskie” 2018, nr 2, ss. 45-46; K. Grygajtis, Polska polityka zagraniczna 1926-1939: Od koncepcji „Międzymorza” Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego do idei „Trzeciej Europy” Józefa Becka, „Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe” 2006, nr 2, ss. 173-176. 82 | S t r o n a idea Międzymorza pojawiała się przede wszystkim w grupach opozycyjnych oraz w środowisku emigracyjnym, związanym z paryską „Kulturą” Jerzego Giedroycia3. Koncepcja utworzenia bloku państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej odrodziła się po obaleniu muru berlińskiego i rozpadzie ZSRR, gdy kwestie geopolityczne i bezpieczeństwa w Europie zmieniły polaryzację. Od 1994 r. regularnie odbywają się szczyty prezydentów dotyczące polityki i szeroko pojętego bezpieczeństwa. W latach 1989-91 była niewielka szansa na stworzenie bloku państw między trzema morzami z Polską na czele, dla zahamowania dominacji Niemiec i Rosji. Pierwszą inicjatywą było powołanie (1991 r.) Grupy Wyszehradzkiej (V4), którą tworzą Polska, Czechy, Słowacja i Węgry. Przystąpienie do UE większości państw regionu poprawiło możliwości współpracy, mimo zadawnionych i współczesnych konfliktów etnicznych, religijnych, językowych i granicznych. Państwa coraz silniej postrzegały konieczność bliższej współpracy regionalnej, tak ekonomicznej, jak i w obszarze bezpieczeństwa. Efektem tego jest powołana w 2015 r. z inicjatywy Polski i Chorwacji, ukierunkowana głównie ekonomicznie, złożona z 12 państw członków UE – Austrii, Bułgarii, Chorwacji, Czech, Estonii, Litwy, Łotwy, Polski, Rumunii, Słowacji, Słowenii i Węgier – Inicjatywa Państw Trójmorza (IPT), zwana także Inicjatywą Trójmorza (IT). Jest nieformalnym projektem infrastrukturalnym, mającym na celu rozwój państw regionu z północy na południe, dla przeciwwagi dominujących dotąd połączeń zachód-wschód oraz uzupełnienia wspólnego rynku europejskiego. Drugą jest – utworzona w 2015 r. na miniszczycie NATO z inicjatywy Polski i Rumunii – „Bukareszteńska Dziewiątka” (B9), którą tworzą państwa Grupy Wysze-hradzkiej oraz Litwa, Łotwa, Estonia, Bułgaria i Rumunia4.

Współczesne koncepcje Trójmorza a sytuacja geopolityczna w regionie

We współczesne pojęcie Trójmorza wpisuje się trójkąt geopolityczny leżący między Bałtykiem, Morzem Czarnym i Adriatykiem, stanowiący

3 W. Gizicki, P. Łoś, op. cit., s. 123; J. Dudka, op. cit., ss. 128-129; M. Sienkiewicz, op. cit., ss. 141-143; L. Sykulski, op. cit., ss. 123-129; P. Cieplucha, op. cit., ss. 40-41. 4 G. Baziur, op. cit., ss. 25-34; W. Gizicki, P. Łoś, op. cit., s. 124; P. Żurawski vel Grajewski, Polska dyplomacja jest skuteczna, (23.12.2019); M. Miernicka, Spotkanie Bukareszte- ńskiej Dziewiątki, (26.12.2019); R. Lesiecki, Ministrowie obrony 9 państw regionu po rozmowach w Warszawie. „Współpraca to źródło naszego sukcesu”, (26.12.2019); Łączy nas nie tylko obronność i energetyka. Blisko sojusz Polski i Litwy, (30.12.2019); M. Sien- kiewicz, op. cit., ss.142-143; L. Sykulski, op. cit., ss. 129-134; P. Ukielski, op. cit., ss. 45- 46. S t r o n a | 83 newralgiczny obszar dla bezpieczeństwa gospodarczego i militarnego tej części Europy. Za inicjatorów odrodzenia idei Trójmorza uważa się prezydenta Polski Andrzeja Dudę i prezydent Chorwacji Kolindę Grabar-Kitarović. IPT jest współczesną koncepcją Międzymorza, silnie kojarzącego się historycznie i geopolitycznie. W obecnych założeniach celem IPT jest przekonanie państw zachodnich, że Europa Środkowa i Wschodnia nie jest obszarem peryferyjnym, a poprzez zacieśnienie współpracy gospodarczej i infrastrukturalnej państw regionu oraz w obszarze bezpieczeństwa, może stać się bardziej spójna i efektywna także w ramach UE i NATO, przy zachowaniu integralności terytorialnej. Pierwszy szczyt IPT miał miejsce w chorwackim Dubrowniku w sierpniu 2016 r., przyjmując „Wspólną deklarację w sprawie Inicjatywy Trójmorza”. Obejmuje ona cele i zasady współpracy w obszarze głównie energetyki oraz cyfryzacji i transportu, co ma wzmocnić bezpieczeństwo i konkurencyjność państw regionu, ale także całej UE. Na drugim szczycie w lipcu 2017 r. w Warszawie gościem był prezydent USA Donald Trump, wspierający projekt, nie przybyli natomiast prezydenci Czech i Austrii. Trzeci szczyt odbył się we wrześniu 2018 r. w Bukareszcie, gdzie utworzono fundusz inwestycyjny dla finansowania infrastruktury i energetyki. W tym szczycie w charakterze stałego obserwatora przy IPT zadebiutowały na własną prośbę Niemcy5. IPT podkreśla, że jest wyłącznie projektem gospodarczym i infrastrukturalnym o znaczeniu regionalnym, nie stanowi zatem alternatywy dla UE, choć może być tak postrzegana. Najistotniejszą kwestią jest bezpieczeństwo energetyczne, wobec uzależnienia prawie wszystkich krajów od surowców z Rosji. Priorytetem IPT jest zatem utworzenie korytarza Północ- Południe, łączącego terminal gazowy w Świnoujściu z powstającym jego chorwackim odpowiednikiem. Projekt zawiera także otwarcie gazociągu polsko-norwesko-duńskiego Baltic Pipe, który ma zostać połączony z polsko- chorwackim, z jednoczesnym zwiększeniem dostaw gazu z innych państw, mających ceny niższe niż Gazprom. W planach jest również budowa podmorskiego kabla elektroenergetycznego Harmony Link, celem synchro- nizacji systemów państw bałtyckich z unijnymi. Inaczej natomiast prezentuje się kwestia europejskich szlaków transportowych i komunikacyjnych. Projekt IPT mówi o utworzeniu rozgałęzionych lądowych połączeń północ-południe. Porozumienie w kwestii Via Carpatia podpisali w 2016 r. w Warszawie przedstawiciele Litwy, Polski, Słowacji, Ukrainy, Turcji i Węgier, a nieco później także Bułgaria. Via Carpatia łączyć ma Litwę, poprzez Polskę i Słowację z Węgrami, biegnąc dalej do Rumunii, Bułgarii i Grecji, z odgałęzieniami ku Ukrainie, Turcji i Białorusi oraz ku portom w Gdańsku i Gdyni. Droga ta krzyżuje się ze szlakiem komunikacyjnym TRACEA, do

5 G. Baziur, op. cit., ss. 24-27; W. Gizicki, P. Łoś, op. cit. ss.123-126, 8; P. Żurawski vel Grajewski, op. cit.; A. Balcer, op. cit.; M. Sienkiewicz, op. cit., ss. 142; P. Ukielski, op. cit., ss. 46-51. 84 | S t r o n a którego należy UE oraz Mołdawia, Ukraina, Turcja, kraje Kaukazu Południowego i Azji Centralnej. Na północy Via Carpatia łączyć się ma z już częściowo zrealizowaną drogą ekspresową Via Baltica, łączącą Polskę z krajami bałtyckimi i kraje te ze sobą. Finlandia planuje wybudowanie podmorskiego tunelu łączącego Helsinki z Tallinem. Te inwestycje mają ściągać zachodnich inwestorów oraz wyrównać różnice gospodarcze, transportowe, energetyczne i telekomunikacyjne między państwami regionu, przy zachowaniu pełnej współpracy wynikającej z członkostwa w UE. Inne spojrzenie na kwestię europejskich korytarzy komunikacyjnych ma UE, której założeniem nie jest wspieranie prostego połączenia północ-południe, łączącego Bałtyk z Półwyspem Bałkańskim, ale rozgałęzionych połączeń, mających służyć wszystkim członom UE, w ramach TEN-T. UE widzi pięć podstawo- wych korytarzy: Ren-Dunaj, Orient-EastMed, Śródziemnomorski, Morze Północne-Bałtyk i Adriatyk-Bałtyk, łączące północ z południem oraz zachód ze wschodem Europy. Plany UE włączają w ten ogólnoeuropejski projekt modernizację i budowę infrastruktury kolejowej, drogowej, lotnisk i portów oraz regulację rzek6. Najważniejszą rolę w IPT odgrywają państwa Grupy Wyszehradzkiej, o silnym wspólnym potencjale politycznym i gospodarczym, osiągające w wewnętrznej i zewnętrznej wymianie gospodarczej wyższe korzyści, niż przykładowo w handlu z Rosją. Państwa V4 jako najsilniejsze skupiają wokół siebie od jednego do kilku innych partnerów, którzy dołączają do konkretnych projektów regionalnych. Bywają też projekty realizowane dwustronnie. Z punktu widzenia gospodarczego i politycznego wskazane jest także zaproszenie do porozumienia krajów leżących w regionie lub jego pobliżu, zwłaszcza krajów skandynawskich, ale także Ukrainy. Kraje Trójmorza leżąc blisko siebie, mają większe możliwości wzajemnych stabilnych kontaktów politycznych i handlowych oraz zapewnienia rynków pracy mieszkańcom i możliwości rozwoju przedsiębiorcom. Przy nastawionej na eksport gospodarce większości państw regionu konieczny jest dalszy rozwój infrastruktury transportowej, która już znacznie poprawiła się, jednak wymaga nadal wielu inwestycji. Nie należy też zapominać o wewnętrznym zróżnicowaniu państw Trójmorza. Austria, Estonia, Litwa, Łotwa, Słowenia, Słowacja są w strefie euro, Bułgaria, Chorwacja i Rumunia sprzyjają przyjęciu tej waluty, natomiast Czechy, Polska i Węgry mają do niej stosunek niechętny. Wszystkie państwa poza Austrią należą do NATO. Bułgaria, Chorwacja i Rumunia pozostają poza strefą Schengen7.

6 G. Baziur, op. cit., ss. 27-28, 31-32; W. Gizicki, P.Łoś, op. cit., ss. 126-128; P. Żurawski vel Grajewski, op. cit.; A. Balcer, op. cit.; M. Sienkiewicz, op. cit., ss. 146-150; P. Ukielski, op. cit., ss. 51-53. 7 G. Baziur, op. cit., ss. 29-31; W. Gizicki, P.Łoś, op. cit., s. 127-128; A. Balcer, op. cit.; M. Sienkiewicz, op. cit., s. 142.; Międzymorze – utopia..., op. cit. S t r o n a | 85

W opinii władz polskich Trójmorze nie jest inicjatywą ani antyeuropejską, ani antyniemiecką, może być natomiast postrzegana jako antyrosyjska. Rosja bowiem korzysta na braku pełnej jedności wśród krajów UE, choćby w kwestii Nord Stream II, a ponadto prowadzi wrogie działania wobec swoich dawnych republik nadbałtyckich (w Estonii i na Łotwie mieszka ok. 20% mniejszości rosyjskiej). IPT leży na pewno w interesie Polski i Chorwacji, pozostałe państwa zajmują zróżnicowane stanowiska. Zacieśnieniu kontaktów nie sprzyjały chłodne przez wiele lat stosunki Polski z Litwą oraz indywidualne posunięcia państw IPT, różnie postrzegających zasadność i atrakcyjność tego projektu regionalnego, kierując się przede wszystkim własnymi interesami. Węgry w przeddzień szczytu IPT w Warszawie podpisały z Gazpromem porozumienie w sprawie dostaw gazu w projekcie Turkish Stream (dostarcza- nie gazu do Europy Środkowej z pominięciem Ukrainy), do którego należy już Bułgaria, a zainteresowanie nim wykazują Austria i Słowacja. Dla Czech bardziej korzystne są relacje z Niemcami. Litwa początkowo wyraziła duże zaniepokojenie wzrostem znaczenia Polski w regionie, a Rumunia – niezadowolenie z samodzielnych wystąpień Polski w na forum UE, bez konsultacji niektórych działań z partnerami w regionie. Mimo założeń IPT o współpracy głównie ekonomicznej, problemem pozostają współczesne zagrożenia dla bezpieczeństwa w regionie. Służyć temu ma wspomniana już Bukareszteńska Dziewiątka (B9), której kraje, mające lądowe lub morskie granice z Rosją, wystąpiły do NATO o wzmocnienie wschodniej flanki, a wniosek – poparty przez pozostałe, poza Bułgarią, został przyjęty na szczycie NATO w Warszawie w 2016 r. i szybko realizowany8.

Stosunki polsko-litewskie a koncepcja Trójmorza

W IPT wpisują się dwustronne stosunki polsko-litewskie, które – historycznie przez stulecia dobre – zdecydowanie pogorszyły się w okresie międzywojennym, a znacznie podczas II wojny światowej. Niewiele zmienił upadek komunizmu i ogłoszenie przez Litwę niepodległości. W świadomości Litwinów pozostało bowiem ugruntowane historią dążenie wielu polskich środowisk politycznych (w Polsce i na Wileńszczyźnie) do polonizacji nie tylko Litwinów, ale także Białorusinów i Ukraińców oraz przyłączenia tych ziem do Polski. Stosunki polsko-litewskie uległy pewnej poprawie za prezydentury Lecha Kaczyńskiego w Polsce i Valdasa Adamkusa na Litwie. Trudna była także początkowa współpraca obu krajów w ramach UE i NATO, wskazująca na niechęć do rozwiązania dawnych konfliktów i do budowania wspólnej polityki w Europie Wschodniej. Na przeszkodzie stanęły przede wszystkim postanowienia Litwy o ograniczaniu praw mniejszości polskiej, w

8 G. Baziur, op. cit., ss. 25-34; W. Gizicki, P. Łoś, op. cit., s. 4; P. Żurawski vel Grajewski, op. cit.; M. Miernicka, op. cit.; R. Lesiecki, op. cit.; Dutka J., op. cit., ss. 134-135; M. Sienkiewicz, op. cit. s. 145. 86 | S t r o n a tym do nauczania języka polskiego w szkołach, a także niechęć do zwrotu zagrabionych za czasów komunistycznych majątków Polaków, czy stosowany do 2004 r. zakaz używania nazwy „Armia Krajowa” przez polskich kombatantów. W opiniach analityków prezydent Dalia Grybauskaite nie prowadziła polityki propolskiej, nie należała do polityków sympatyzujących z Polakami, wielokrotnie sprzeciwiała się postulatom zgłaszanym przez Polskę i mniejszość polską na Wileńszczyźnie. Za jej prezydentury obydwa kraje utrzymywały poprawne kontakty polityczne i gospodarcze, ale w społeczeń- stwie litewskim nasilał się antypolski nacjonalizm. Współpraca obejmowała także obszar bezpieczeństwa militarnego, czego przykładem może być zakup przez Litwę polskich wyrzutni rakiet Grom. Ówczesne litewskie elity polityczne w ramach Strategii Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego Litwy postrzegały Polskę jako sojusznika, który jako najbliższy sąsiad może najszybciej udzielić pomocy w przypadku zbrojnego konfliktu, w który wciągnięta zostałaby niewielka litewska armia. Nie było jednak mowy o zawieraniu dodatkowego sojuszu. Litwa optowała wyłącznie za NATO, jako jedynym strategicznym sojusznikiem. Jednym z nielicznych wspólnych punktów tamtego okresu było porozumienie z Polską w kwestii udzielenia Litwie wsparcia w przypadku pojawienia się konfliktu z komisarzem Fransem Timmermansem. Niechętnemu Polsce nastawieniu polityki władz litewskich nie zmienił też, kontynuowany do chwili obecnej, udział polskiego lotnictwa (Baltic Air Policing) w zabezpieczaniu przestrzeni powietrznej, podobnie jak pozostałych państw bałtyckich. Jeszcze w 2018 r. komentarze dotyczące tych kontaktów, oceniały je jako poprawne, ale raczej w formie dreptania „w miejscu zamiast wspólnej polityki w regionie”. Wzajemne wizyty oficjalne od początku lat 90-tych do 2018 r. sprowadzały się bowiem do uścisków dłoni dla fotoreporterów oraz ogólnikowych rozmów dotyczących bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego i energetycznego, partnerstwa wschodniego i projektu Via Baltica, czy problemu Ukrainy9. W rozmowach polsko-litewskich wielokrotnie poruszane były kwestie mniejszości narodowych, nie wpływając jednak w żaden sposób na poprawę sytuacji polskiej mniejszości na Wileńszczyźnie. Pozytywny sygnał w tej kwestii pojawił się w lutym 2018 r., w pierwszym dniu wizyty prezydenta Andrzeja Dudy, goszczonego w Wilnie przez prezydent Dalię Grybauskaite. Popłynął on jednak nie ze strony władz, ale ze strony opozycyjnej Litewskiej

9 J. Bereza, Polska-Litwa: dreptanie w miejscu zamiast wspólnej polityki w regionie, (30.12.2019); G. Baziur, op. cit., s. 34; Prezydenci Polski i Litwy o współpracy w ramach państw Trójmorza, (30.12.2019); Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje, że Polska jest jej najważniejszym partnerem, (30.12.2019); B. Łapszewicz, Nowy prezydent Litwy z pierwszą oficjalną wizytą w Polsce, (31.12.2019); P. Cieplucha, op. cit. ss. 43-49; Międzymorze – utopia..., op. cit. S t r o n a | 87

Partii Socjaldemokratycznej, która złożyła w litewskim sejmie projekt ustawy łagodzącej restrykcyjne przepisy dotyczące mniejszości narodowych, zezwa- lając m.in. na używanie dwujęzycznych tablic oraz wprowadzenia dwu- języczności w urzędach i szkołach, w miejscowościach przez nie zamiesz- kanych, co przez mniejszość polską zostało pozytywnie ocenione. Z drugiej jednak strony sytuacji nie poprawiło, a wręcz jej zaszkodziło stwierdzenie prezydenta Dudy, który podczas spotkania z Polakami w Wilnie stwierdził: „Nie miejmy zbyt wygórowanych żądań”. Polskie i litewskie komentarze do tej wypowiedzi były niekorzystne dla prezydenta, bowiem pozwoliła ona stronie litewskiej na dalsze opóźnianie realizacji konwencji dotyczących praw mniejszości, a co za tym idzie – utrwalanie wzajemnej wrogości. Do komentarzy włączyły się także portale rosyjskojęzyczne twierdzące, że Duda „włożył nóż w ręce władz litewskich”, przypominając przy tym, że w litewskich dokumentach bezpieczeństwa jako jedno z zagrożeń wymieniane są „ruchy polskich nacjonalistów” i izolacja „mniejszości polskiej na Litwie”. Wszystkie wypowiedzi zaznaczały, że ten stan rzeczy niekorzystnie wpływa na rozwój dwustronnych stosunków, które – mimo małych kroków, jakimi były m.in. połączenia drogowo-kolejowe – mogłyby być szersze i bardziej aktywne. Byłoby to bardzo wskazane, zwłaszcza w kontekście innego aktora sceny politycznej regionu – Rosji, obserwującej każdy konflikt polsko-litewski, a zainteresowanej budową rurociągu Nord Stream II, na co nie zgadza się ani Polska, ani Litwa10. Uregulowanie i poprawa stosunków polsko-litewskich jest zatem jednym z priorytetów dla rozwoju i bezpieczeństwa regionu, z wielu inwestycjami przyjętymi także w założeniach IPT, do którego przystąpiły obydwa kraje. Znaczący postęp w odbudowie pozytywnych stosunków obu krajów rozpoczął się w połowie 2019 r., po wygranych w maju wyborach prezydenckich przez niezależnego ekonomistę Gitanasa Nausedę, byłego doradcę prezesa banku SEB, wybranego drugiej turze 74% głosów. Duża część tych głosów oddana była w regionach zamieszkanych przez mniejszość polską na Litwie. Prezydent podkreślił to mówiąc, że „mniejszości narodowe na Litwie to nie jest nasz problem, to jest nasze bogactwo”. Nauseda uchodzi za konserwatystę, który postanowił kontynuować politykę Dalii Grybauskaite, zwanej „żelazną damą”, ze względu na jej ostre podejście do Rosji, którą nazywała „państwem terrorystycznym”. Wskazał jednak na konieczność utrzymywania dobrych gospodarczych i kulturalnych stosunków z tym krajem, mimo jego agresywnej polityki. Prezydent Nauseda postanowił swoją pierwszą oficjalną zagraniczną wizytę złożyć w Polsce, w której widzi dobrego partnera dla rozwoju wzajemnych stosunków w obszarze gospodarczym i społecznym oraz szeroko pojętego bezpieczeństwa. Prezydent wraz z małżonką Dianą odwiedził Polskę w lipcu 2019 r. Określając ostatnie relacje polsko-litewskie jako „pewną stagnację”, wyraził chęć wznowienia funkcjonowania – działającego do 2009

10 J. Bereza, op. cit. 88 | S t r o n a r. – Komitetu Konsultacyjnego Prezydentów, z omawianiem aktualnych problemów przez doradców, co spotkało się z akceptacją prezydenta Dudy. Opinie polityków i analityków podkreślają istotną rolę tej wizyty, wskazując na otwartość Neusedy na powrót dobrosąsiedzkich stosunków między obu państwami, choć komentarze działaczy mniejszości polskiej na Litwie są nadal ostrożne. Z jednej strony uważają, że wieloletni związek Nausedy z ekonomią nie pozwoli mu na odejście od kontaktów z dobrze rozwijającą się polską gospodarką, z drugiej jednak radzą zaczekać na dalszy rozwój współpracy, nauczeni doświadczeniem dziesięcioletniej prezydentury Dalii Grybauskaite. Wskazują też pozytywne zjawiska, jak choćby – poza wzajemnymi wizytami na najwyższych szczeblach – nawiązanie współpracy między różnymi organizacjami obu krajów, czy wspólne obchody rocznicy Unii Lubelskiej, co jeszcze do niedawna nie byłoby możliwe ze strony Litwy11. W trakcie wizyty omawiano bardzo istotne od wielu lat problemy mniejszości polskiej na Litwie. Nauseda stwierdził, że nie mogły one być dotąd rozwiązane, prawdopodobnie wobec braku woli politycznej. W kwestii oświaty prezydent stwierdził, że poczynił już pierwsze kroki, spotykając się z jej litewskimi przedstawicielami i choć istnieje jeszcze wiele problemów, to jest nadzieja na utworzenie sieci szkół z polskim językiem nauczania. Zaproponował dalsze bezpośrednie negocjacje na szczeblu ministrów edukacji obu krajów. Drugim problemem jest pisownia polskich nazwisk w litewskich dokumentach. Ta kwestia wg Nausedy jest bardziej skomplikowana, ponieważ decyzje leżą w gestii litewskiego parlamentu, w którym zdania są bardzo podzielone (trzy stanowiska ugrupowań sejmowych, dotychczas bez porozumienia, ale rozwiązania są poszukiwane). Jako rozwiązany problem mniejszości polskiej podał decyzję o zezwoleniu na polskojęzyczne nazwy miejscowości na tabliczkach informacyjnych, umieszczanych na prywatnych posesjach, na obszarach zamieszkanych przez mniejszość polską. Pozytywnym krokiem jest także otwarcie w Wilnie Centrum Języka Polskiego i Kultury oraz plany otwarcia w Suwałkach Litewskiego Centrum Kultury i Edukacji. Mimo wielu braków, ostatnie wybory na Litwie pokazały wzrost politycznego znaczenia mniejszości polskiej. Przykładem tego jest choćby zawiązanie koalicji partii litewskich – Litewskiego Związku Rolników i Zielonych (LVZS), Litewskiej Socjaldemokratycznej Partii Pracy (LSDDP), partii Porządek i Sprawiedliwość (TT) oraz Akcji Wyborczej Polaków na Litwie – Związku Chrześcijańskich Rodzin (AWPL-ZChR). W nowym rządzie Litwy znalazło się dwoje ministrów narodowości polskiej, obejmując funkcje

11 J. Bereza, op. cit.; Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje... op. cit.; Łączy nas nie tylko obronność..., op. cit.; Litwa: dwoje Polaków w odnowionym rządzie, (31.12.2019); M. Kokot, Bankowiec nowym prezydentem Litwy, (31.12.2019); B. Łapszewicz, op. cit.; Wybory prezydenckie na Litwie wygrał kandydat niezależny Gitanas Nauseda, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 89 ministra transportu (Jarosław Narkiewicz, AWPL-ZChR) i ministra spraw wewnętrznych (Rita Tamaszuniene, z tej samej partii). Innym przykładem jest powołanie Jarosława Niewierowicza na funkcję doradcy prezydenta Nausedy, Polak jest także doradcą litewskiego premiera Sauliusa Skvernelisa. W Warszawie prezydent spotkał się z przedstawicielami litewskiej mniejszości w Polsce12. Obydwaj prezydenci poruszali także kwestie współpracy obu państw w kwestiach bezpieczeństwa w regionie, zwłaszcza wobec imperialistycznej postawy Rosji i działań hybrydowych. Poruszano też problemy dotyczące sytuacji na Ukrainie i Białorusi. Komentarze wyraźnie wskazują, że Polska jest i będzie dla Litwy najbardziej wiarygodnym gwarantem bezpieczeństwa, zwłaszcza wobec położenia geograficznego tego kraju, pomiędzy Białorusią a rosyjskim obwodem kaliningradzkim, a zatem w obszarze zagrożonym konwencjonalnymi i hybrydowymi działaniami ze strony Rosji. Wsparcia w tych problemach udziela Litwie Polska. Obie strony zgadzają się co do konieczności utrzymania i zintensyfikowania regionalnej współpracy wojskowej w ramach wschodniej flanki, ze zwiększeniem obecności państw NATO, a Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych Litwy wyraża zadowolenie ze zwiększenia liczby żołnierzy amerykańskich w Polsce. Omawiano również kwestie dotyczące współpracy z UE oraz jej politykę wschodnią, w aspekcie Partnerstwa Wschodniego i rozszerzania unii13. W trakcie wizyty omawiano również bardzo istotne dla obu krajów, ale także dla Trójmorza kwestie dotyczące rozwoju infrastruktury i bez- pieczeństwa energetycznego. Chodzi o połączenia drogowe Via Carpatia i Via Baltica oraz będącą już w trakcie realizacji (bardzo zaawansowanej na obszarze Litwy) linię kolejową Rail Baltica, a także o przesył energii elektrycznej i przede wszystkim przesył gazu. W tym ostatnim przypadku rozpoczęto już budowę Gazociągu Polska-Litwa (interkonektor gazowy, GIPL), łączącego systemy przesyłu gazu obu krajów. Projekt ten został uznany przez KE za kluczowy i otrzymał status „projektu o znaczeniu wspólnotowym” (PCI) z możliwością dofinansowania. Obydwa kraje zobowiązały się oddać gazociąg końca grudnia 2021 r. Po wielokierunkowych rozmowach, obie strony stwierdziły, że są dla siebie ważnymi partnerami, tak w zakresie bezpieczeństwa energetycznego i inwestycyjnego, jak i w kwestiach eksportowych, z nadzieją na rozwijanie tej współpracy14. O znacznej poprawie polsko-litewskich stosunków i zmianie niechętnego nastawienia Litwinów do Polski, świadczyć mogą także uroczyste pochówki

12 Prezydenci Polski i Litwy o..., op. cit.; Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje..., op. cit.; Łączy nas nie tylko..., op. cit.; Litwa: dwoje Polaków w..., op. cit.; M. Kokot, op. cit. 13 Prezydenci Polski i Litwy o..., op. cit.; Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje..., op. cit.; Łączy nas nie tylko..., op. cit.; B. Łapszewicz, op. cit. 14 Prezydenci Polski i Litwy o..., op. cit.; Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje..., op. cit.; Łączy nas nie tylko..., op. cit.; B. Łapszewicz, op. cit. 90 | S t r o n a odnalezionych szczątków polskich żołnierzy i powstańców. We wrześniu 2019 r. na cmentarzu w Ejszyszkach odbył się pogrzeb czterech nieznanych żołnierzy Armii Krajowej odnalezionych przez IPN w rejonie solecznickim. W uroczystości wzięli udział przedstawiciele parlamentów Polski i Litwy oraz władz samorządowych, a także pracownicy IPN, kombatanci i mieszkańcy okolicy. Był to już kolejny pochówek odnalezionych w wielu miejscach i ekshumowanych szczątków żołnierzy AK, chowanych następnie w grobach bezimiennych lub – po identyfikacji – w imiennych. W listopadzie 2019 r. z dwudniową wizytą na Litwie przebywał prezydent Andrzej Duda z małżonką Agatą, by – wraz z litewską parą prezydencką – wziąć udział w uroczystym pogrzebie na cmentarzu na Rossie szczątków straconych w Wilnie dowódców i uczestników powstania styczniowego. W pogrzebie wzięli także udział przedstawiciele władz Łotwy, Białorusi i Ukrainy, a także innych narodów, obecni byli również reprezentanci Izraela. W przeddzień pogrzebu odbyły się oficjalne rozmowy prezydentów Polski i Litwy. Poruszano szerokie spektrum aktualnych problemów, potwierdzając zbliżone stanowiska obu krajów, w tym dotyczące stosunku do Rosji, współpracy w ramach NATO i UE oraz wspólnych projektów regionalnych, w zakresie infrastruktury, energetyki, bezpieczeństwa i współpracy militarnej. W ramach NATO chodzi przede wszystkim o większy wkład obu państw, aby móc więcej uzyskać w zamian, czego najlepszym przykładem jest zwiększenie liczby amerykańskich żołnierzy w Polsce, co Litwa odczytuje jako gwarancje swojego bezpieczeństwa. Wspólne stanowisko obu prezydentów dotyczy także przyszłego budżetu UE i wielkości środków skierowanych na Wspólną Politykę Rolną i politykę spójności. Środki te nie powinny być zmniejszane, bowiem polityka spójności jest bardzo istotna nie tylko dla naszego regionu, ale i dla całej UE. Aby zwiększyć otwartość naszych rynków, konieczny jest rozwój infrastrukturalny w stopniu, jaki prezentuje Europa Zachodnia. Odnosząc się do kwestii mniejszości polskiej na Litwie i litewskiej w Polsce prezydent Duda stwierdził, że podpisywane przez ministrów edukacji porozumienia dadzą pozytywne efekty. W opiniach obu prezydentów i w komentarzach obecne stosunki polsko-litewskie są bardzo dobre, co podkreśla zgodność poglądów w wielu kwestiach. Litewski politolog Andrzej Pukszto uważa, że obydwa kraje mają wspólną wizję tak w polityce zagranicznej, jak i dotyczącą bezpieczeństwa, a relacje między obu prezydentami zaczynają przypominać te łączące prezydenta Lecha Kaczyńskiego i Valdasa Adamkusa. Podkreślając symboliczne dla przyjaźni polsko-litewskiej znaczenie pochówku powstańców styczniowych, prezydent RP określił to wydarzenie jako znamienne dla „naszej tożsamości i pamięci historycznej”. Prezydent Duda zaprosił prezydenta Nausedę na obchody 610 rocznicy bitwy pod Grunwaldem w 2020 r. Zaproszenie zostało przyjęte15.

15 I. Lewandowska, Na imię mają Wolna Polska – pogrzeb nieznanych żołnierzy AK w Ejszyszkach, (31.12.2019); Prezydenci Polski i Litwy S t r o n a | 91

Zacieśniająca się współpraca Polski i Litwy wpisuje się również w projekty Inicjatywy Państw Trójmorza. W ocenie Andrzeja Pukszto Litwini zaczęli rewidować swoje poglądy dotyczące historycznego wielkiego państwa, utworzonego na podstawie Unii Lubelskiej, czyli Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów, współtworzonej do końca XVIII w., będącej zjednoczoną ojczyzną obu narodów, rozpościerającą się od Bałtyku do Morza Czarnego, za którą oddawano życie. Koncepcja Trójmorza w obecnej sytuacji geopolitycznej, przy pięknych podwalinach historycznych i współczesnych realiach, powinna być traktowana jako możliwość wzmocnienia szeroko pojętego bezpieczeństwa (energetycznego, transportowego, gospodarczego i w komunikacji cyfrowej) państw Europy Wschodniej, przy zachowaniu ich pełnej integralności terytorialnej. Wzmogłoby to geopolityczne i geostrategiczne znaczenie regionu, przy ścisłej współpracy z UE i NATO, bez tworzenia kolejnych, konkurencyjnych wobec nich, struktur organizacyjnych. Założeniem IPT wg władz polskich nie jest utworzenie „federacji środkowo-europejskiej pod polską hegemonią”, ale kontynuowanie korzystnej dla wszystkich stron współpracy państw regionu w ramach gospodarczo silnej UE i militarnie silnego NATO, co może zagwarantować regionowi bezpieczeństwo polityczne, ekonomiczne i militarne. Działania w ramach tej nieformalnej platformy mają na celu rozwój infrastrukturalny i gospodarczy państw Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej na osi północ-południe, przyczyniając się do zbliżenia do tych łączących już Zachód ze Wschodem, a zarazem do wzmocnienia UE. Mimo różnych ocen IPT przez poszczególne państwa regionu, władze polskie podtrzymują zdanie, że podstawowym celem jest poprawa regionalnego rozwoju gospodarczego państw między trzema morzami, przede wszystkim w zakresie zintegrowanej infrastruktury, obejmującej zwłaszcza transport, energetykę i cyfryzację. Zdaniem Polski IPT nie ma charakteru antyeuropejskiego, wręcz przeciwnie – uzupełnia go o lokalne inicjatywy, pozwalając na odrobienie opóźnień z przeszłości. Nie jest projektem geopolitycznym, ani geostrategicznym, nie ma celu utworzenia bloku państw oddzielających Niemcy i Rosję, choć przez niektórych porównywany jest do międzywojennej idei Międzymorza. Kolejny – czwarty szczyt Inicjatywy Trójmorza odbędzie się w Estonii16.

o..., op. cit.; Para prezydencka z wizytą na Litwie, (31.12.2019); M. Kozłowska, Prezydent: relacje polsko- litewskie są tak dobre, jak nie były od dawna, (31.12.2019); I. Lewandowska, Braterstwo jak za czasów Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów. Echa wizyty prezydenta Dudy na Litwie, (31.12.2019); Duda: relacje Polski i Litwy są tak dobre, jak nie były od dawna, (31.12.2019). 16 J. Dutka, op. cit., ss. 123-126, 133-135; I. Lewandowska, Braterstwo..., op. cit.; Łączy nas nie tylko..., op. cit.; Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje..., op. cit.; Sienkiewicz M., op. cit., ss. 139, 146-150; P. Ukielski, op. cit, ss. 46-49. 92 | S t r o n a

Wnioski

Projekt Trójmorza w założeniach ma prowadzić do rozwoju infrastrukturalnego regionu, w zakresie infrastruktury transportowej oraz energetyki, w tym dywersyfikacji dostaw gazu. W miarę upływu czasu ujawniają się jednak coraz głębsze różnice interesów poszczególnych państw, czego dobitnym przykładem są Węgry i ich umowa z Gazpromem. Brak jednomyślności dotyczył także m.in. braku poparcia ze strony Bułgarii na wzmocnienie wschodniej flanki NATO. Różnice dotyczą także stosunku poszczególnych państw do waluty euro. Mimo zapewnień Polski o nieszkodliwości IPT dla interesów UE, wiele państw regionu nie widzi konieczności tworzenia nowej struktury w formie Unii Europejskiej „bis”, równoległej do sprawdzonej i dobrze funkcjonującej. Proponowany przez polskie władze projekt sceptycznie przyjmowany jest przez UE, pogarsza też stosunki z Niemcami i Francją, ukazując Polskę jako kraj dążący do pełnienia roli hegemona w regionie. Część projektów IPT nie wpisuje się w założenia UE, jak choćby część regionalnej infrastruktury drogowej. Założenia UE przewidują bowiem utworzenie rozgałęzionej sieci dróg łączących wszystkie kraje Europy, w których mieści się połączenie Bałtyku z Adriatykiem. Proponowane przez polskie władze projekty są bardzo kosztownymi inwestycjami, przy niewielkich możliwościach finansowych państw regionu, a mogłyby być zrealizowane, gdyby zostały wplecione w ogólnoeuropejskie projekty UE. Z pewnością państwa Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej mają za sobą wielodziesięcioletnie przykre doświadczenia, których efektem były i są opóźnienia w rozwoju, stopniowo odrabiane dzięki członkostwu w UE i NATO. Ścisła współpraca w regionie jest zatem bardzo wskazana, dla realizacji lokalnych projektów. Nie musi mieć jednak takiej formy, jak IPT. Najlepszym przykładem wielowiekowych dobrych kontaktów regionalnych są obecne stosunki polsko-litewskie, korzeniami sięgające XIV w., które rozkwitły za czasów Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. Po okresach historycznych burz i dwustronnych nieporozumień i znacznego ochłodzenia, odradzają się dwustronne kontakty o szerokim spektrum, w tym także dotyczącym poszanowania praw mniejszości. Obydwa kraje widzą wiele zbieżnych obszarów działania tak w polityce międzynarodowej, jak i regionalnej, w ścisłym powiązaniu z UE i NATO.

BIBLIOGRAFIA:

 Balcer A., Trójmorze – myślenie życzeniowe czy Realpolitik?, S t r o n a | 93

 Baziur G., Trójmorze jako koncepcja bezpieczeństwa rozwoju ekonomicznego Europy Wschodniej, „Przegląd Geopolityczny” 2018, nr 23  Bereza J., Polska-Litwa: dreptanie w miejscu zamiast wspólnej polityki w regionie,  Cieplucha P., Prometeizm i koncepcja Międzymorza w praktyce polityczno-prawnej oraz dyplomacji II RP, „Studia Prawno- Ekonomiczne” 2014, XCIII  Duda: relacje Polski i Litwy są tak dobre, jak nie były od dawna,  Dutka J., Wpływ realizacji geopolitycznej koncepcji Międzymorza na bezpieczeństwo militarne Polski i Europy Wschodniej w XXI wieku, „Przegląd Geopolityczny” 2016, nr 16  Ekspert: Litwa sygnalizuje, że Polska jest jej najważniejszym partnerem,  Gizicki W., Łoś P., Geopolityka Trójmorza, „Przestrzeń Społeczna” 2019, nr 1(17)  Grygajtis K., Polska polityka zagraniczna 1926-1939: Od koncepcji „Międzymorza” Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego do idei „Trzeciej Europy” Józefa Becka, „Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe” 2006, nr 2  Kokot M., Bankowiec nowym prezydentem Litwy,  Kozłowska M., Prezydent: relacje polsko-litewskie są tak dobre, jak nie były od dawna,  Kular P., Międzymorze – utopia czy alternatywa?,  Lesiecki R., Ministrowie obrony 9 państw regionu po rozmowach w Warszawie. „Współpraca to źródło naszego sukcesu”,  Lewandowska I., Braterstwo jak za czasów Rzeczpospolitej Obojga Narodów. Echa wizyty prezydenta Dudy na Litwie,  Lewandowska I., Na imię mają Wolna Polska – pogrzeb nieznanych żołnierzy AK w Ejszyszkach,  Litwa: dwoje Polaków w odnowionym rządzie,  Łapszewicz B., Nowy prezydent Litwy z pierwszą oficjalną wizytą w Polsce, 94 | S t r o n a

 Łączy nas nie tylko obronność i energetyka. Blisko sojusz Polski i Litwy,  Miernicka M., Spotkanie Bukareszteńskiej Dziewiątki,  Para prezydencka z wizytą na Litwie,  Prezydenci Polski i Litwy o współpracy w ramach państw Trójmorza,  Sienkiewicz M., Koncepcja Trójmorza w polityce zagranicznej Polski po 2015 r., „Dyplomacja i Bezpieczeństwo” 2016, nr 1/(4)  Sykulski L., Geopolityka. Skrypt dla początkujących, Częstochowa 2014  Ukielski P., Inicjatywa Trójmorza w polskiej polityce zagranicznej, „Studia Europejskie” 2018, nr 2  Wybory prezydenckie na Litwie wygrał kandydat niezależny Gitanas Nauseda,  Żurawski vel Grajewski P., Polska dyplomacja jest skuteczna, S t r o n a | 95

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20195

Vadim VOLOVOJ1 Lithuania

IS LITHUANIA READY FOR AN UNPREDICTABLE FUTURE?: THE EU AND NATO CASES

Abstract: Today’s world is in transition, and nobody can predict what the future power balance will look like. Transatlantic relations and the EU are in trouble. They may transform significantly, but it seems that many European countries are not ready for fundamental change. The United States of Europe or Europe of Nations – what should be the choice for Lithuania and what can it do in case of NATO disintegration? This article is a speculative futurology, with the goal of preparing for the future

Keywords: Lithuania, the European Union, the United States of Europe, Europe of Nations, NATO, PESCO

Introduction

Many experts accentuate that today the world is in transition with a high degree of uncertainty at both the regional and global levels. The president of France Emmanuel Macron said: “We are probably in the process of experiencing the end of Western hegemony over the world. (…) And it is also the emergence of new powers whose impact we have probably underestimated for far too long. China first and foremost as well as Russia’s strategy that has, let’s face it, been pursued with greater success over the last few years. (…) The India that is emerging, these new economies that are also becoming not just economic but political powers and which consider themselves, as some have noted, genuine civilization states and which have not just disrupted our international order, assumed a key role in the economic order, but have also

1 Vadim Volovoj, PhD, Lithuanian security and global politics expert, CIRSA expert. Email: [email protected] 96 | S t r o n a very forcefully reshaped the political order and the political thinking that goes with it, with a great deal more inspiration than we have”2. A new kind of global power balance is going to appear, but for now nobody knows when it will appear and what it will look like. For Europe this problem is relevant too, because it has to find its place in a new world, but for now it is unclear, what relations with Russia and America it will have and how these will develop internally. Lithuania is currently a member of the European Union, but is the EU going to exist? Who can guarantee today that Brexit is not the beginning of its disintegration because of many internal and external challenges it faces. Someone can say that it is unreal, but who could have predicted in 1990 that the Soviet Union will collapse after some time and who expected in 2013 that next year the war in Ukraine will start? Is Lithuania ready for unpredictable future? It seems that it is not, anticipating the continuation of the ‘business as usual’ (EU existence and close transatlantic relations, including NATO). So, it is worth analyzing the worst case scenarios of the perspectives of the EU and NATO to know how Lithuania could cope with a new reality.

Core Europe – in or out?

Today it is obvious that the challenges faced by the EU are existential. Therefore, Macron was not far from being right when he said: “And so we have to find ways to shape globalization as well as reshape this international order. I am aware of how ambitious this is and that it will not happen overnight. But I am aware of the need for this way of thinking and this approach both in France and at the European level. Otherwise we will fall”3. Actually, there are several big scenarios for Europe: the United States of Europe (federalization perspective); Europe of Nations (disintegration perspective); Multi-speed (Two-speed) Europe. As it was said above, living inside today‘s reality it is always hard to believe that it may change dramatically. Members of the EU got used to the European institutional order. Other countries want to join the EU. However, different interrelated centrifugal tendencies (refugee crisis and growing , trade wars and other economic troubles, lack of geopolitical subjectivity and effective decision making, etc.) are strong enough to throw Europe back to the period of sovereign nations. Still, the author of the article believes that because of Germany and/or France the idea of the European integration will not “die” anyway, and in the worst case we will see a ‘Two- speed Europe’.

2 Ambassadors’ conference – Speech by M. Emmanuel Macron, President of the Republic, 27.08.2019, (23.11.2019). 3 Ibidem. S t r o n a | 97

Accordingly, Lithuania will have to choose its way of development, and there are several options for it: sovereignty, some type of regional cooperation and ‘Core Europe’. When the president of the United States Donald Trump said that “future belongs to patriots, not globalists”4, the president of Lithuania Gitanas Nauseda supported this idea5 meaning that he is not an enthusiast of the United States of Europe. Lithuanian Prime Minister Saulius Skvernelis is also skeptical of deepening European integration6. However, it does not mean that in case of the systemic transformation of the EU Lithuania will stay away from ‘Core Europe’ either. In theory, being neutral can be successful, but for good results constructive relations with neighbors and effective state management (both economic and political) are also needed. Practice shows that these tasks are very heavy for the Lithuanian elite. Lithuania does not have truly nor declarative, friendly relations even with Poland and Latvia, not to mention Russia and Belarus. At the same time the quality of the political process (cohesion) and governmental economic policy in the state is very low. Finally, it depends a lot on the financial support from the EU, and the consequences of its withdrawal would be very painful for Lithuania – especially, keeping in mind its socioeconomic challenges. So, without the EU it will need some new cooperation framework – at least regional, and there are two options in this case excluding in this paper the idea of an eastern integration scenario, because it is a priori unacceptable for Lithuania Nordic states and Poland (perhaps with some other CEE countries). The first – Nordic – option looks attractive, but Lithuania is not Estonia. In other words, there is no durable historic tradition of its cooperation with Scandinavian states. On the other hand, with Poland, Lithuania had a common state for a long time. So, some type of the Lithuanian-Polish union looks logical, but there is one important nuance; the history of Lithuanian-Polish relations – it is not only the history of close cooperation, but also of fierce competition (for example, for the Vilnius region). Furthermore, Poland is a ‘big state’ in comparison to Lithuania, and Lithuanians always want to prove that they are not a ‘younger brother’. Today Lithuania needs Poland more than Poland needs

4 Trump: “The future belongs to patriots”, (23.11.2019). 5 I. Jačauskas, Lithuanian President supports Trump‘s “future belongs to patriots” statement, (23.11.2019). 6 E. Jakilaitis, Skvernelis running for president: Karbauskis will not control the president, (23.11.2019). 98 | S t r o n a

Lithuania, and in the case of some union Poland will be the number one choices with no doubt. In such context it seems that for Vilnius it will be more acceptable to be the second choice in relation to Berlin and/or Paris in ‘Core Europe’ even when putting aside the obvious, financial advantages of such choice). So, the prediction is that in case of the big turmoil in Europe Lithuania will prefer to stay in the ‘First-speed Europe’ because it is simply not ready, nor skillful enough to live on its own and too proud to be a ‘younger brother’ of Poland. But what about security and NATO?

When saying A means saying B

President Macron speaks not only about the EU, but also about NATO. For example, he said that “we are currently experiencing the brain death of NATO”7 because of the actions of the United States. Lithuanian foreign minister Linas Linkevicius answered that “rumors about the death of NATO are strongly exaggerated”, insisting that problems can be “overcome”8. But there is no guarantee that they can be and that they will be. Donald Trump requires more money for NATO, and many countries in Europe, including Germany are not ready to pay. As a result of this and other reasons transatlantic relations are getting worse, while France and Germany repeat that Europe must take care of its own security itself. The idea of a European army is not officially on the table, but in November 2019 the European Council adopted an updated list of 13 projects to be undertaken under PESCO, and this decision brings to 47 the number of projects that are currently in place9. In other words, the machine of the independent European military structure is going forward. Finally, conflict between America and Turkey because of the deal on the S-400 missile system and Turkish actions in Syria creates even more tension inside the Alliance. At the same time, it is only an episode in a big story of the change of Turkish geopolitical orientation from a western one towards pan-Islamic one. As a result, Ankara may leave NATO one day, which would shake the background of the organization. In this context it is worth recalling the words of the former Vice President of the United States Joe Biden, who said this about Trump: “If he is re-elected,

7 Emmanuel Macron warns Europe: NATO is becoming brain-dead, (23.11.2019). 8 Lithuanian FM: “Rumours about the death of NATO are strongly exaggerated”, (23.11.2019). 9 Defence cooperation: Council launches 13 new PESCO projects, Council of the European Union, (23.11.2019). S t r o n a | 99

I promise you, there will be no NATO”10. Keeping in mind all the troubles of contemporary transatlantic unity, they do not look like electoral agitation anymore. Trump called NATO an ‘obsolete’ organization once11. Today he cannot just leave it, but it seems that he does everything to destroy it. And if so, what could Lithuania do in the case of a NATO collapse? The options are the same: stay alone, join some regional military alliance (if it is in place) or become a part of the European army in the framework of ‘Core Europe’. Again, in theory, Lithuania can be a successful neutral state – it just has to stop creating a ‘Russian threat’ for itself. Of course, there is some logic in the opinion that Russia can use the transatlantic disorder as a possibility to occupy Baltic states, but there should be a very serious pretext to do that. The author of the article may be wrong, but he does not think that such pretext would appear, also because the Baltic states would prefer not to provoke the Kremlin without NATO behind them, and it is much more important for it to put CIS area under its control). However, it is doubtful that Lithuania will choose the strategy of ‘Finlandization’. Thus, a security alliance (which differs from political- economic union) with Poland or Nordic countries is imaginable, but there is a serious obstacle for any such scenarios – if Lithuania becomes a part of ‘Core Europe’ (and, as it was noted above, it most likely will), the latter will require from its members to take part in its defense project, and Lithuanians will not be able to refuse.

Conclusions

There are several main conclusions of this article; First, the contemporary system of international relations is in transition, and the final result is hardly predictable. So, each state should prepare itself for the worst case scenarios. In the case of Lithuania it is the transformation of the EU and collapse of NATO. Second, in theory, Lithuania could be a successful neutral state outside any union or military alliance, but in practice it is not skillful enough to stay alone without serious socioeconomic problems. Therefore, it is supposed to join ‘Core Europe’ and become a part of its military structure. However, all these premises are only a speculative futurology, which depends on many variables – for example, the position of the United States (maybe Trump loses the next presidential election and transatlantic unity survives), the positions of Germany and France (maybe they decide not to continue the EU in another form), the position of Russia (maybe it decides to

10 E. Bradner, Biden predicts there will be no NATO if is re-elected, (23.11.2019). 11 Ashley Parker, Donald Trump says NATO is “Obsolete”, UN is “Political Game”, (23.11.2019). 100 | S t r o n a use the European turmoil to grab some territories), the position of Poland (if it does not join ‘Core Europe’, it would be problematic to be the part of the latter for Lithuania), etc. Finally, there is a saying: ‘If you want to make God laugh, tell him about your plans’. The future is unpredictable, but we must try to be ready.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Ambassadors’ conference – Speech by M. Emmanuel Macron, President of the Republic, Paris, 27 August 2019,  Bradner E., Biden predicts there will be no NATO if is re-elected,  Defence cooperation: Council launches 13 new PESCO projects, Council of the European Union,  Emmanuel Macron warns Europe: NATO is becoming brain-dead,  Jakilaitis E., Skvernelis running for president: Karbauskis will not control the president,  Jačauskas I, Lithuanian President supports Trump‘s “future belongs to patriots” statement,  Lithuanian FM: “Rumours about the death of NATO are strongly exaggerated”,  Parker A., Donald Trump says NATO is “Obsolete”, UN is “Political Game”,  Trump: “The future belongs to patriots”,

S t r o n a | 101

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20196

Leonid GUSEV1 Russia

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INTERESTS OF GERMANY IN THE COUNTRIES OF THE CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE

Abstract: It is necessary to specify that as a result of the (unification?) of Germany in 1990, its eastern frontier directly bordered with a number of former communist states. Since the beginning of the 90 years of cooperation with these states one of Germany’s main tasks became rendering aid to them in carrying out reforms. Germany, being one of leaders of the EU was interested in involvement of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the European market and in receiving benefits from this cooperation, besides; in the political sphere it was important to create a common and stable Europe. One can add that stability and safety in Europe was connected with EU expansion to the East. This article also analyzes how in recent years Germany has been influencing the countries of Central and Eastern Europe; demonstrating that Germany cooperated with countries of Eastern Europe not only within the European Union, but also in a bilateral format since for Germany, entry of the countries of the Central and Eastern European countries into the EU into EU was communicated with the realization of a complex of social, economic and political interests with the Visegrád group.

Keywords: Germany, former communist states, the Central and Eastern Europe, economic and political interests, Visegrád group

Introduction

Considering the political and economic interests of Germany in the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, it is necessary to specify that as a result of the association of Germany in 1990, its eastern frontier now had a

1 Leonid Gusev, PhD, expert of Institute of international studies of Moscow State Institute of International Relations. Email: [email protected]

102 | S t r o n a direct border with a number of former communist states2. Since the beginning of the 90th years of cooperation with these states one of Germany’s main tasks became and rendering aid to them in carrying out reforms became for Germany one of the main tasks. Germany, being one of leaders of the EU was interested in involvement of the countries of the Central and Eastern Europe in the European market and in receiving benefits from this cooperation, besides; in the political sphere it was important to create a common and stable Europe. It is necessary to add that stability and safety in Europe was connected with EU expansion to the East3.

The policy of Germany towards the countries of Central and Eastern Europe after the collapse of the socialist system. Visegrád group

A number of the Russian experts who are engaged in German politics, among them Anna Serbina from Tomsk University, argue that after the collapse of the socialist system Germany has been influencing the countries of Central and Eastern Europe4. A. Serbina specifies, and it is possible to agree with her, that as the transformation process of countries within Eastern Europe was rather difficult and long, in order for it to successfully come to the end, East European states needed further support and investments from Germany. Germany has cooperated with Eastern European countries not only within the European Union, but also in a bilateral format. The 1990s were characterized by activation of the political, social and economic relations between Germany and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, alongside preparation for occurrence of these countries to the European Union5. The entry of these countries into EU took place between 2004 and 2007. As a result of their entry into the European Union the period of split of Europe formally ended. However expansion to the East has big risks and threats for EU development as a whole. The gap in social and economic and political development between Western and Eastern Europe remains obvious. Understanding it, leaders of the European Union, being guided by economic and political interests, assumed all weight of this expansion. The special role was played here by Germany, which as the main donor of the budget of EU

2 W. Dergaczew, Jewropejskaja integracija [in:] Regionowiedienie, ed. W. A. Dergaczew, L. B. Wardomskij, Juniti-Dana 2007, (25.07.2019). 3 Ibidem. 4 A. Serbina, Politika Germanii v otnoshenii stran Centralnoj i Wostocznoj Evropy w svjazi s rasszirieniem JES: 1990-2007, Tomsk 2011, (31.07.2019). 5 Ibidem. S t r o n a | 103 made every effort that countries of Eastern Europe as soon as possible adapted to conditions of united Europe6. Germany and these countries are connected by a number of factors – shared history, geographical proximity, and a complex of bilateral interests. Besides these factors, since 2004 Germany had been interacting already within the European Union. In fact, the closest relations Germany has, is with the countries of the Visegrád group. This regional integration group was created in 1991 in Visegrád (Hungary) by three countries – Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. After disintegration of Czechoslovakia the group began to work in a four state format7. It should be noted that the relationships between Germany and the countries of the Visegrád group it is possible to allocate two periods. The first period, from 1990 to 1998, then between Helmut Kohl's government and the governments of the East European four, the factors of cooperation created by a shared aspiration of achievement for the common purpose — entry of countries of Eastern Europe into the European Union. The second period, from 1998 till the end of 2000, was defined by an increase of disagreements between Gerhard Schröder’s government and the Eastern European governments as the emphasis was focused on the development of transatlantic cooperation, and membership in EU already took place8. Also, it is very important to note that for Germany, entry of Central and Eastern European countries into the EU was communicated with the realization of complex social, economic and political interests. First, it’s civilization interests; Germany considers the Eastern European states as an important part of ‘European civilization’ Therefore entry of the countries of the Central and Eastern Europe into the European Union is perceived as the final reunion of Europe. Secondly, it is economic; the interests connected with the aspiration to develop trade, and investment meant cooperation with countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Since the 90s Germany has been the main trade and investment partner of East European states. After entry of these states into the EU the volume of economic cooperation between the countries continues to grow. As a whole, the conclusion was drawn that EU expansion to the East significantly affected a condition of economic cooperation between Germany and some Central and Eastern European countries. First of all changes were observed as qualitative, instead of quantitatively as cooperation was already at a stage of the associated partnership with about 80% of possible potential of growth of cooperation were used. Accession of the East European countries to conditions of the common domestic market of the EU brought these relations to a completely other level. Among the Central and Eastern European countries

6 Ibidem. 7 Ibidem. 8 Ibidem.

104 | S t r o n a certainly, the countries of the Visegrád group are leaders in trade volume with Germany and the main recipients of German investments. Such cooperation is mutually advantageous: for Germany the countries of the Central and Eastern Europe are a traditional sales market for German goods9. Germany also imports certain types of goods which measured by price to quality ratio are in demand in the German market10. The large German companies are considered by Eastern European countries as favorable, stable partners; therefore, despite the narrowness of the Eastern European markets, they have the niche there. Along with this, with the EU expansion of border cooperation with Germany’s east lands became more active though, certainly, leadership in trade and economic cooperation with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe is kept by the western lands of Germany11. However, realization of social and economic interests with EU expansion to the East had to satisfy certain political interests of Germany. Germany counted that the East European countries, having entered into EU, will support Germany at adoption of any decisions.

Relations of Germany with these countries in the 21st century

At the beginning of the 21st century alongside unifying moments there were also destructive factors in bilateral relations. These problems are connected with the common past and different views of the future of European integration. Especially difficult relations for Germany have been with Poland and the Czech Republic. These countries, now in the European Union try to pursue active foreign policy and to realize, first of all, their independent national interests. This was especially demonstrated at discussion of the Constitution of the EU and the following constitutional crisis. The document, according to the Czech Republic and Poland, limited the rights of small countries within the EU and therefore wasn't accepted12.At the same time the anti-German hysteria began. Poland again started accusing Germany of World War II events. Germany lifted a subject of the expelled Germans, their property, and negotiations on creation in Berlin ‘The center expelled’ were begun. It is possible to indicate four areas where Poland and Germany have different interests. The first one is monetary policy. As an euro area member Germany is interested in rescuing the common currency. Poland, in turn, is interested in keeping the euro area open to other EU Member States. The second one is energy policy; Germany is a front runner in the promotion of renewable

9 Ibidem. 10 Germany imports and opportunities for export to Germany, (02.08.2019). 11 R. Moghadam, Europe’s Road to Integration, “Finance &Development” March 2014, vol. 51, No. 1, (06.08.2019). 12 A. Serbina, op. cit. S t r o n a | 105 energy sources, and German energy policy is closely connected to environmental policy. Poland, on the other hand, is much more concerned about the security of supply along with the economic dimensions of energy supply. This is the reason for its support for an energy system based on domestic coal reserves. The third one is security policy; The Polish preference for NATO and the permanent presence of NATO troops in Poland does not enjoy German support. The fourth difference is the countries’ perceptions of the conflict in the east of Ukraine. In the beginning of the conflict the idea of sanctions did not enjoy much support in Germany, while for Poland, Ukrainian sovereignty plays a crucial role13. Later in 2015 one additional issue was added. The readiness of Germany, declared by the German chancellor, to take in refugees accelerated a wave of immigration, which by far exceeded the expectations of the German government. The migration crisis has dominated European policy in 2015 as the German government tries to impose quotas on the other EU Member States, which are not kindly accepted by Poland and the other Visegrád Group members14. As for the Czech Republic, despite a long history of interaction, wide opportunities for expansion and the consolidation of cooperation, the eviction issue of the Sudeten Germans who expressed the requirement of Germany to cancel the 1945 decrees of president Edward Benesh still isn't resolved. All this very badly reflects not only the atmosphere of the bilateral relations, but also brings negative elements into European Union development. Slovakia and Hungary on the other hand have no such acute contradictions with Germany as in the case with Poland and the Czech Republic appeared more constructive partners for Berlin among the Visegrád group15. Many analysts note that this circumstance is caused by the fact that these countries are very dependent on the cooperation and grants arriving from the European Union with Germany as the main donor. For example, in 2015, Slovakia and Germany set a record for trade turnover. Germany exported products worth € 12 billion to Slovakia and imported almost € 13.7 billion from Slovakia. German products account for 15% of the structure of Slovak imports16.

Conclusion

Concluding, speaking of the political and economic interests of Germany in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, it should be noted, that as a

13 M. A. Cichocki, O. Osica, Neue deutsch-polnische Agenda. Wie können aus unterschiedlichen Grundlagen gemeinsamer Interessen werden?, “Dialog. Deutsch- Polnisches Magazin”, No. 111 (2015), pp. 51-53. 14 D. Kałan, Migration Crisis Unites Visegrad Group, “PISM Bulletin” 2015. 15 Merkel’ poblagodarila Vengriyu za vklad v ob’yedineniye Germanii, (15.09.2019). 16 V. Gulevich, Slovakiya vybirayet franko-germanskyi soyuz, “Mieżdunarodnaja Żizn”, 18.08.2017, (20.09.2019).

106 | S t r o n a result of Central and Eastern European countries accession to the European Union, Germany firstly and finally solved, only the economic interests, while political domination of Germany in these countries continues.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Cichocki M. A., Osica O., Neue deutsch-polnische Agenda. Wie können aus unterschiedlichen Grundlagen gemeinsamer Interessen werden?, “Dialog. Deutsch-Polnisches Magazin”, No. 111 (2015)  Dergaczew W., Jewropejskaja integracija [in:] Regionowiedienie, ed. W.A. Dergaczew, L. B. Wardomskij,  Germany imports and opportunities for export to Germany,  Gulevich V., Slovakiya vybirayet franko-germanskyi soyuz, “Mieżdunarodnaja Żizn”,  Kałan D., Migration Crisis Unites Visegrad Group, “PISM Bulletin” 2015  Merkel’ poblagodarila Vengriyu za vklad v ob’yedineniye Germanii,  Moghadam R., Europe’s Road to Integration, “Finance &Development” March 2014, vol. 51, No. 1,  Serbina A., Politika Germanii v otnoshenii stran Centralnoj i Wostocznoj Evropy w svjazi s rasszirieniem JES: 1990-2007, Tomsk 2011,

S t r o n a | 107

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20198

Olga JASTRZĘBSKA1 Poland

PRO-WESTERN POLICY OF THE NEW UKRAINIAN PRESIDENT VOLODYMYR ZELENSKY AS THREAT FOR POSSIBLE RUSSIAN CONCEPT OF UKRAINE FEDERALIZATION

Abstract: The election of a new president of the Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelensky, was for many analysts and ordinary citizens of Ukraine a big astonishment. The new head of the state is a complete debutant on Ukraine's political scene and will be having to make many decisions, related to the shape of foreign policy, especially in determining the vectors of its development. President, often emphasizing the will of further integration with European and Atlantic structures must reckon with Russia's interferences in any attempts which can bring Ukraine closer to the Western structures. Ukraine's federalization concept can be considered as one of such undertakings. Treated by Russian politics as a remedy for political and national cleavages, is received by Ukrainian politicians as a first step to destroy the state unity. This concept also has been negatively received by president Zelensky. His resolute answer for federalization proposal is associated with many questions: is his openly pro-Western foreign policy a serious threat for Russia's vision of Ukraine as a federal state? Despite Zelensky’s objection will he agree to be a partial federalization due to the ongoing conflict in the Eastern part of Ukraine? And how this concept can influence the frames of his presidency in the context of planned rapprochement with the West?

Keywords: Volodymyr Zelensky, Ukraine's federalization, conflict in Eastern part of Ukraine, sphere of influence, foreign policy

1 Olga Jastrzębska, MA, PhD Student at the Institute of International Studies, University of Wroclaw. Email: [email protected]

108 | S t r o n a

Introduction

During the last few years of socio-political transformations which took place in the Ukraine, have changed the political scene in this country. The Euromaidan crisis, the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula by the Russian Federation and conflict in the eastern part of Ukraine (Donbas War), seriously violated Ukraine's sovereignty and weakened this state position, especially in the context of relations with Western Europe and Russian Federation. Connections with the last entity can be considered as particularly the most important, due to Russia's intensive attempts to restore the power status in the international area. The mentioned undertake is usually carried out at the expense of politically and economically weaker countries from ‘near abroad’ states, which gained or restored their independence after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and still recognized by Russia as a traditional sphere of influence. Ukraine, which not once had serious conflicts with eastern neighbour mainly on the political and military areas (Crimea and Donbas case), but also on the economic field (infamous ‘gas wars’) also belongs to this group. The society reaction to Russia's continuous pursuits for maximum weakening of Ukraine and the unstable internal situation was the discourage for the political elites, notably oligarchs, represented by the last president, Petro Poroshenko. Choosing in 2019 in his place popular comedian, Volodymyr Zelensky, famous for his role in satirical TV series Servant of , was the sui generis expression of demand for changes in Ukrainian politics. New president, political debutant, will have to face political challenges that may determine the overall shape of his term of office. The main issue of this article is to show how one of the frequently cited concepts – Ukraine's possible federalization could influence president Zelensky's policy, especially his intentions to cooperate with the West. His presidential term obviously would be not easiest for lack of political experience and mentioned earlier problems with Russia's activities on the Post–Soviet area. Principally, the federalization case is one of the most disturbing for young presidents, due to the potential undermining of the unity of Ukrainian state and enlargement of Russian influence. Concerning these matters this short article will try to answer the following questions, which presents the main research concerns. First of all, how the concept of federalization should be understood, especially in the Ukrainian case? What attitude to this subject has presents V. Zelensky, and how it can be implemented on the ground of his foreign policy view? Could the pro-Western policy of Zelensky block the possible federalization and change the Russian view on Ukraine's place on the Post-Soviet territory? For young and inexperienced on political field president, these issues are crucial.

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The concept of federalization and it's reference to the Ukraine's situation

Zelensky’s election program was focused on economic, anti-corruption and foreign policy concerns. The first two mentioned issues were calculated to create an efficient and fast developing state (like the Zelensky’s proposal to simplify private entepreneurment)2, the last – to strengthen Ukraine’s role on the international stage. This goal would be achieved through resolving the conflict on the Eastern Ukraine3, regaining the Russian-controlled territory4, and cooperation with Western structures5. Achieving these intentions will not be possible without proper relations with the Russian Federation, which are now very far from ideal, for the sake of repeated endeavours of expanding Russia's sphere of influence and interests in Ukraine. In addition to previously mentioned sort of instruments (like cited Russian involvement in the conflict on Eastern Ukraine or manipulation of prices and supplies of gas), as other methods can be included plans for territorial changes within this state, proposed by the Russian side. One of the most famous schemes is the plan for Ukraine's federalization, presented in the statement of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 17.03.20146. What is the concept of federalization? The basic term ‘federalism’, according to the definition of William H. Rikker should be understood as a type of political organization, in which government competencies are divided between central and regional authorities. Another definition, written by Michael Burgess and Alain Gagnon presents these phenomena as an organizational form which enables the constituent parts of the state to participate in the decision-making process7. According to these definitions, federalization in Ukraine's case can be explained as the decentralization8 of the formal unitary state (this form was officially proclaimed in the Ukrainian

2 Power of people in Dreamland: Election programme of Volodymyr Zelensky, , (31.12.2019). 3 T. Iwański, The great experiment: Zelensky as the new president of Ukraine, , (31.12.2019). 4 Inauguration of Zelensky: concessions in Donbas?, , (31.12.2019). 5 M. Mierzejewski-Voznyak, Ukraine's presidential election and future of its foreign policy, , (31.12.2019). 6 T. A. Olszański, Ukraine: sovereign decentralization or federalism without sovereignty?, “OSW Commentary”, 2014, no 134, p. 1. 7 J. Law, How we can define federalism?, Perspectives on federalism, 2013, vol. 5, is. 3, p. 94-95. 8 V. Ryzhkov, Putin's federalization card in Ukraine, , (31.12.2019).

110 | S t r o n a constitution)9 by giving the regions the governing bodies with a high level of autonomy from Kiev10. The federalization issue was raised both by Ukrainian (like Viktor Medvedchuk, former head of president administration office11) and Russian politicians from the beginning of the crisis in 2013. This process could be – in their opinion – the remedy for state problems, which are based among others on the actual divisions of Ukraine in many areas: ethnic, linguistic, and religious. These cleavages are most visible in the eastern and southern part of the country, were the Russian language dominates over Ukrainian and where a live significant percentage of citizens who considered themselves Russians (in Luhansk and Donetsk region their number accounts even 40% of the population)12. The government attitude towards language case was often the subject of criticism from Russian-speaking areas inhabitants13. Ukrainian Eastern regions can be regarded even as more specific case – the population was shaped by co-existence of Ukrainian population, which dominated in 19th century14, and migrants from other parts of Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union, resettled in this territory, especially after II World War, resulting in Russification of marginalization of Ukrainian culture and language15. Also, in Soviet times the identity of inhabitants was determined not by a sense of national belonging, but by a specific ethos of the miner profession. As another factor can be considered Soviet ideology, which emphasized the special status of miners as exemplary working people. The result of the ‘sovietisation’ of the Donbas area inhabitants' mentality is the sentiment to Russia, associated with work opportunities and a high standard of living. In their opinion, the Ukrainian state did not guarantee them adequate protection of their interest and rights after Soviet Union dissolution16. The mentioned cleavages and Russia's pursuits to influence Ukraine's home affairs has an impact on possible federalization concept. According to the Russian government proposal, the de facto controlled by Russia Donbas area with two unrecognized states – Luhansk People's Republic and Donetsk

9 R. Goncharenko, Would a federal Ukraine be viable, , (31.12.2019). 10 V. Ryzhkov, op. cit. 11 Federalizacja Ukrainy była przygotowywana od dawna, , (8.10.2019). 12 K. A. Kaczyńska, Federacja Rosyjska a mniejszość rosyjska na Ukrainie. Nowe narzędzie kontroli przestrzeni postradzieckiej?, „Przegląd Geopolityczny”, 2014, t. 8, p. 179. 13 V. Ryzhkov, op. cit. 14 I. Topala, Tożsamość regionalna mieszkańców Donbasu, [in:] M. Dąbrowska, J. Parnes, M. Żakowska, Europa swoich, Europa obcych. Stereotypy, zderzenia kultur i dyskursy tożsamościowe, Łódź 2017, p. 177. 15 A. Gil, Źródła i konteksty separatyzmu w Donbasie, „Studia Europejskie”, 2015, no 4, p. 129-130. 16 I. Topala, Tożsamość…, p. 177-179. S t r o n a | 111

People's Republic, should be given the special status within the frames of the Ukrainian state. One of the consequences would be the right to pursue their own foreign and economic policy17. The supporters of this concept claim that the proposed solution would cause many benefits for Ukraine. Some of these profits are: give more political and economic independence for the regions, reduce religion and national tensions and enable greater control of central and local authorities18. The opponents on the Ukrainian side reply: this is the idea of destroying Ukraine independence and sovereignty. The concept of changing the unitary status of the country was often considered not only as the threat for Ukraine self-governance but can be seen as the possible entry to slow decay, especially in the field of political corruption and instability. One of the greatest adversaries of this idea is ex-prime minister Arseniy Jaceniuk. In his opinion federalization will cause a situation where instead of one Viktor Yanukovich, infamous ex-president, would be many little Yanukoviches – local ‘feudal lords’, dependent on Russia, particularly in the Eastern part of the country19. The former president P. Poroshenko openly called the federalization proposal as ‘infection’, imposed by foreign powers. In his speech P. Poroshenko obviously meant Russia20. Also, Ukrainian society has mostly negative attitude to all proposals, which can undermine country unity. Survey, which was held in 2014 showed about 70% of Ukrainians from the southeast part of the state are against federalization processes21. This idea is overwhelmingly treated as one of the greatest dangers to Ukraine position in the context of relations with Russia, which ultimately can lead to the split of the country. How the new Ukrainian president refers to this concept? The difficult tasks facing Zelensky are the results of his country geopolitical situation. Located at the junction of Western and Russia's scopes of influence, Ukraine was forced to balance between two spheres, which was expressed at the multi- vector foreign policy22. What vector the newly elected president will choose?

17 H. E. Hale, N. Kravets, O. Onuch, Can federalism unite Ukraine into the peace deal?, “PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo”, 2015, no. 379, p. 2. 18 V. Ryzhkov, op. cit. 19 K. Dronova, Federalization problem: Russia vs. Ukraine, , (8.10.2019). 20 Poroshenko endorses referendum on federalization of Ukraine, , (26.10.2019). 21 KIIS Survey: Ukraine southeast's is against federalization processes and sees no problems with the Russian language, , (8.10.2019). 22 Y. Prystupa, Wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne uwarunkowania polityki zagranicznej Ukrainy w latach 1999-2007, „Wschodnioznastwo”, 2008, no. 2, p. 267.

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President Zelensky pro-Western foreign policy and the federalization concept

The concept of possible federalization is strictly connected with possessed positions and relations on the foreign policy area. In this field Zelensky seems to be the continuator of pro-Western course of predecessors – Petro Poroshenko and Viktor Yushchenko. He emphasized his attitude through visits and declarations. During his visit to Paris and Berlin in June 2019, he confirmed the will to join EU and NATO23. Also, President discussed on 2nd Ukraine-European Union Summit in July 2019 the possible financial support proposals, which can be offered by Brussels24. According to some analysts, Zelensky wants to strengthen ties with the West to put more pressure on Russia in the context of the ongoing conflict in the Eastern part of the country, hoping that the solidarity policy would continue and Russia would be still under pressure from the Western side25. His pro-Western attitude is also connected with a strong opinion on the federalization issue. The new president admitted that he would never allow any forms of country federalization and the loss of Eastern territories. Zelensky perceives all attempts to violate or modify the unitary state system as the big obstacle for the cooperation and at least – integration with European and Atlantic structures. The federalization issue as the hypothetic problem can be also connected with the searching for the remedy of the still smouldering dilemma of the Eastern Ukraine (principally Donbas part) separatism, especially in the context of constantly appearing peace proposals. For Zelensky the Donbas case is clear: it will remain as the part of the Ukrainian state, which was confirmed by his advisor, Andrij Jermak26. There is however no doubt that ‘’ in Donbas is the constant threat to the fulfilling process of Ukraine's unity. Despite Zelensky's firm will to preserve the unitary form of the state he knows that in terms of potential peace process some modifications and concessions will be unavoidable. The question of the possible granting of some kind of autonomy for Donbas is still an open issue. In mid-September of 2019 Vadim Prystaiko, minister of foreign

23 H. Bazhenova, 100 dni prezydenta W. Zelenskiego: polityka międzynarodowa, , (8.10.2019). 24 B. Bodalska, Szczyt UE-Ukraina: Wsparcie dla reform na Ukrainie i utrzymania sankcji wobec Rosji, , (10.10.2019). 25 Zelenski: zaprzyjaźnić się z Zachodem i ograć Wschód, , (8.10.2019). 26 Zelenski odrzuca federalizację Ukrainy i specjalny status dla okupowanych części Donbasu, , (11.10.2019). S t r o n a | 113 affairs, announced that special statuses of the regions would not be included into Ukrainian constitution27. From the other side, Zelensky cannot leave the situation in Donbas unsolved and he has to consider possible changes in his attitude towards the status of the questionable part of the state. An example of such a change in Zelensky's problem perception is his positive opinion on Frank-Walter Steinmeier (current president of Germany) formula, which is the latest proposal of resolving the Donbas question. This plan implies granting the Donbas special status within the frames of the Ukrainian state, which has been approved by the president and signed on 1st October of 201928. By some political circles in Ukraine this decision was tantamount to giving Russia some part of the Eastern territories. Polish analyst Wojciech Konończuk from Centre for Eastern Studies predicts that one of the results of the adopted plan will be maintaining control over disputed territory by Russia29. This plan was denied by the president himself. “I will never give up Ukraine”, said Zelensky30. In December 2019 the president again proved in his own words that he will not allow to concede Ukraine's territories31. His opinion of the potential federalization of the country is firm. But the president's European aspirations may be blocked because of the unstable situation in the Donbas area. EU won't accept as the probable member state with unresolved territorial conflict. Despite choosing the pro-Western vector in his policy, Zelensky will have to reckon with the threat of reappearing the Donbas frozen conflict and the possible Russian influence on disputed territories. The president intends to manoeuvre between the complete unitary of his state and the special treatment of the regions, that pose a problem for this stability and which can seek support in Putin's Russia. Despite his earlier words about the unity of Ukraine and his idea of complete rejection of federalization, the president knows that the full integration of Donbas after the conflict can be no longer possible. But whether giving Donbas special status within state won't be the reasonable form or an introduction to the further

27 B. Bodalska, Rosja stawia warunki podjęcia rozmów w sprawie Donbasu. Ukraina je odrzuca, , (26.10.2019). 28 G. Gigitashvili, R. Osadchuk, Backlash against the controversial peace deal spun on Ukrainian and Russian media, , (31.12.2019). 29 M. Potocki, Ryzykowna gra Kijowa. Ekipa Zelenskiego wykonała pierwszy krok do legalizacji samozwańczychj republik Donbasu, , (26.10.2019). 30 M. Trojan, Zelenski do protestujących Ukraińców: nigdy nie poddam Ukrainy!, , (10.10.2019). 31 Zelensky reject the idea of Ukraine's federalization, , (31.12.2019).

114 | S t r o n a federalization? This is now one of the biggest dilemmas of the new Ukraine president. To be able to think about integration with the European structures, he must cooperate with parliament and the most important political forces to develop a possible plan for giving Donbas region some of self-governance, at least some autonomous powers in the field of internal policy. But in this case the situation is complicated by the reluctance of some Ukrainian politicians. The former Ukrainian president, P. Poroshenko called Steinmeier formula ‘The Putin formula’32. The Poroshenko political party European Solidarity openly accused Zelensky of being a tool in Russia's hands33. Achieving any sort of compromise in the Donbas future could be extremely difficult. The history of this conflict has shown that this dispute can resume at any time, what recently showed shelling of territories in which the withdrawal of troops took place in October 201934. It can be assumed that president Zelensky sees the future of Donbas within Ukraine, but on the path of gradual integration, that may be compatible with European aspirations. But further Russia's attempts to extend its control and potential domination on the conflicted area can be continued. From the Russian side we can expect to block attempts to rearouse the conflict by using the separatist will to disunited with Kyiv by intensified cooperation with autonomous region subjects (like self-proclaimed republics in Donetsk and Luhansk). The concept of federalization of the country can be again taken into account by Moscow, which may cause another outbreak of the conflict. President Zelensky's intentions to join the Western community are clear but to what extent this plan can be carried out? It would be very hard for the new president to achieve the pro-Western goals with continuous destabilization of the Donbas region and Russian perpetual attempts at interference in internal affairs, with constantly returning federal concepts. Permanent stay of anxiety and uncertainty in the Donbas area effectively blocks the possibilities of Ukraine integration with Atlantic and European structures. Unresolved problems with controlled by Russia Eastern territories will be the most important problem of Zelensky's presidency beginning. It certainly will take him away from issues related to European and Atlantic integration and hinder potential negotiations, which creates for Ukraine the prospect of joining the EU and NATO even more distant.

32 G. Gigitashvili, R. Osadchuk, op. cit. 33 H. Coynash, Ukraine's agreement to Steinmeier formula – Russian victory or same stale- mate?, , (31.12.2019). 34 Ukraina: ostrzał terytoriów, które miały podlegać wycofaniu wojsk, , (10.10.2019). S t r o n a | 115

Conclusions

The pro-Western policy of president Zelensky won't be a serious threat to Russia's concept of Ukraine federalization. Even despite president Zelensky adamantly confirm the rejection of the federalization concept it is certain that Ukraine won't be a unitary state in the shape that existed before the conflict. At present the Ukrainian state is weakened by the conflict in the East and existing cleavages in the country. Zelensky is aware of that fact and knows that the possible Donbas integration with the state structures will not happen too quickly. Considering constant tensions in Donbas probably will cause that president with cooperation with parliament to give this region at least autonomy, which could be very complicated due to the hostility of some Ukrainian political circles towards such a solution. This explication – what was mentioned before – can be the first step to undermine the unity of Ukraine. Full federalization is not possible at that moment, due to facts, which were mentioned before – the appearing big social and political cleavages, as the result of that conflict. But the possibility of a problem will come back, connected with Russian pressure and lack of the political experience of the new president is very plausible. Federalization concept can be treated by the Russian side as some kind of ‘bogey’ in case of conducting too pro-Western (in Russia's point of view) policy by Zelensky or again as worth considering potential solution in case of another outbreak of separatism. Depending on the situation on Ukraine and policy direction, chosen by Zelensky, the meaning of the federalization concept can change. On the other hand, the president can use this political idea as a tool to strengthen the state's internal unity, by showing that he won't make any compromises with Russia about Ukraine's political system. It could also have an impact on president pro-Western policy: his reception as the guarantee of Ukraine's stability and independence would be confirmed. The first year of Volodymyr Zelensky presidential has not passed yet. At the current times it is hard to say whether the new president strategy will be successful or if he will achieve all proclaimed intentions. His presidency definitely will not be among the easiest – probable resolution of the Donbas conflict and relations with Russia will influence it's reception and Zelensky popularity among Ukrainians. President's pro – European aspirations may not be able to withstand the pressure from the Russian side, based on its constant will to expand political and economic influence. One of the forms of this insist is the concept of federalization. Zelensky shouldn't forget about this idea – further destabilization of Ukraine's situation may result in new endeavours to subordinate some of its parts by pro-Russian separatists, which can seriously destroy his biggest ambition – Ukraine's chance for becoming a strong state in European and Atlantic structures.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Bazhenova H., 100 dni prezydenta W. Zelenskiego: polityka międzynarodowa, ,  Bodalska B., Rosja stawia warunki podjęcia rozmów w sprawie Donbasu. Ukraina je odrzuca,  Bodalska B., Szczyt UE-Ukraina: Wsparcie dla reform na Ukrainie i utrzymania sankcji wobec Rosji,  Coynash H., Ukraine's agreement to Steinmeier formula – Russian victory or same stalemate?,  Dronova K., Federalization problem: Russia vs. Ukraine,  Federalizacja Ukrainy była przygotowywana od dawna,  Gil A., Źródła i konteksty separatyzmu w Donbasie, „Studia Europejskie, 2015, no 4  Gigitashvili G., Osadchuk R., Backlash against the controversial peace deal spun on Ukrainian and Russian media,  Goncharenko R., Would a federal Ukraine be viable,  Inauguration of Zelensky: concessions in Donbas?,  Hale H. E., Kravets N., Onuch O., Can federalism unite Ukraine into the peace deal?, „PONARS Eurasia Policy Memo”, 2015, no. 379  Iwański T., The great experiment: Zelensky as the new president of Ukraine,  Kaczyńska K. A., Federacja Rosyjska a mniejszość rosyjska na Ukrainie. Nowe narzędzie kontroli przestrzeni postradzieckiej?, „Przegląd geopolityczny”, 2014, t. 8  KIIS Survey: Ukraine southeast's is against federalization processes and sees no problems with the Russian language, S t r o n a | 117

 Law J., How we can define federalism?, Perspectives on federalism, 2013, vol. 5, is. 3  Mierzejewski-Voznyak M., Ukraine's presidential election and future of its foreign policy,  Olszański T. A., Ukraine: sovereign decentralization or federalism without sovereignty?, „OSW Commentary”, 2014, no 134  Poroshenko endorses referendum on federalization of Ukraine,  Potocki M., Ryzykowna gra Kijowa. Ekipa Zelenskiego wykonała pierwszy krok do legalizacji samozwańczychj republik Donbasu,  Power of people in Dreamland: Election programme of Volodymyr Zelensky,  Prystupa Y., Wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne uwarunkowania polityki zagranicznej Ukrainy w latach 1999-2007, „Wschodnioznastwo”, 2008, no. 2  Ryzhkov V., Putin's federalization card in Ukraine,  Topala I., Tożsamość regionalna mieszkańców Donbasu, [in:] M. Dąbrowska, J. Parnes, M. Żakowska, Europa swoich, Europa obcych. Stereotypy, zderzenia kultur i dyskursy tożsamościowe, Łódź 2017  Trojan M., Zelenski do protestujących Ukraińców: nigdy nie poddam Ukrainy!,  Ukraina: ostrzał terytoriów, które miały podlegać wycofaniu wojsk,  Zelenski odrzuca federalizację Ukrainy i specjalny status dla okupowanych części Donbasu,  Zelensky reject the idea of Ukraine's federalization,  Zelenski: zaprzyjaźnić się z Zachodem i ograć Wschód,

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S t r o n a | 119

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/20199

Thornike ZEDELASHVILI1 Georgia

GEOPOLITICAL CONTOURS OF MODERN INFORMATION WARFARE RUSSIAN-US CONFRONTATION LINE FROM BALTIC SEA TO BLACK SEA

Abstract: The international security environment, which needs to be upgraded to security mechanisms, does not have two views. The level of threats, risks and challenges of information warfare is quite high. Protecting yourself from the information war and its most powerful component – – is not easy, although every country tries to protect itself in a complex way, but at least every state must have its own effective defense mechanisms. Measures and measures taken by individual countries are often not sufficient. The efficiency of the information war was facilitated by scientific and technological advancements, which led to the manipulation and control of certain masses. In this respect, it is important to involve international organizations, develop strategic documents and defense mechanisms.We often emphasize that technology development has both pros and cons. Let's imagine two sides of the same coin. Nevertheless, we should not miss the third theoretical issue, namely, raising the awareness and educating the masses. The information warfare is always aimed at consciousness and the main target of propaganda is a person who is not versed in modern technology, has no idea of the Internet system and the production of ‘fake news’. Unfortunately, today's ”fake news”has become so widespread throughout the world that if you are not properly trained, you may find it very difficult to tell the lie and the truth. Education, special methodological programs, this is one of the important parts of the global problem.

Keywords: hybrid war, information war, global security, Cyberwar, asymmetric threat, economic pressure, misinformation, international security, virtual space, technological advances

1 Thornike Zedelashvili, PhD student at Caucasus International University, founder of the news-analytical agency of “Leader”. Email: [email protected]

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Introduction

The information war has taken over the world with the development of technology in the 21st century. It takes a lot of effort to protect the countries from information warfare and security. It is related to both financial and also with the greatest human resources. Establishing a fully secure system is associated with great effort and expense. In most cases, most states do not have safeguards and do not protect their information security. In many cases, states do not have or are ineffective in their information security strategies and policies. Technologies and approaches to information warfare are becoming increasingly sophisticated, but at the same time the main problem is that states are not effectively ensuring information security and are facing greater threats. The usage of the cyber elements in inter-state relations and conflicts has experienced a significant transformation in a short period of time. If the cyber- attacks in the first decade of the century were designed to achieve mostly informational-technical effects (it is well known that in the case of a weakly protected infrastructure, even low-tech DDoS and Defacement attacks could result in disproportionately high damage), already from the middle of the second decade, such attacks have mainly made way for cyber operations performed for informational-psychological influence2. The outbreak of information warfare and the use of technologies have affected large states such as Russia and the US on a global scale. Their interests extend in many ways to the populations and territories of small countries, including Georgia. Russia is actively engaged in information warfare with the Baltic states – Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia. It also launches large-scale information-disinformation attacks on countries such as Georgia and Ukraine. None of the countries mentioned in the effective effective opposition can do this independently. However, with the support of NATO and the EU, defense mechanisms are being developed and developed. The US is also actively engaged in this regard militarily or technically. The Baltic states – Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania got rid of the Soviet regime 28 years ago and since independence (in 2004) three states have joined the EU and NATO, but in this region Russia still has its chauvinistic interests and, thanks to its confrontation with the West, as a red line. Turned into a zone. According to political scientists, today Russia will not go for military escalation, it will not use any form of direct aggression, as it is physically, so to speak, at odds with the North Atlantic Alliance and with the interests of the European Union. However, there are so-called The various forms of the Cold War, manifested by cyberattacks and information warfare methods.

2 A. Gotsiridz, Factors that need to be taken into Account when Developing a New National Cyber Security Strategy, Tbilisi 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 121

Russia's interest in the independent Baltic countries and its political approaches in the context of the confrontation with NATO

The question naturally arises: What is Russia's interest in independent states? First of all, the huge conquest-oriented country perceives the acceptance of these three states in NATO as a breach of its own borders. The decision taken at the Istanbul summit in 2004 was shocking for the Kremlin, and preparations have begun for NATO to expand further. In fact, such a rigid step in Western Europe was unexpected for Russia; otherwise, the Kremlin would try to play a scenario similar to that played by Ukraine and Georgia, that is, all three countries would resort to military means. It might have been difficult to split the Indo-German population, but Russia would still have begun the process of disintegrating the region, which would have prevented NATO membership. Especially when the Russian-speaking population settled in the Baltics in the Soviet Union is not very small – 10%. That was not the case, and the Baltic states were ‘gained an advantage’ by a number of factors: first, the situation in Russia itself was not fully settled by 2004, and second, by the so- called Kremlin. A decree on the protection of their own citizens in any country, the Baltic States, from the outset took into account and purified their states as far as possible, that is, to deny citizenship to a large part of the Russian- speaking population, there were a number of restrictions. In addition, since these three countries have taken refuge in the NATO umbrella, thanks to technologies and defense systems, they have been able to effectively repel cyberattacks, which (We have to admit) in the case of Georgia and Ukraine. After all, Russia is still not resting and periodically conducting cyberattacks on the Baltic states – for example, there was a major offensive against Estonia in 2007-2009, after one activist of the Kremlin's youth organization ‘Nash’ admitted that he was a cyberattack on the Baltic states. According to analysts, the Kremlin was behind these attacks. It should be recalled that a similar cyberattack on Georgia was also carried out in August 2008, during the Russian-Georgian war and in October 2019. Problems with hundreds of sites. Several TV stations and various web portals were shut down. The cyberattack was also carried out on the website of the President's Administration. A photo of ex-President Mikheil Saakashvili with the caption ‘I'll be back’ appeared at the opening of the websites. In the days that followed, letters were sent to news outlets saying that the ‘attackers’ were not interested in either Mikheil Saakashvili or Bidzina Ivanishvili, who needed money in the form of bitcoins. Otherwise they threatened to publish material that was downloaded from the servers during the attack. The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia has launched an investigation into this cyberattack. Several individuals have been questioned, but the results are not known. There are several versions of this fact – it may not be at all related to a new way of making money and be a rehearsal for the 2020 parliamentary elections. It is true that elections in Georgia are not

122 | S t r o n a conducted electronically and hired hackers cannot influence the results, but when the information warfare against the current government starts, it can be very effective. In addition, it may all serve to instill fear in the population that there is some force that can freely block any news outlet or government site. How might ‘almighty’ hackers be organized? Most likely, from Russia, because the handwriting is the same as it was during the 2008 Russia-Georgia war. Today, Europe and America are talking about the dangers coming from Russia. That is why, based on the Warsaw decision, NATO deployed four Battalion type units in the Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) and Poland in early 2017, operating in agreement with local military units. This decision was preceded by the approval of the NATO RAP Readiness Action Plan at the 2014 NATO Summit in Wales, largely in response to threats coming from Russia and their strategic impact. The Warsaw Summit Declaration also noted that since 2014 the security of the Baltic Sea region has been threatened. In particular, Russia's intensified military activities and deployment of new military technologies, which poses additional challenges to regional security, were highlighted. Of course, the new military technology itself involves the control of cyberspace and cyber attacks. When we talk about the present situation of the Baltic states, we should draw parallels with the threats against Georgia-Ukraine. If we look closely and analyze, we will clearly see the same handwriting. By the way, Russia does not have a creative approach to military or cyber attacks, that is, never changes its methods, has one scenario and operates in all regions. The high level of threat of information attacks against Georgia is also supported by the clear definitions in the State Security Service's 2018 report3. For example, how the Russian Federation and other countries' special services are trying to launch a hybrid war on the territory of Georgia. The report says that Russia is increasingly trying to influence the Georgian population, creating the illusion that the EU, NATO and the United States are a major threat. On October 17, 2019, Grigol Liluashvili, the head of the State Security Service, during his visit to the Parliament, highlighted many dangerous issues, including the dangers of the Russian Federation's hybrid war in Georgia and outlined five points: “Russia operates in Georgia with five major instruments of hybrid warfare: occupation forces and de facto regimes, information warfare, so-called soft power, economic expansion, covert operations”4. What fundamental changes in world order are to be expected will require an in-depth analysis. In this regard, Mr. Vakhtang Maisaia gives an interesting analysis in his essay: The New Cold War, published in the periodical press on May 15, 2017. He said that in light of current international political

3 G. Liluashvili, Report of the State Security Service of Georgia, Tbilisi 2018, pp. 1-27, (31.12.2019). 4 Idem, Russia operates in Georgia with five major instruments of hybrid warfare, Tbilisi 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 123 developments, new trends have already changed the order of the world and made it multipolar instead of monopolistic, where US geopolitical hegemony was the unconditional and major dominant factor in the kind of world order that began after the geopolitical transition. Whose Classic Cold War began – 1991- 1999 years. In the same paper, Vakhtang Maisaia notes that the US has been able to take over global governance since 1999, especially with the implementation of the George W. Bush administration's ‘Global ’ strategy. Such a model, that is, US global hegemony and a model of monopoly world order, continued until 2014, but Maisaia also mentions Russia's role and says: “Since 2014, when the Russian Federation has occupied the so-called Crimean Peninsula of the sovereign territory of Ukraine, It annexed it through the ‘hybrid war’ and disregarded all the norms and principles of international law, which subsequently revealed its ambition for world hegemony”5. The paper also focuses on Russia's aggression in response to the US and high-stakes Western economic blockade against Russia, which has become the face of the ‘new Cold War’. Did Russia find an economic blockade enough to fuel its chauvinistic aspirations? Some experts believe that this was not fully effective and that more stringent sanctions should be implemented. Some experts argue that sanctions should be lifted altogether. In the end, the picture is set whether sanctions are in place or not, it doesn't matter much to Russia, at least the Kremlin makes such an impression. In the wake of the ‘Cold War’ mentioned above, President Vladimir Putin has been lucky in the last few months, with US President Donald Trump's announcement that his country will no longer be a world policeman, creating a mirage as if it were a retreat. In principle, the fact of the Syrian-Turkish confrontation and the Russian-Turkish clashes even gave rise to such a mirage. As you know, Russia has gained control of Syria along with Turkey, and they are simultaneously patrolling. While this should not mislead experts, the US and EU still remain world-class figureheads. Russia's interests in the Black Sea basin have increased since the conquest of Crimea. Political analysts say if this continues, the prospect of turning the Black Sea into a ‘Russian lake’ becomes clear. What should the United States do to prevent this from happening? NATO enlargement to Ukraine and Georgia is on the agenda. By the way, the Warsaw Summit emphasized the need to strengthen the eastern flank, that is to say the Baltic and Polish flanks are even stronger in terms of both military and cyber security. We need to look at how Russian propaganda is being fought today in the Baltic states and analyze how effective it is. In 2016, Latvia switched off Russian channel RTR for six months. The Latvian Public Broadcaster reported

5 V. Maisaia, The New Cold War, Tbilisi 2017, p. 1, (31.12.2019).

124 | S t r o n a about it6. According to the decision of the National Electronic Media Council, Rossiya RTR has violated the Latvian media law and the EU media directive. In 2015, the Lithuanian Communications Regulatory Commission decided to block RTR Planet7. This television is included in the service package of Russia's State Broadcasting Company. The reason was named after Vladimir Solvin's program, which used propaganda and hate speech. The channel was blocked in accordance with the EU media directive. “The European Union regulator has decided to shut down the Russian channel, history does not remember it, perhaps many will disagree, but we must act in accordance with the legislation”8 – said regulatory spokesman Edmundas Vaitekūnas. In Estonia, too, they wanted to block Sputnik online, but then changed their minds. Because the temporary shutdown of the TV channels would not solve the problem. When people around the world are using the Internet. One of these initiatives was led by the leader of the Estonian Conservative People's Party Urmas Reitelmann9. There was talk of switching off Russian TV channels in Georgia during this period, but the public did not take up the issue, nor did the government take up the issue. There were several reasons for this: First, it was demanded by former government members, or leaders of the United National Movement; Second, the public perceived that in today's technology, it made no sense for anyone who wishes to watch Russian channels by various means; Third, it was thought that this would exacerbate our tense relations with Russia and we would get the opposite reaction, that is, we would be more affected.

Russia chooses a strategy in relation to the Baltic countries, Western Europe and the United States in the conditions of the ‘New Cold War’

Let's get back to the main theme – in the conditions of the ‘New Cold War’, what strategy does Russia choose against the Baltic states, Western Europe and the United States? Since it is difficult to determine where the theoretical cybersecurity begins and where practical military aggression ends, new research, recommendations, or scientific papers are needed. Even if it is difficult to determine where Russian begins and whether it has an

6 Latvia suspends Rossiya RTR channel, “Latvian Public Broadcasting”, Latvia 2016, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 7 Lithuanian regulatory agency suspends RTR Planeta, “Lithuanian National Radio and Television”, Lithuania 2015, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 8 Lithuanian media regulator has decided to take off air for a three-month period Russian state-owned TV channel RTR Planeta, “Baltic News Network”, Lithuania 2015, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 9 Estonian Conservative Party Member: We'd Shut Sputnik If Had Such Possibility, “Information Agency New Front”, Estonia 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 125 end at all, the world is in constant pain. That is why NATO has enacted Article 5 of the Washington Treaty – the principle of collective defense. Prior to that, the North Atlantic Alliance used the obligations under Article 5, which included involvement in ‘crisis management’ operations. Russia has rolled out its geopolitical and geostrategic instruments at all three levels – at a global level: confrontation with the US and NATO (in its new National Security 2015 Opinion paragraphs 16 and 17 consider the US and NATO the main adver- saries, while the seventh paragraph explicitly states the role of the Russian Federation Arrange the world order Official Moscow, using elements of ‘hybrid warfare’), could inflict a serious blow on the United States during the presidential election, showing signs of political instability in the US monolithic political system, even though Donald Trump is not a Kremlin favorite. Doubt: Hacker interference in presidential elections Even if the story is a complete lie, it still sheds light on the sentiments of Putinist Russia, that is, the feeling of almightyness and shows nihilism in the population of the United States, but why only in the population of this country? Everyone experiences frustration and helplessness. By the way, this was one of the ‘best’ examples of September 11, 2001, when terrorists slammed into the United States when buildings and passenger planes exploded. This is where not only ‘American nihilism’ but also ‘world nihilism’ first appeared, followed by the outbreak of an information war – even a film shot, apparently, by the US authorities, and in particular by President George W. Bush (Jr.), in order to destroy terrorists. To obtain. Yes, but what rights did they want and need to fight terrorism? By no means is terrorism a disease of mankind and it must be eradicated to the end. Incidentally, the United States had a so-called period. Coverage-reloading policy, which has been used by enemies in an unrelenting manner. There were years of ‘reset’ when former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton went to Moscow and offered Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov a ‘reset’ button, and the doctrine then worked out to be the best example of this – a straightforward document states that constructive cooperation with Russia requires NATO- Russia cooperation. Security is intertwined and so on. As we have seen, such an approach did not work. Russia is attacking the United States, the Baltics and the rest of the world with cyber meth, pre-processed hybrid methods and misinformation. However, the misinformation that spreads in Western, Central and Eastern Europe varies in content and depends on the country's cultural, political, and historical features. Each message is carefully selected and mainly targeted at the Russian- speaking population of the countries in the region. for example:

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In Slovakia and the Czech Republic10, they are focused on criticizing US energy policy and trying to portray the United States acting solely for its own interests and fostering conflict in different parts of the world. The situation in Romania11 is the same, with Russian-sponsored media outlets trying to portray EU membership as a mistake and undermine democratic institutions. In Sweden12, the government has been portrayed as a victim of sexual misconduct. Russian media propaganda in Finland13 accuses the authorities of dishonesty in court decisions regarding child custody of Russian-Finnish couples. There is a misleading struggle in Ukraine14 – corruption, poverty, disorder and a Western- style ‘puppet’ regime. In the Baltic states, in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia15, the propaganda machine works to discriminate against Russians in these countries because of their ethnic or linguistic characteristics. In principle, all the post-Soviet countries have to say that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was no mass oppression of Russians and Russian- speaking populations, no bloodshed and brutality. Perhaps in this case, the fact that at least 70 years of kinship and other cultural or social relations have been established has played a decisive role. Instead of warning Russia of these relations, it began to create a space similar to the Soviet Union, where it constantly engaged in military aggression and engaged in hybrid warfare. Internet publication damoukidebloba.ge, according to information16, is the driving force of Russian propaganda in the Baltics – “Pervyy Baltiyskiy kanal”. Also online site Regnum.ru, which has been operating for more than 10 years. Russia recently launched Baltnews, an anonymous source of news and information in Estonian, Lithuanian and Latvian languages. Today neither the Baltic states, nor Ukraine nor Georgia can spend trillions of dollars to oppose Russia in an information war. If Russia can establish radio stations, TV channels, agencies and newspapers in Georgia secretly and openly,

10 I. Smoleňová, The Pro-Russian Disinformation Campaign In The Czech Republic And Slovakia, “Prague Security Studies Institute”, Prague 2015, pp. 1-18, (31.12.2019). 11 Disinformation and European erosion in Romania, “Information Agency Stop Fake”, 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 12 Geworld Spreads News by Russian Troll Factory on Legalization of Necrophilia and Bestiality in Europe, “Information Agency MyTh Detector”, Tbilisi 2018, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 13 Y. Kioski, Yle Kioski Investigated: This Is How Pro-Russia Trolls Manipulate Finns Online – Check the List of Forums Favored by Propagandists, 2015, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 14 Ukraine remains top target of Russian disinformation, “News and View for Ukraine Euromaidanpress”, Ukraine 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 15 A. Król, Russian Information Warfare in the Baltic States – Resources and Aims, p. 1, Warsaw 2017, (31.12.2019). 16 Russian Information Warfare – Strategies and Goals, “Damoukidebloba”, Tbilisi 2015, p. 1, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 127 we have no way to do the same in Russia. Yes, sir, you can resist from your own country, but it is not completely effective. Especially if your territorial integrity is broken and you can't control 20 percent. Many may not believe it, but as the German publication Bild writes in its own sources, if the United States had been openly involved in the 2008 Georgia-Russia war, the Russians had decided to attack the Baltic states, and if the Americans were to provide assistance to the Baltic states, then they would have used nuclear weapons. They thought. A Bild columnist also writes that within the framework of large-scale military training – ‘Western 2017’ Russia was rehearsing not ‘in the fight against terrorism’ but in ‘the war on NATO’ and they have this information based on ‘Western intelligence’. The publication claims that the teaching scenario was based on the occupation of the Baltic states and Belarus for several days. The exercise also addressed a ‘shock campaign’ against NATO countries, including Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Norway, as well as neutral and Finland. According to a source in the publication, Russia has been training to ‘neutralize and control Baltic airports and ports’. “If there is a real war, their goal will be to build critical infrastructure, including airports, ports, stations and other infrastructure, in order to shock these countries and demand a truce from the local population”17. According to the publication, according to Norwegian Defense Ministry sources, during the exercise Russia has attacked the city of Spitzbergen and captured it. As we have seen, this plan was not implemented, the United States was not caught up in Russia's provocation in the events of 2008, but there is a similarly modeled plan, that is, Russia is still doing its job with hybrid warfare and cyberattacks. In June 2018, the Pentagon acknowledged that in the event of a Russian invasion, it would not be able to protect the Baltic states and Poland. According to , this conclusion was reached as a result of a simulation of EU and Russian military resistance in the Pentagon. According to the publication, “until the US Army headquarters fills out 17 forms to allow NATO advanced troops from Germany to Poland, Russia will be able to detain the Baltic states”18. Another major problem for the US military is the narrow streets and unreliable transportation infrastructure. The case concerns too weak bridges that cannot withstand the weight of American equipment. The European bureaucracy also creates problems at its borders.

17 E. Basilaia, German Media: Russians Planned to Use Nuclear Weapons in 2008, Tbilisi 2017, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 18 The Pentagon acknowledged that in the event of a Russian invasion it would not be able to protect the Baltic states and Poland, “Imedinews”, Tbilisi 2018, p. 1, (31.12.2019).

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Russia has opened several fronts against the Baltic states, where senior government officials are involved. For example, in September 2019, Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov noted that the Baltic states are still living on EU subsidies and their assistance will be suspended soon19. Of course, this is a deliberate misinformation by which the Russians are trying to make the Baltic people feel nihilism and hopelessness. But what does Lavrov really know, what will the EU do tomorrow, and why should the Baltics stop? Especially when the EU assists developing countries only for the purpose of developing them. Russia also exerts ideological pressure on the Baltic states, the Kremlin has repeatedly argued that it considers the accession of the Baltic states to the Soviet Union in accordance with the norms of international law in force at the time. According to the Russian diplomatic department, the term ‘occupation’ cannot be used here, as no military action was taken between the Soviet Union and the Baltic States and the troops entered upon agreement. That is, it turns out that the Soviet army in the Baltic states, not by force, was invited, and thus the word ‘occupation’ is unacceptable. It seems that the Kremlin is hiding carefully when the so-called Baltic Foreign Ministers They did not want to sign the agreement because they feared it would violate their neutrality. After the refusal Molotov addressed Estonia's representative as follows: “The situation needs an immediate solution. We cannot wait too long. We recommend that you agree with the Soviet Union's wishes to prevent anything worse. Do not force the Soviet Union to use force to achieve its goals, the hope of foreign aid now is just an illusion”20. This is as much an ‘invitation’ to Russian troops as the ‘inviting’ Bolsheviks led by Sergo Orjonikidze to Georgia. Forging History – this is another part of Russia, or part of a grand strategy that fits perfectly into the hybrid war. Some scholars think that Russia has acted in the first place and still operates under the concept of the Third , where self-legitimacy is brought to the forefront, that is to say, world domination by revolutionary minerals. In fact, this is not much different from the doctrine of the Third Reich, that is, Joseph Goebbels. Obviously, in his day Hitler's fascist regime, ideologically, derived much from the concept of the Third Rome, and much of the Bolsheviks did. Notice, today, Russia's relationship with the rest of the world is based on the already elaborate doctrine of Goebbels – “Give me mass media and turn any nation into a colt of pigs”. If there was a shortage of mass media in the time of Goebbels, and during the third Roman period horse-riding information was ‘gaining’, today Russia has ‘complete happiness’ and is using it in all directions. Moreover, Kremlin propaganda has long had no boundaries. For example, in February 2015, twitter accounts of Radio Liberty and appeared on the Twitter page. Representatives of these radio stations

19 I. Iagorashvili, Russia's 2 Myths about the Baltic States, Tbilisi 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 20 Ibidem. S t r o n a | 129 consider such imitation a manifestation of hypocrisy towards the Kremlin, but they do not exclude that it could all be part of an insidious misinformation. The fake account profile in Russian had the motto: “We're changing your homeland into our sneakers”21. The address indicated the German city of Munich, where Radio Liberty's headquarters were located until 1995, and the numbers indicated on the profile appeared to be in the public reception room of the Russian Federal Foreign Intelligence Service. Such cyber games are probably mainly aimed at establishing Russia's almighty factor and sowing hopelessness in the population. Generally, information warfare tactics and methodologies vary by country, with each region having its own characteristics – history, culture, political thinking and analysis, level of education, and so on. However, if we look at it, Russia has an almost monotonous approach in all directions – which it cannot do with hybrid warfare, news outlets, cyberattacks, resolving the issue with military aggression. This approach has been going on for centuries. “Georgia's 100-year struggle against Kremlin misinformation”, the article was published by the European Union-funded website Eu Vise Desinfo (euvsdesinfo.eu)22. The article says that Soviet Russia began to fight for Georgia's independence and European foreign policy 100 years ago, since its declaration of independence. “Georgia was a victim of Russian military intervention and aggressive disinformation campaign”. In an article in the Moscow , the Bolsheviks accused the leader of the First Republic of Georgia, Noe Jordania, of selling Georgia to England. A letter containing this allegation is also posted on the website. At the same time, the publication notes that “Georgia remains a target of Russia's misinformation campaign today”, and the EU special task force “has identified hundreds of similar cases”. As the authors of the publication point out, the main messages of Russia's misinformation campaign are ‘Georgia has lost its independence’, ‘Georgia is a US protectorate’, ‘Georgia is a feudal establishment ruled by the West’, ‘Georgia is a slave of Turkey’. The article says that the Kremlin's misinformation is built on the same message – the issue of undermining independence that can be adapted to any era, political situation or country. Of course, when it comes to propagating that we are slaves to the United States, vassals of Turkey, Russia has the same attitude towards the Baltic states – as mentioned above, the Kremlin's top official Sergei Lavrov is directly targeting the EU, that is, trying to divide the EU and Baltic states, the Baltic states’ relationship, a little crack, still applies,

21 K. Liklikadze, Russian Intelligence Clones on Twitter, Tbilisi 2017, p. 1, (31.12.2019). 22 Euvsdesinfo.eu Publishes Article – Georgia's 100-year Fight Against Kremlin Disinformation, “Georgian Public Broadcaster”, Tbilisi 2019, p. 1, (31.12.2019).

130 | S t r o n a as it is often in this region, not only in this region have to believe what is unbelievable and even goes nonsense.

Conclusion

Russia, of course, during the 70-year-long ‘brotherhood’ has very well studied the psychology of the post-Soviet nations, the level of education, the ability to perceive and so on. Russia did not start a war with the civilized world yesterday, and we should not hope that it will end tomorrow, or someday, and of course, the rest of the world should be ready for everything – hybrid warfare, military aggression, and even other contradictions that a normal democratic society cannot imagine. What is it that a normal democratic country, that is, a normal system, a normal society, cannot imagine? This is a sudden attack and the veiled Russian propaganda where there is more fertile ground. In this respect, the present situation of the post-Soviet countries needs to be studied. We should carefully analyze where, in what region, what kind, to what level, to what kind of education the population lives. It must always be remembered that Russian propaganda resembles oil, which often spill out invisibly, and reaches into any hole that leaves untidy, dirty traces even when cleaned.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Basilaia E., German Media: Russians Planned to Use Nuclear Weapons in 2008, Tbilisi 2017,  Disinformation and European erosion in Romania, “Information Agency “Stop Fake”, 2019,  Estonian Conservative Party Member: We'd Shut Sputnik If Had Such Possibility, “Information Agency New Front”, Estonia 2019,  Euvsdesinfo.eu Publishes Article – Georgia's 100-year Fight Against Kremlin Disinformation, “Georgian Public Broadcaster”, Tbilisi 2019,  Geworld Spreads News by Russian Troll Factory on Legalization of Necrophilia and Bestiality in Europe, “Information Agency MyTh Detector”, Tbilisi 2018,  Gotsiridz A., Factors that need to be taken into Account when Developing a New National Cyber Security Strategy, Tbilisi 2019, p< https://www.gfsis.org/blog/view/940>  Iagorashvili I., Russia's 2 Myths about the Baltic States, Tbilisi 2019, S t r o n a | 131

 Kioski Y., Yle Kioski Investigated: This Is How Pro-Russia Trolls Manipulate Finns Online – Check the List of Forums Favored by Propagandists, 2015,  Król A., Russian Information Warfare in the Baltic States – Resources and Aims, Warsaw 2017,  Latvia suspends Rossiya RTR channel, “Latvian Public Broadcasting”, Latvia 2016,  Liklikadze K., Russian Intelligence Clones on Twitter, Tbilisi 2017,  Liluashvili G., Report of the State Security Service of Georgia, Tbilisi 2018,  Liluashvili G., Russia operates in Georgia with five major instruments of hybrid warfare, Tbilisi 2019,  Lithuanian media regulator has decided to take off air for a three- month period Russian state-owned TV channel RTR Planeta, “Baltic News Network”, Lithuania 2015,  Lithuanian regulatory agency suspends RTR Planeta, “Lithuanian National Radio and Television”, Lithuania 2015,  Maisaia V., The New Cold War, Tbilisi 2017,  Russian Information Warfare – Strategies and Goals, “Damoukidebloba”, Tbilisi 2015,  Smoleňová I., The Pro-Russian Disinformation Campaign In The Czech Republic And Slovakia, “Prague Security Studies Institute”, Prague 2015,  The Pentagon acknowledged that in the event of a Russian invasion it would not be able to protect the Baltic states and Poland, “Imedinews”, Tbilisi 2018,  Ukraine remains top target of Russian disinformation, “News and View for Ukraine Euromaidanpress”, Ukraine 2019,

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S t r o n a | 133

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/201910

Alika GUCHUA1 Georgia

CANCELLATION OF THE TREATY OF 1987 ON THE ERADICATION OF INTERMEDIATE AND SHORTER- RANGE MISSILES AND ITS IMPACT ON PAN-REGIONAL SECURITY IN AEGIS OF THE ‘THREE SEAS’ AREA (BALTIC-ADRIATIC-BLACK SEA SPACE)

Abstract: The issue of the international security has become more pressing actual in 21st century due to the appearance of new dangers and challenges in the modern world, which were not typical for the previous century. On the background of geopolitical transition, the role of strategic offensive arms and weapons of mass destruction has become more important. In the modern world, it is important to maintain strategic parity on arms when global challenges pose a serious threat to all humanity. In this paper, we discussed the reasons for the cancellation of the Treaty on the Elimination of intermediate-range and short-range missiles of 1987 and the dangers that are threatening the world. The USA and Russia have officially announced that they are starting modernizing and producing ballistic missiles and what is more important, their policies are forcing other countries to produce similar arms. The paper focuses on the security environment of the Baltic, Adriatic and Black Sea regions, the dangers that resulted from the cancellation of the abovementioned agreement. The Politics of Strategic Bullying in the Bipolar Era, the “Cold War” phenomenon and geopolitical processes of New Cold War is also discussed in this paper. Also, discussing the role of strategic offensive arms and defining NATO's role in ensuring international security has an important place in this paper.

Keywords: INF Treaty, Nuclear War, Security, Russia, United States, NATO, New START Treaty, New Cold War, Balance of power, Arms control

1 Alika Guchua, PhD student at Caucasus International University, Assistant Head of the MA Program in International Relations and International Security Studies and Assistant in international Relations at CIU. Email: [email protected]

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Introduction

The issue of security in the modern international system has become quite urgent in the light of development of crisises, new threats and the latest technologies existing in the world. The states are powerless to handle dangers, threats, and challenges facing global security that are increasing day by day without a single effort. The importance of international organizations is therefore increasing, with NATO's role and function becoming more relevant. It is imperative for global policy actors to better understand that their inaction to secure peace and aggressive politics can do great harm to humanity as a whole. In the system of international relations, states create a certain order on which the global security is based on and in this process every state must be equally involved. Research on contemporary international security issues focuses primarily on global (‘vertical’) problems. This is explained by the fact that traditional and a number of new threats have a global scope and require global interaction to counter them. As the nuclear age progressed and technology matured, modernization programmes extended the range and accuracy of delivery vehicles, which allowed planners to lower the yield needed to destroy a target. As weapons became more effective, strategies changed from a blunt spasm of all-out nuclear attack to more refined strike plans with multiple options directed against different combinations of targets for different objectives at different levels of intensity. Shorter-range weapons were developed for battlefield use below the strategic level to defeat military forces in limited scenarios while strategists toiled with theories about controlling or managing escalation below all-out nuclear war. Usability of nuclear weapons was a key factor in this chapter of the nuclear age2. The lack of in-depth information concerning the precise nature of nuclear risk is especially problematic in the contemporary global environment. Rising tensions involving nuclear-armed and other States, lower thresholds in nuclear use driven by technological developments, growing automation in command and control and weapons systems, and new threats in terms of both actors and crises are prominent features of the current international security situation. Detailing the overall risk ‘picture’ is a critical first step to any mitigation effort3. Global players in world politics must understand the risks associated with international politics and the architecture of global security. One of the functions of the military force in international relations means to threaten to retaliate and punish the adversary in the event of adverse behavior. Intimidation is a stand-alone example of forceful relationships that

2 J. Borrie. T. Caughley, W. Wan, Understanding Nuclear Weapon Risks, “United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research”, 2017, p. 33. 3 Ibidem, pp. 9. S t r o n a | 135 only involves negative sanctions. Intimidation as a strategy is one of the main subjects of research of realism. In its research, the invention of nuclear weapons created particular importance because nuclear intimidation, due to its mutually destructive nature, proved to be not very trustworthy credible foreign policy instrument. When using intimidation strategy, the main point becomes the credibility of the threat, the process by which the threat is given importance.

The 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

In the early stages of the Cold War, the US global geopolitical code was a ‘ policy’. The main point was that the United States of America did not allow for the expansion of communism and the increase of Soviet influence outside the communist area. According to neutralization of the Heartland, the policy was to surround the Soviet Union with military-political blocs the members of which were supposed to be loyal to the United States of America. During the Cold War, NATO, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS, ASPAC, along with other military-political blocs, took over the function of containment of communism and created a containment arc and surrounded the socialist countries. The creation of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the use of military aviation, the assimilation of space, the progress and appearance of nuclear submarines have made clear the ineffectiveness of the containment policy over time. And in the 1960s, the US changed its containment policy and tactics by so-called intimidation policy which has become a major geopolitical code. The main purpose of this policy was to frighten the Soviet Union by increasing US military nuclear weapons, improving military infrastructure, and producing new types of weapons and thus take full advantage. This policy proved to be very effective and resulted in the defeat of the USSR in the . Along with many other factors, economic crisis of the USSR and economic upswing of the US, the significant difference in scientific and political progress along with the collapse of Gorbachev's reforms has made clear the role of the intimidation policy that eventually led the world to the end of the Cold War. The defeat of one pole has resulted in the destruction of the bipolar system. Implementation of a nuclear intimidation policy has led to the restriction and reduction of strategic weapons – which is a complex of measures and aims at reducing the production and potential of nuclear missile weapons. One of the most important directions of international politics for the prevention of nuclear war, confidence building and security strengthening. Strategic weapons include: land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles; Submarine Ballistic Missiles; long-range wing missiles of different bases; their launching installations; Strategic cruise missile submarine; Heavy bombers; Intercontinental ballistic missiles, Combatting installations of submarine ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, armament for heavy bombers; Air defense facilities; Space defense facilities; Missile attack detection and warning systems and more.

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One of the main achievements of the Nuclear Intimidation Policy is to consider the 1972 US-USSR Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I). Then the 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II). One of the most important treaties may be considered the 1987 Agreement on the elimination of intermediate-range and shorter-range missiles. An additional agreement on the reduction of strategic offensive weapons came into force in 1994. Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union by the Lisbon Treaty of 1992, the nuclear weapons that had been deployed in the former republics of Soviet Union – in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, were eliminated, and a certain number of nuclear warheads were transferred to the Russian Federation. In 1997, the United States of America and Russia signed a Memorandum of Understanding on Anti- Missile Surveillance and Strategic Arms Limitation and Mitigation. In 2010, the United States of America and the Russian Federation signed a Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. We must also consider the conflict between India and Pakistan on February 26, 2019, when both sides had to make smart decisions as part of a nuclear intimidation policy, and the existing conflict did not escalate into a large-scale nuclear war. Which greatly threatens the global security environment. In the mid-1970s, first in the US, and then in the USSR, laser, infrared, and television systems were developed for guiding missiles to targets. This made it possible to achieve high accuracy of their hitting the target (according to various estimates – up to 30 meters). It is important how the INF Treaty appeared, in the mid-70s of the last century, the USSR began deploying SS-20 medium-range missiles on its territory, which could be equipped with nuclear warheads. In response to this, the Americans, in agreement with NATO, began the deployment of Pershing-2 missiles in , Great Britain, Italy and Germany in 1983. The armament of Europe provoked massive protests in Germany – the largest in post-war history. US-Soviet negotiations began in 1981, and U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced the ązero-zeroą proposal under which the United States would forgo its planned deployments if the Soviet Union eliminated its SS-20 and other intermediate-range missiles. Moscow rejected zero-zero, and the first two years of negotiations yielded little common ground between the sides. When the first U.S. GLCMs and Pershing II’s arrived in Europe in November 1983, the Soviets broke off the negotiations. The Kremlin seemed to hope that public opposition within NATO countries would derail the U.S. missile deployments. In 1985 the Soviets agreed to resume negotiations. The negotiations made progress in 1986-1987 along the lines of the ‘zero-zero’ proposal4. The INF Treaty was signed on 8 December 1987 by the United States and the former Soviet Union, and entered into force on 1 June 1988. It required both

4 S. Pifer, O. Meier, Are We Nearing the End of the INF Treaty?, Arms Control Today, January-February 2018, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 137 countries to eliminate their ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles that could travel between 500 and 5,500 kilometres (between 300 and 3,400 miles) by an implementation deadline of 1 June 1991. By the deadline, the two countries had together destroyed a total of 2,692 short- and intermediate-range missiles: 1,846 Soviet missiles and 846 American missiles. It marked the first elimination of an entire category of weapons capable of carrying nuclear warheads5. The INF Treaty's protocol on missile elimination named the specific types of ground-launched missiles to be destroyed and the acceptable means of doing so. Under the treaty, the United States committed to eliminate its Pershing II, Pershing IA, and Pershing IB ballistic missiles and BGM-109G cruise missiles. The Soviet Union had to destroy its SS-20, SS-4, SS-5, SS-12, and SS-23 ballistic missiles and SSC-X-4 cruise missiles. In addition, both parties were obliged to destroy all INF Treaty-related training missiles, rocket stages, launch canisters, and launchers. Most missiles were eliminated either by exploding them while they were unarmed and burning their stages or by cutting the missiles in half and severing their wings and tail sections6. This treaty was then called the beginning of the end of the Cold War. Each side was granted the right to conduct inspections at the facilities of the other side. The contract was unlimited, while each of the parties had the right to terminate it if convincing grounds were found for withdrawing from the agreement. The signing of the treaty was preceded by decades of the Cold War and the arms race. The United States feared the Soviet Union would strike at its NATO partners in Europe. Moscow understood that missiles of the North Atlantic Alliance are capable of reaching any city of the USSR in less than 10 minutes. The 1987 treaty significantly reduced the threat of nuclear war and missile attacks. The Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate and Shorter-Range Missiles is one of the key documents that, together with the agreements on the non- proliferation of nuclear weapons, the limitation of strategic offensive arms and missile defense, have provided the world with so-called strategic stability. Compared to intercontinental missiles with nuclear warheads, medium- range missiles are capable of reaching the target within a few minutes and leave the enemy no chance to prepare for the strike and repel it. In addition, medium- range missiles are mobile, they are transported on special military equipment. If the person to whom the missile attack is directed does not know the exact place from where it will be launched, this further complicates the defense.

5 NATO and the INF Treaty, North Atlantic Treaty Organization website, 2.08.2019, (31.12.2019). 6 D. Kimball, The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at a Glance, Arms Control Today, August 2019, (31.12.2019).

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According to many experts, the INF Treaty is out of date. The treaty was signed in 1987, when there were two nuclear superpowers, and then short and medium-range missiles posed a great threat to world stability. Now such missiles are being built by many countries, including China. In addition, new weapons have appeared that could violate strategic stability – for example, hypersonic, cybernetic and space weapons. Following the Soviet Union’s collapse at the end of 1991, Russia and several other post-Soviet states assumed the Soviet INF Treaty obligations. The treaty’s inspection period ended in 2001. The Special Verification Commission (SVC), established by the treaty as a venue for discussing the treaty’s implementation and compliance concerns, with the participation of the United States, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine, had its last meeting in 2003 before a 13-year hiatus. In 2005, Russian officials expressed interest in withdrawing from the treaty and suggested to the United States to jointly terminate the accord. Washington refused. In February 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin expressed concern that, although the United States and Russia were banned from having intermediate-range missiles, third countries were developing and fielding such systems, and those countries tended to be in close proximity to Russia. The following October, Putin proposed making the INF Treaty ‘global in scope’. The United States and Russia at the UN General Assembly jointly called on third countries to eliminate their intermediate-range missile systems. Moscow did not seriously pursue its proposal, although Russian officials continued to express concern about the proliferation of intermediate-range missiles7. In 2014, the United States first declared Russia in violation of its obligations under the INF Treaty not to produce, possess, or flight-test a GLCM with a range capability between 500 and 5,500 kilometers. The United States subsequently identified Russia’s violating weapon as the SSC-8 missile system. The Russian designator for this system is 9M729. The United States reaffirmed that Russia is in violation of the INF Treaty in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019. The violating missile is distinct from the R-500/SSC-7 GLCM and the RS-26 ICBM, and is developed by Novator Design Bureau and Titan Central Design Bureau. Russia has attempted to conceal the nature of the SSC-8 program by obfuscating and lying about the missile’s test history8. On October 20, US President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw from the INF Treaty, according to him, because of “non-compliance with the terms of the Russian side” (claims are made against the 9M729 cruise missile (SSC-8), the radius of which, according to American data, exceeds 500 km, which is prohibited by the INF Treaty) and “the development of these weapons by China” (which is not bound by this treaty).

7 S. Pifer, O. Meier, Are We Nearing… 8 The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, US Department of State, Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance, 2019, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 139

On December 4, 2018, Secretary Pompeo announced that Russia was in material breach of the INF Treaty, and that the United States would suspend its obligations in 60 days should Russia not return to full and verifiable compliance. This finding was fully supported by NATO Allies. On February 1, 2019, Secretary Pompeo announced that the United States would suspend its obligations under the INF Treaty on February 2, and would also provide Treaty parties with six-month notice of its intent to withdraw from the Treaty, pursuant to Article XV of the Treaty. Unless Russia returns to full and verifiable compliance in 6 months, the U.S. decision to withdraw will stand, and the Treaty will end. These actions were again fully supported by NATO Allies9. The Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles or the INF Treaty for decades has been critical to Euro-Atlantic security. It allowed the destruction of a whole category of nuclear weapons that threatened Europe in the 1980s. All NATO countries agree that the SSC-8 / 9M729 missile system, developed and deployed by Russia, violated the INF Treaty, while posing a significant threat to the security of the Alliance. Despite repeated calls for Russia to return to full and verifiable compliance with the Treaty, Russia continued to develop and deploy systems that violate the Treaty, which led to the termination of the Treaty on August 2, 201910.

Adapting NATO’s deterrence-defence posture and New START Treaty

In responding to the challenges posed by the Russian INF-range capabilities, the Alliance does not have to start from scratch. It can build on its adaptation measures since 2014. These steps alone, however, are insufficient. The expansion of Russia’s long-range strike capabilities, including the deploy- ment of the SSC-8/9M729 missiles, has created gaps in NATO’s overall posture that need to be closed11. It is also unclear what the future of arms control and non-proliferation negotiations holds, particularly related to extending the New START Treaty. A day after the United States’ formal withdrawal from the INF Treaty, U.S. Secretary of Defense Mark Esper announced that he was in favor of deploying short-range ground-based missiles to Asia in response to China’s expanding arsenal of a similar range12.

9 Ibidem. 10 NATO and the INF Treaty… 11 J. Durkalec, European security without the INF Treaty, “NATO Review”, 30.09. 2019, (31.12.2019). 12 R. Ellehuus, A NATO Strategy for a Post-INF World, “Center for Strategic and International Studies”, 27.08. 2019, (31.12.2019).

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China’s nuclear modernization, which has – to a large extent – improved the quality rather than the quantity of its nuclear arsenal, illustrates its desire to enhance the robustness of its nuclear forces. As such, it is currently replacing its ageing silo-based missiles with the mobile, solid-fuelled DF-41, which has an estimated range of 12,000 km. China has also developed several MIRVed ICBMs. In parallel, China has developed its sea-based nuclear component: four operational JIN class SSBNs, which can be equipped with JL-2 SLBMs. China is already developing its next-next generation Type 096 SSBN, which will be armed with an upgraded JL-3 SLBM; construction is due to begin in the next several years13. Tensions between the two sides are growing now, and disarmament treaties could play an important role in maintaining stability. START III (the Treaty on Measures to Further Reduce and Limit Strategic Offensive Arms), which limits the proliferation of high-precision long-range weapons systems, expires in February 2021. In his April 2009 speech in Prague, President Barack Obama articulated the goal of a world free of nuclear weapons while also stating that the United States would maintain an effective nuclear deterrent as long as nuclear weapons exist. His speech and the U.S.-Russian negotiation that culminated in the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START) spurred talk in Europe of the contribution NATO might make to the nuclear disarmament process. Meeting in Lisbon in November 2010, NATO leaders issued a new Strategic Concept for the Alliance and mandated a comprehensive Deterrence and Defense Posture Review (DDPR) that will address, among other things, NATO’s nuclear posture14. Against the backdrop of the current situation, more importantly, the cancellation of the INF Treaty undermines confidence in arms control and non- proliferation regimes in general. Which poses a serious threat to global security. Nevertheless, the new world order (or disorder), which replaces the Cold War and the period after it, brings with it new serious threats. Including, first of all, this refers to the role and place of nuclear weapons in the international security system. Indeed, the main result of the first 70 years of the nuclear age, for all its dangers and huge costs, is that mankind has managed to avoid a nuclear war and create a broad legal system of arms limitation. Thanks to her, over the past quarter century, global nuclear arsenals have been reduced in different categories by 5-7 times. There is another new threat to global peace; the only effective nuclear agreement between Russia and the United States expires in 2021. It is important

13 J. A. Day, A new era for nuclear deterrence? Modernization, arms control, and allied nuclear process, “Defence and Security Committee, NATO Parliamentary Assembly” (DSC), 12.10. 2019, (31.12.2019). 14 S. Pifer, NATO, Nuclear weapons and arms control, “Foreign Policy at BROOKINGS, Arms Control Series Paper 7, July 2011, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 141 to maintain and continue the START treaty, while the treaty on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles has been violated. The New START treaty limits US and Russian deployed strategic nuclear forces, and additionally facilitates inspections and exchanges of information on the status and movements of their intercontinental ballistic missiles and heavy bombers. Signed in 2010, the treaty expires in February 2021 but can be extended for another five years15. We can clearly see how important it is to continue the agreement on a new start treat of the aggregate of strategic nuclear forces.

Figure 1: Carriers, deployed and non-deployed, offset charges, according to the exchanges of data of the parties, in dynamics over the duration of the Agreement.

Source: H. Kristensen, The New START Treaty Keeps Nuclear Arsenals In Check And President Trump Must Act To Preserve It, Dec 10, 2019, p. 1.

15 H. Kristensen, The New START Treaty Keeps Nuclear Arsenals In Check And President Trump Must Act To Preserve It, “Forbes”, 10.12. 2019, (31.12.2019).

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The preservation of the treaty clearly meets the interests of both countries, especially because other arms control agreements were canceled, and military tensions are steadily growing. We need to look at how things are going to unfold and how both states make a wise decision. The important thing is for the world not to be in crisis and for the nuclear states not to start arms race in the field of nuclear weapons. Because the arms race that this could ignite would be multidimensional. Without the INF Treaty and the expiration of the new strategic offensive arms period, there will be no legal restrictions on the world's nuclear arsenal. This threatens global security and makes the world community better think and realize what the consequences of a nuclear war can be for humanity and living organisms. We are aware of various facts when the failure of nuclear systems almost led us to the start of the Third World War and to the destruction of the whole world. Failure in computer systems and the misrepresentation of nuclear decision-makers can lead to worse results in the world.

Pan-regional security in aegis of the ‘Three Seas’ Area (Baltic, Adriatic-black Sea space)

As for the regional threat in the Baltic, Adriatic and the Black Sea region, it is acquiring very significant significance. In this sea area, it is possible to deploy topical ballistic missiles for military purposes, as well as NATO warships. The Three Seas initiative can play an important role in nuclear deterrence policies. Therefore, the end of the INF Treaty reflects the radical worsening of European and global security. Its demise cannot be isolated from Russia’s recent aggressive actions, its ambitious military modernisation and its efforts to undermine the post-Cold War European security order. The Treaty ceased to restrain Russian behaviour at a time when NATO was already absorbed with addressing challenges from the East and other strategic directions. The termination of the Treaty is also not isolated from the strategic developments elsewhere in the world, in particular the proliferation of intermediate-range missiles in Asia16. A world without the INF Treaty is not NATO’s choice. The Alliance, however, has no other choice but to address its consequences. The demise of the Treaty brings new military challenges from Russia and therefore new demands on the Allies to maintain NATO’s deterrence and defence posture in a way that is fit for purpose. It also calls for adapting the NATO arms control playbook to the changing geopolitical, strategic and technological realities. To a greater extent than before, European NATO Allies have to assess how security in Europe is affected by the increasingly turbulent security environment in the

16 J. Durkalec, European security without… S t r o n a | 143

Asia-Pacific. All of this will create new challenges for Alliance cohesion – a key factor in NATO’s endurance and effectiveness in the post-INF Treaty world17. Security issues became more relevant after the end of World War II during the “Cold War“, when the scale of creation and development of new types of weapons of mass destruction increased with the development of technology. World War II completely changed the international political system when the types of international systems that existed before were based on a balance of power. With the alignment of forces between the leading states, the state and stability of the international system were determined. The collapse of the international system led to an excessive strengthening or weakening of one of the states, which led to the collapse of the balance of power. This process was followed by large-scale wars and the formation of a new international system in accordance with the creation of a new balance of power. Cancellation of the Treaty is a prime example of a ‘new Cold War’ in international relations. The United States and Russia will begin the moderni- zation of medium and short-range ballistic missiles. The Russians have already begun the modernization of ground ballistic missiles. It is very likely that the Russians will deploy medium and low power missiles in the Kaliningrad region, from where they can cover almost all of Europe and the South Caucasus. As for the United States, they are likely to use the territory of Germany, Poland, the Baltic countries and the Black Sea region to deploy Aegis, Petriots, as well as offensive ballistic missiles – Tomahawks. US ballistic missiles can penetrate and destroy many of Russia's strategic sites; Americans have more coverage than Russians. This means that the world will become even more tense about the nuclear threat. The actions of the United States and Russia that led to the liquidation of the Medium and Shorter-Range Missile Treaty weaken stability and pose many risks to global security, including the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The cancellation of these agreements will also lead to the resumption of an unrestrained arms race. That will have disastrous consequences for all of humanity. And in order to avoid chaos, in which there are no rules, restrictions and laws, one must once again weigh all the possible dangerous consequences and start a serious dialogue. It is necessary, without delay, to resume full-fledged negotiations on ensuring strategic stability and security.

Conclusion

After the post-Cold War era of relative global peace, the new global security environment has become more complex, and this progression will

17 Ibidem.

144 | S t r o n a likely worsen in the coming years. The termination of the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles leads to the destruction of the principles of strategic stability and a new arms race. It may lead to an uncontrolled multilateral arms race involving strategic, intermediate- range, and tactical nuclear and non-nuclear offensive and defensive weapons, as well as space and cyber warfare systems, laser weapons, and other arms inno- vations. As a consequence, international armed conflicts are more likely and may instantly escalate into a global nuclear war18. Medium and shorter-range missiles pose the greatest threat to the world, since they are capable of achieving the goal in a few minutes and leave the enemy no chance to prepare for the strike and repel it. Now that the treaty is over, we will see the development and deployment of new ballistic weapons. Today, the world is facing a security dilemma when all decisions must be made with great care. The cancellation of the historic agreement could lead to a new arms race between the US, Russia and China. Without global players in world politics, it is impossible to achieve and ensure international peace; therefore, neither the United States nor Russia can provide either nuclear stability or strategic stability in the modern world. But they can attract other global policy players to the negotiating table and make mutually important decisions for world security. Global policy makers need to work together to develop new nuclear arms control has to be brought into line with today’s political realities. The question of modernizing an existing one, or of creating a fundamentally new agreement, in any case, will arise. Moreover, the new treaty should include as many states as possible, which have the potential to create the appropriate weapons, and above all, China. The problem can be solved not through ultimatums and blackmail, but through multilateral negotiations, taking into account the views of all interested parties. We should expect a new framework agreement that will be effective and ensure strategic stability in the world. Until they develop a new treaty on intermediate and shorter-range missiles, until then, the United States and Russia will have to continue and defend the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty until 2026.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Arbatov A., A New Era of Arms Control: Myths, Realities and Options, “Carnegie Moscow Center”, 24.10. 2019,  Borrie J., Caughley T., Wan W., Understanding Nuclear Weapon Risks, “United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research”, 2017

18 A. Arbatov, A New Era of Arms Control: Myths, Realities and Options, “Carnegie Moscow Center”, 24.10. 2019, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 145

 Day J. A., A new era for nuclear deterrence? Modernisation, arms control, and allied nuclear process, “Defence and Security Committee, NATO Parliamentary Assembly” (DSC), 12.10. 2019,  Durkalec J., European security without the INF Treaty, “NATO Review”, 30.09. 2019,  Ellehuus R., A NATO Strategy for a Post-INF World, “Center for Strategic and International Studies”, 27.08. 2019,  Kimball D., The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at a Glance, Arms Control Today, August 2019,  Kristensen H., The New START Treaty Keeps Nuclear Arsenals In Check And President Trump Must Act To Preserve It, “Forbes”, 10.12. 2019,  NATO and the INF Treaty. North Atlantic Treaty Organization website, 2.08.2019,  Pifer S., NATO, Nuclear weapons and arms control, “Foreign Policy at BROOKINGS, Arms Control Series Paper 7, July 2011,  Pifer S., Meier O., Are We Nearing the End of the INF Treaty?, Arms Control Today, January-February 2018,  The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, US Department of State, Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance, 2019,

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S t r o n a | 147

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/201912

Khatuna CHAPICHADZE1 Georgia

THE SOUTH CAUCASIAN UNION – CHALLENGING GEOPOLITICAL CONCEPT REVISITED

Abstract: In the paper, we discuss a very complex and contestable idea, proposed and developed by us already for several years, about strengthening the uneasy political, economic, social, cultural and most significantly – security relationships between the three South Caucasian countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, towards forming new geopolitical centre in the south- eastern shore of the Black Sea, or more precisely, just in the middle of the Black and Caspian Seas; in one of the most important and complicated regions in the world. The South Caucasian Union (SCU) concept has quite reasonable historical roots and although not successful enough until now, however certain examples, which could serve as preconditions, whether predispositions more: the existence of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR) (22 April-28 May 1918) and even the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Transcaucasian SFSR or TSFSR) (1922-1936). Along with the corresponding consideration of the region’s hardest internal conflicts, at the same time globally so meaningful, and especially almost the dilemmatic dispute of Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh (NK), but not limited to, we have drawn some feasible conflict-resolution scenarios under the effective SCU model, which ensuring first of all security or in particular, protection of independence and sovereignty of the South Caucasian states as their basic interests, is to logically counterweight any threats coming from bigger, more powerful and ambitious regional competitors, whether dominants and due to evident aggression, from – Russia, in specific.

Keywords: The South Caucasian Union (SCU); Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; Russia

1 Khatuna Chapichadze, Associate Professor, PhD, Georgian Technical University. Email: [email protected]

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The South Caucasus – United?

Besides many things that Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia might and might not share in common in terms of history, politics, social-economic development, culture, etc., if one looks especially at the physical map of the South Caucasus (SC), it will be quite challenging to doubt certain unity of this piece of the world. At the same time, seems possible as well to speak even about the cohesion to some extent.

Map 1: Physical map of the South Caucasus.

Source: M. Kurtubadze, Physical map of the South Caucasus, GRID-Arendal, (29.11.2019)

The South Caucasian Union – Origins of the Idea: Tekali

On May 24, 2014 in the village of Tekali, Georgia, at the intersection of the borders of the three South-Caucasian republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, I gave a speech entitled: “The South Caucasian Union: Pros and S t r o n a | 149

Cons. The Role and Potential of Georgia”2 during the public hearing as part of an open competition for participation in the Tekali Process, the peacemaking, freedom, and cooperation zone initiative implemented and supported by different South Caucasian and international NGOs that work towards regional cooperation and conflict transformation. The public hearing was conducted in the framework of the project ‘Symbolic Court of Human Rights’ with the support of National Endowment for Democracy (USA). Other reports presented on the same topic there, however provided through different lenses, have been addressed to the Tekali public by two colleagues: Zardusht Alizadeh, well-known independent Azerbaijani political analyst, and former politician, representing Azerbaijan, and Samvel Israelian, an expert from Armenia. The idea of the union emerged among first of all the human rights defenders and academicians, namely especially Khamis Masimov, living and leading their activist or academic work in the South Caucasus, while the same concept afterward was developed for the years following particularly 2008, after the famous Georgian-Russian confrontation. Noteworthy to mention that the proposition to establish the South Caucasian Union was first publicly debated, fiercely opposed, however finally supported with 42 votes for – against 16 rejecting, when 3 voters remained abstain, during the public hearing with the participation of the dwellers of Tekali and guests from Agstafa, Baku, Gori, Gyumri, Ijevan, Marneuli, Kazakh, Noyemberyan, Tbilisi, Rustavi, Yerevan and the frontier villages of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, that took place in Tekali on March 8, 2014.

The South Caucasus – Divided

Whenever we look at the political, whether a geopolitical map of the South Caucasus, as well as of the broader Caucasus region at large, we definitely see the big diversity, and taking into account quite complicated historical background and the current interethnic, territorial, religious, i.e. political and cultural cleavages that consequently often are turned into economic tensions and in some cases even military escalations as well, we can legitimately claim that the given part of the world faces deeply rooted and sharp divisions.

2 K. Chapichadze, „Yuzhnokavkazskiy Soyuz: za i protiv. Rol' i potentsial Gruzii”, Doklad na grazhdanskom slushanii, Tekali Process, Tekali, Gruziya, 24.05.2014, (29.11.2019)

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Map 2: Caucasus regions map for use on Wikivoyage, English version.

Source: (29.11.2019).

The Union Concept has quite reasonable historical roots

Although not successful enough until now, however, the meaningful precedent took place and certain significant examples we can evidently provide in terms of the South Caucasian unification, which could serve as preconditions, whether predispositions more; in particular, the existence of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR) (22 April-28 May 1918) and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Transcaucasian SFSR or TSFSR), also known as the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1922-1936) is taken into consideration here.

The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR) (22 April-28 May 1918)

On November 15 (28), 1917 in Tiflis, the Mensheviks (Georgian Social Democrats), Esers (Socialist Revolutionaries), Armenian Dashnaks (Armenian S t r o n a | 151

Revolutionary Federation members) and Azerbaijani Musavatists (members of the initial Muslim Democratic Musavat Party founded in Baku, in 1911), with the active support of the Entente countries, created the Transcaucasian Commissariat – the government of Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia), which replaced the Special Transcaucasian Committee created by the Provisional Government of Russia to govern the Transcaucasus. The Commis- sariat was headed by the Menshevik Evgeny Gegechkori. The decision to create an ‘Independent Government of the Transcaucasus’ was made on November 11 (24), 1917 at a meeting on the organization of local power in the Caucasus in connection with the October Revolution. The meeting was attended by representatives of all political parties, the Regional and Tiflis Councils, the Special Transcaucasian Committee, the Commander of the Caucasus Front, and Consuls of the Entente countries – Great Britain, France, and Russia. The meeting refused to recognize the power of the Council of People’s Commissars of Soviet Russia. Representatives of the Bolshevik party, who turned out to be in the minority at the meeting, denounced the declaration, condemning the organizers of the meeting and left it. The Declaration of the Transcaucasian Commissariat of November 18 (December 1) stated that it would act “only until the All-Russian Constituent Assembly is convened, and if it is impossible to convene [...] until the congress of the Constituent Assembly members is convened from the Transcaucasus and the Caucasus Front”3. On January 5 (18), 1918, a Constituent Assembly was convened in Petrograd, majority members of which were representatives of the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. Deputies refused to recognize Soviet power and the decrees of the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets. In response to this, the Bolsheviks dispersed the Constituent Assembly. On January 12 (25), 1918, the Transcaucasian Commissariat, having discussed the political situation, decided to convene the Transcaucasian Sejm as the legislative body of Transcaucasia. On February 10 (23), 1918, while still officially part of Russia, the first meeting of the Transcaucasian Sejm took place in Tiflis, in which the most numerous fractions were represented by Social Democrats (Mensheviks) – 32 members; Muslim fraction (Musavatists and non-partisan) – 50 and Dashnak fraction – 27 members. Karlo Chkheidze, a famous Georgian Social-Democrat, was elected Chairman of the Sejm. With the convocation of the Sejm, the Transcaucasian Commissariat emphasized the fact of the withdrawal of the region from Russia, although independence has not yet been officially declared. On March 3 (February 18), Soviet Russia signed the Brest Peace Treaty with Germany and its allies, according to which the regions of Batumi, Kars, and Ardagan were transferred to Turkey. The terms of the agreement were not

3 A. Menteshashvili, Iz istorii vzaimootnosheniy Gruzinskoy Demokraticheskoy Respubliki s sovetskoy Rossiyey i Antantoy 1918-1921 gg., Tbilisi 1989, s. 4.

152 | S t r o n a agreed with the Transcaucasian Commissariat, since it was not recognized either by Russia, Turkey, or Germany. Turkey immediately demanded the regions transferred to it, although Transcaucasia rejected the demand, and tried to resolve this issue by diplomatic means. In March of 1918, the Trebizond negotiations began between the Transcaucasian side and Turkey, although they turned out to be inconclusive for Transcaucasia; the Turkish army began military operations and by April it had already occupied Batumi, Ozurgeti, and Meskheti. The Turkish troops were stopped only near the Choloki River (located on the territory of the south-western Georgia, in Adjara region. The river is the center of significant historical events taking place in 1854 and 1918 between Russian/Georgian and Turkish armies). To resolve the tensed situation, the Transcaucasian Sejm convened on April 9 (22), 1918, where it was decided that only in the case of the official declaration of independence of Transcaucasia would it be possible to prevent the Turkish aggression. Consequently, the creation of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR) was proclaimed on the same day, and Akaki Chkhenkeli, another well-known Georgian Social Democratic politician, was appointed chairman and minister of foreign affairs. The Sejm made a decision – to continue peace talks with Turkey. On May 28 (June 10), 1918, Georgia signed the Poti Peace Treaty with Germany, which enabled to launch the German expedition in the Caucasus against the military forces of the Ottoman Empire.

The Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Transcaucasian SFSR or TSFSR), Also Known As the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1922-1936)

On March 12, 1922, in Tiflis, a conference of representatives of the Central Executive Committee (CEC) of the Azerbaijan SSR, the CEC of the Armenian SSR and the CEC of the Georgian SSR approved an agreement on the creation of the Federal Union of Socialist Soviet Republics of Transcaucasia (FUSSRT). On December 13, 1922, the 1st Transcaucasian Congress of Soviets (in Baku) transformed the FUSSRT into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, while maintaining the independence of its constituent republics. The Congress approved the Constitution of the TSFSR, formed the Transcaucasian CEC and the government – the Council of People’s Commissars of the TSFSR, which was headed by Ivan (Mamia) Orakhelashvili, a Georgian Bolshevik and Soviet politician. On December 30, 1922, the TSFSR merged with the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) and the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). S t r o n a | 153

According to the 1936 USSR constitution, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR and the Georgian SSR became parts of the USSR as independent union republics. In February-March of 1937, new constitutions of the Azerbaijan SSR, the Armenian SSR, and the Georgian SSR were adopted, and this decision legally consolidated the liquidation of the Transcaucasian Federation.

The History Does Matter!

Based on the above-discussed historical facts, we can draw the following conclusions: - First of all, it is obvious that the desire for the unification, even in political terms, is not an innovation for the countries of the South Caucasus, and there is a very interesting historical background in this regard, despite how successful the attempt/s was/were; - Based on the historical experience, Georgia has traditionally been a geopolitical centre for the countries of the South Caucasus; - It was interference in internal affairs and pressure, especially from the regional leader-states (Russia and Turkey) that served as a decisive factor for the collapse of the South Caucasus Association, although there were serious internal contradictions with such an alliance, mainly regarding the choice of foreign policy orientation and the vector of development by Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan; we mean the contradiction between the Georgian-Armenian pro-Western (and more specifically, pro-German) and Azerbaijani pro-Turkish orientation.

But what about – Today?

Today, although little has changed in the course of history (meaning the logic), especially in the foreign policy sense, and again there is a pressure caused by the regional leaders, particularly by the Russian Federation, which influenced the growth of internal problems too for the countries of the South Caucasus (ethno-territorial conflicts within the countries that also suffer from external or internal socio-economic pressure and destabilization; in this respect, the principle of ‘divide and conquer’ mainly works), but also in this situation, for example, Georgia has gained an opportunity to develop its role as a neutral zone and become an area for consolidation/reconciliation primarily for Armenia and Azerbaijan, given the desire and the need to resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict – the region’s hardest internal conflict, at the same time – globally so meaningful, and almost dilemmatic in a way, between Armenia and Azerbaijan.

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Tentatively Proposed Concessions

In order to achieve a common goal and create a strong player – the united and powerful South Caucasus, i.e. – the South Caucasian Union, the guarantor of security and future prosperity of the SC countries, the counterweight to any threats coming from bigger, more robust and ambitious regional competitors/dominants, and nowadays particularly – Russia, there is an absolute need for resolving the regional conflicts, and especially regarding – the Nagorno-Karabakh. Therefore, we propose the following authentic scheme to make our suggestion real, and prepare foundations for the creation of durable SCU.

Figure 3: Tentatively Proposed Concessions for Creating the South Caucasian Union (SCU)

Source: Own work.

Role of “Revolutions”

Since 2003, when the power in Georgia changed through the so-called ‘Rose Revolution’, this story became the main determinant of the country's mental transformation. Georgia, as a certain and more successful example of Euro-Atlantic integration, a country that, according to all estimates of international experts and Western countries, has carried out successful pro- S t r o n a | 155

Western reforms (specifically, regarding building/importing democratizing political, civil institutions, etc.; values and power are transforming towards democracy logically – slower though), has real potential to become an exporter of its positive experience in the SCU in terms of ‘constructing’ a modern, democratic state, especially in the socio-political, economic and civil spheres. The SCU Concept might seem even more relevant now, taking into account the recent substantial changes in the internal, as well as foreign policy choices and first of all, the system of mental preferences in Armenia after the 2018 Armenian revolution (#MerzhirSerzhin, i.e. #RejectSerzh), the country, which is seen as the second most successfully and rapidly democratizing country in the region after Georgia.

Possible Interactions

Clearly greatly important and extremely interesting would be to find out the potential relationships of the SCU – with or within the EU, the Three Seas Initiative, NATO, and other geopolitical blocks/security initiatives, whether already functioning or still to be formed in the broader region/s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 Chapichadze K., „Yuzhnokavkazskiy Soyuz: za i protiv. Rol' i potentsial Gruzii”, Doklad na grazhdanskom slushanii, Tekali Process, Tekali, Gruziya, 24.05.2014,  Menteshashvili A., Iz istorii vzaimootnosheniy Gruzinskoy Demokraticheskoy Respubliki s sovetskoy Rossiyey i Antantoy 1918- 1921 gg., Tbilisi 1989, s. 4.

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II. ANALIZY (ANALYSES)

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem” 2019, Nr 2(13) DOI: 10.33674/201913

Krzysztof SURDYK1 Polska

INTERMARIUM JAKO KONCEPCJA DZIAŁAŃ HYBRYDOWYCH. WCZORAJ I DZIŚ

(INTERMARIUM AS AN IDEA OF THE HYBRID WAR. IN THE PAST AND IN THE PRESENT DAYS)

Abstrakt: Swego rodzaju rewitalizacja idei Intermarium po 1990 r., skłania do bliższego przyjrzenia się tej idei, takiej, jaką była postrzegana w okresie międzywojennym i porównania jej z obecnymi wizjami utworzenia regionu ścisłej współpracy politycznej, ekonomicznej i militarnej na obszarze pomiędzy Morzami Bałtyckim, Czarnym i Śródziemnym. Porównanie to sprzyja tworzeniu pewnych analogii pomiędzy metodami forsowania tej idei w latach dwudziestych i trzydziestych ubiegłego wieku, a realizowanymi obecnie sposobami osiągania celów polityczno-ekonomicznych z wykorzystaniem tzw. wojen hybrydowych. W artykule przedstawiono podstawowe działania wykorzystywane dla promowania koncepcji Intermarium w okresie międzywojennym, w tym uzupełniającą ją, inną wizję geopolityczną – prometeizm. Dostrzeżono pewne analogie między tymi działaniami, a realizowanymi obecnie przedsięwzięciami na obszarze Międzymorza. Scharakteryzowano te przedsięwzięcia jako elementy wojny hybrydowej. Zwrócono uwagę na sprzeczność interesów mocarstw jądrowych w tym regionie, co może prowadzić do konfrontacji. Jednak ze względu na wzajemny szantaż jądrowy konfrontacja ta ma przede wszystkim charakter hybrydowy z elementami wojen ekonomicznych, informacyjnych i dyplomatycznych. Podkreślono rolę i znaczenie służb specjalnych w tego typu działaniach.

1 Krzysztof Surdyk, płk w st. spocz., dr inż., adiunkt w Katedrze Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego Wyższej Szkoły Biznesu i Przedsiębiorczości w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim; Prezes Zarządu Fundacji na Rzecz Rozwoju Wywiadu Gospodarczego VIS MAGNA. Email: [email protected]

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Słowa kluczowe: Intermarium, Prometeizm, wojny hybrydowe, służby specjalne

Abstract: A kind of revitalization of the Intermarium idea after 1990, prompts a closer look at this idea as it was perceived in the interwar period and compares it with the current visions of creating a region of close political, economic and military cooperation in the area between the Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas. This comparison encourages the creation of certain analogies between the methods of forcing this idea in the 1920s and 1930s, and the currently implemented methods of achieving political and economic goals using the so- called hybrid wars. The article presents basic activities used to promote the concept of Intermarium in the interwar period, including another geopolitical vision complementing it – Prometheism. Some analogies have been noticed between these activities and ongoing projects in the Międzymorze area. These projects were characterized as elements of a hybrid war. Attention was drawn to the conflict of interests of nuclear powers in this region, which may lead to confrontation. However, due to mutual nuclear blackmail, this confrontation is primarily hybrid in nature with elements of economic, information and diplomatic wars. The role and importance of special services in this type of activity was emphasized.

Keywords: Intermarium, Prometheizm, hybrid wars, special services

W obecnej, skomplikowanej sytuacji na świecie, mamy coraz więcej przykładów prowadzenia niewypowiedzianych wojen hybrydowych, wojen prowadzonych m.in. metodami ekonomiczno-finansowymi, informacyjnymi i dyplomatycznymi. Podejmowane są ofensywne działania w cyberprzestrzeni, a działania militarne, często prowadzone cudzymi rękami, ograniczone są do absolutnie niezbędnego minimum. Te nowe sposoby prowadzenia wojen charakteryzują się takimi cechami jak: nierozpoznawalność, trudność z określeniem początku i końca operacji, staranne ukrywanie faktu zastosowania różnych instrumentów tych wojen itp. Ta „wojna” do wybuchu wojny i prowadzona zamiast wojny realizowana jest w przestrzeni dyplomatycznej, politycznej, ekonomicznej i co najważniejsze w przestrzeni informacyjnej. Działania militarne, jeżeli już są podejmowane, to prowadzone są najczęściej na ograniczoną skalę, wobec dokładnie wybranych celów. W wojnach hybrydowych ważne jest nie tylko to, co zrobiliśmy i co udało nam się osiągnąć, ale również to, jak nasze działanie zostało przyjęte na świecie, w tym w naszym własnym kraju. Orwellowskie stwierdzenie „wojna – to pokój, pokój S t r o n a | 159

– to wojna”, faktycznie przekształciło się z antyutopii fantastyki literackiej w rzeczywisty opis stanu stosunków międzynarodowych. Dla prowadzenia skutecznych działań „hybrydowych” niezbędnym, chociaż niewystarczającym, jest stworzenie zasadniczo nowych struktur, typu: ośrodki informacyjne i szkoleniowe, centra sytuacyjne z funkcjami think- tanków, szerokie wykorzystanie specjalistów różnych specjalności, z zachowaniem wyraźnej hierarchii, zapewniającej szybką realizację podjętych decyzji. Specyficzne metody prowadzenia współczesnych wojen, powodują ogromny wzrost znaczenia służb wywiadowczych. Służby te stają się coraz bardziej niezbędne w realizacji złożonych operacji informacyjnych (propagandowych), przygotowaniu całych społeczeństw lub grup etnicznych do działań wg opracowanych wcześniej schematów i reguł, ale także w prowadzeniu defensywnych i ofensywnych operacji finansowych i ekonomicznych wobec potencjalnego przeciwnika. Zmienia się również charakter ich działań. Współcześni oficerowie i współpracownicy wywiadów coraz częściej występują w roli pracowników organizacji pozarządowych, różnego rodzaju fundacji, instytucji finansowych i stowarzyszeń społeczno- politycznych. Mówiąc o wojnach hybrydowych, takich jak je widzimy współcześnie, warto zwrócić uwagę na to, że niektóre z ich elementów z powodzeniem były wykorzystywane w przeszłości, w tym między innymi w realizacji koncepcji Intermarium.

Idea prometejska, jako pierwowzór działań hybrydowych

Idea Międzymorza uzupełniała się z inną geopolityczną wizją – prometeizmem, której założeniem był rozpad Imperium Rosyjskiego (potem ZSRR). Ideologia prometejska stanowiła ważny instrument polityki zagranicznej II Rzeczypospolitej. Jej głównym założeniem programowym było oddziaływanie w kierunku rozbudzenia świadomości narodowej nacji skupionych w ZSRR i na tym tle ruchów odśrodkowych w federacji. Nieodzownym elementem prometeizmu była rozbudowana infrastruktura instytucjonalna, odpowiedzialna za kształcenie polskich elit w zakresie nauk o Wschodzie. Miało ono dokonywać się poprzez gruntowne poznawanie kultur, społeczeństw i języków państw leżących za wschodnią granicą II RP, wydawanie gazet przybliżających polskiej opinii publicznej skomplikowane zagadnienia narodowościowe i geopolityczne, wreszcie budowanie platformy porozumienia w kręgu kół emigracyjnych, niejednokrotnie zantagonizowanych. Na podobnych zasadach, na jakich obecnie tworzy się struktury instytucjonalne do prowadzenia działań hybrydowych, polski rząd zbudował całą infrastrukturę zapewniającą funkcjonowanie siatek prometejskich, ze szkoleniami wojskowymi i edukacyjnymi dla aktualnych lub potencjalnych

160 | S t r o n a zwolenników. Stworzył zaplecze dla działalności wydawniczej itp. W skład tej infrastruktury wchodził przede wszystkim Instytut Wschodni w Warszawie, pełniący funkcję ośrodka eksperckiego, dostarczając różnego rodzaju raporty i opracowania Wydziałowi Wschodniemu MSZ i Oddziałowi II Sztabu Generalnego. Utworzono programy stypendialne dla studentów Prometeusza w Warszawie, Wilnie, Poznaniu, Krakowie, Paryżu, Berlinie i Kairze; cztery kluby Prometejskie w Warszawie, Paryżu, Helsinkach i Charbinie oraz liczne czasopisma, w tym Prometeusz (w Paryżu) i Prometeusz (w Helsinkach), które propagowały i omawiały idee dotyczące ruchu prometejskiego. Ponadto utworzono osobne instytuty i wydawnictwa, których celem było promowanie projektu prometejskiego na Ukrainie w odniesieniu do Tatarów, ludności kaukaskiej i Kozaków. Za inne placówki prometejskie można uznać Ukraiński Instytut Naukowy w Warszawie oraz Instytut Badań Spraw Narodowoś- ciowych. Działające pod patronatem Instytutu Wschodniego, Orientalistyczne Koło Młodych, wydawało kwartalnik Wschód Orient (1932-1938) oraz tygodnik Biuletyn Polsko Ukraiński (1932-1938). Dzisiaj moglibyśmy powiedzieć, że stworzone zostały solidne podstawy do prowadzenia wojny informacyjnej na obszarze Międzymorza2. Historia ruchu prometejskiego w II Rzeczpospolitej wymaga rozdzielenia dwóch szeroko rozumianych sposobów wprowadzania w życie ideałów prometejskich w polityce zagranicznej II RP. Z jednej strony prometeizm był działalnością taktyczno-operacyjną i w tym zakresie protekcję nad prometej- czykami objął Wydział Wschodni MSZ. Natomiast tzw. funkcja obronno- dywersyjna realizowana była przede wszystkim przez działalność wywiadu wojskowego, czyli II Oddziału Sztabu Głównego. Konkretnie ruchem prometejskim zajmowała się Ekspozytura nr 6 (od 1929 r. – nr 2) Oddziału II Sztabu Głównego Wojska Polskiego3. Jednym z przykładów takich działań była współpraca Oddziału II z władzami emigracyjnymi Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej, której najbardziej efektownym przejawem był sponsorowany przez Dwójkę, II Pochód Zimowy4 – nieudany rajd partyzancki z listopada i grudnia 1921 r. Prometeizm przez całe dwudziestolecie największe wsparcie znajdował właśnie w komórkach Oddziału II Sztabu Generalnego/Głównego. Można, zatem powiedzieć, że ta służba specjalna została instytucjonalnie włączona w realizację zadań związanych z tym projektem, co jest również typowe dla

2 Zob. P. Libera, Ewolucja ruchu prometejskiego w okresie międzywojennym, [w:] M. Kornat (red.) Ruch prometejski i walka o przebudowę Europy Wschodniej (1918-1940), Warszawa 2012, s. 219-244; P. Libera (oprac.), II Rzeczpospolita wobec ruchu prometejskiego, „Wojskowe Teki Archiwalne” t. IV, Warszawa 2013. 3 F. Gończyński-Jussis, „Idea polityczna o rzadkiej mocy wizjonerskiej”? Prometeizm w II RP, (31.12.2019). 4 II pochód zimowy – wypad ukraińskich żołnierzy z Polski i Rumunii na terytorium ZSRR w jesieni 1921. S t r o n a | 161 prowadzonych współcześnie działań hybrydowych, a sam projekt zdefiniować jako pewną strategię wywiadowczą, skierowaną przeciw potencjalnie najgroźniejszemu przeciwnikowi. Finansowanie prometeizmu realizowane było poprzez dotacje z budżetu państwa przez MSZ, ale także za pośrednictwem wywiadu wojskowego, ze specjalnie utworzonego funduszu „N”. Wydatki miały oscylować wokół 1 mln zł rocznie, chociaż niewykluczone, że w istocie były wyższe. Subsydiami obejmowano instytucje i prasę emigrantów (także te funkcjonujące za granicą), żołd służących w WP, a wywodzących się z „narodów prometejskich” oficerów kontraktowych, a także polskie placówki badawcze odpowiedzialne za biały wywiad na kierunku wschodnim, to jest: warszawski Instytut Wschodni i wileński Instytut Naukowo-Badawczy Europy Wschodniej. Ten pierwszy odgrywał rolę forum kontaktów polskich działaczy i emigrantów. W latach 30., podobną funkcję spełniała warszawska filia klubu „Prometeusz”. Akcja prometejska widziana z punktu widzenia Oddziału II SG WP znalazła swoje odbicie w specjalnym opracowaniu nt. działań Oddziału II, przygotowanym w 1940 roku dla generała W. Sikorskiego w Paryżu5. Autor opracowania ppłk L. Sadowski stwierdza w nim m.in.: „Po roku 1926 następuje okres aktywnej pracy w ramach projektu prometejskiego. Akcja uzyskuje silne podstawy finansowe (z budżetu dyspozycyjnego MSZ i Oddziału II SG – mniej więcej po połowie). Budżet sięga ponad 1 milion zł rocznie, a w 1934 roku osiągnął kwotę blisko 1,5 mln zł. Zrealizowano m.in. następujące przedsięwzięcia: - przystąpiono do ścisłej współpracy z emigracyjnymi organizacjami prometejskimi, z którymi zawarto szereg układów, w tym: z rządem UR w Paryżu, rządem gruzińskim Zordaniego; - zwiększono ilość oficerów kontraktowych (narodowości prometejskiej) w wojsku polskim – w 1939 r. było ich 110, a w tym: Gruzinów – 65, Ukraińców – 32, Azerbejdżan – 5, górali kaukaskich – 8; - zorganizowano sztab ukraińskiego U.R.L. w Warszawie, Głównej Rady Ukraińskiej, Komitetu Narodowego Kaukaskiego, podtrzymywano działalność kaukaskich centrów narodowych, utrzymywano kontakty z Wszechświatowymi Kongresami Muzułmańskimi; - utworzono polskie periodyki „Wschód” i „Biuletyn Polsko-Ukraiński” dla promocji idei prometejskiej w społeczeństwie polskim; - utworzono liczne wydawnictwa w językach obcych m.in. „Promethee” w Paryżu i „Promethaus” w Helsinkach, zorganizowano 3 agencje prasowe (m.in. A.T.E. w Warszawie); - utworzono Instytut Wschodni oraz Ukraiński Instytut Naukowy w Warszawie, przyznawano liczne stypendia dla studentów

5 Akcja Prometejska. Opracowanie/analiza Oddziału II SG WP, [w:] L. Sadowski, Rezultaty pracy pokojowej i udział w przygotowaniu do wojny, Lublin 2014.

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prometejskich, wydawców publikacji naukowych, politycznych i propagandowych; - w kilku stolicach europejskich zorganizowano kluby prometejskie, organizacje studenckie, kombatanckie etc. oraz placówki terenowe w Turcji i Persji; - uplasowano stałego eksperta – oficera w Paryżu dla kontaktu z kolami politycznymi emigracji prometejskiej. Oczywiście działania polskich władz spotykały się z aktywnym przeciwdziałaniem ze strony ZSRR. O tym, że ZSRR zwalczał ruch prometejski świadczą m.in. liczne teksty i dokumenty wytworzone przez osoby związane z ruchem prometejskim. Szczególnie aktywne na tym polu były radzieckie służby specjalne. Działaniem NKWD interpretowano tragiczną śmierć Simona Petlury, Tadeusza Hołówki czy Noe Ramiszliwiego. Nasyłano agentów penetrujących ośrodki organizacji emigracyjnych, proponowano nawet wybitnym działaczom Prometeusza powrót do kraju i objęcie tam stanowisk. Usiłowano wbić klin we wzajemne stosunki między chrześcijańskimi narodami Gruzji i Armenii, a muzułmanami Kaukazu. Towarzyszył temu wysiłek wywiadowczy, którego świadectwem stały się skuteczne prowokacje Głównego Zarządu Wywiadowczego w ramach akcji „MOR Trust”6, która poprzez fikcyjne organizacje monarchistyczne miała ujawniać m.in. działaczy narodów prometejskich7. Według sekretarza Klubu Prometeusza, prof. Romana Smal-

6 Operacja „Trust” – operacja wywiadowczo-dezinformacyjna CzeKa skierowana przeciwko rosyjskim środowiskom emigracyjnym, takim jak Ogólnorosyjski Związek Wojskowy (ROWS) czy Bractwo Białego Krzyża, przeprowadzona w latach 20. XX w. Po zakończeniu wojny domowej, obawiając się możliwości penetracji aparatu radzieckiego przez silne i cieszące się wsparciem służb specjalnych państw zachodnich organizacje wojskowe i polityczne, szef radzieckich służb specjalnych, Feliks Dzierżyński (z inicjatywy szefa kontrwywiadu CzeKa Artura Artuzowa), postanowił do ich zwalczania zastosować prowokację. W tym celu powołano fikcyjną Monarchistyczną Organizację Rosji Środkowej (MORS), która nawiązała potajemne stosunki z białymi na Zachodzie. Spodziewano się w ten sposób zdemaskowania ich potencjalnej agentury w Rosji, wprowadzenia własnych ludzi do struktur emigracyjnych i organizacji, i – na koniec – pełnej kompromitacji całego ruchu. Cele te do roku 1927, gdy operacja „Trust” prowadzona pod nadzorem Biura ds. Dezinformacji OGPU dobiegła końca, zrealizowano z nawiązką. „Trust” dla osiągnięcia swych kontrwywiadowczych celów wykorzystywał nie tylko prowokację, ale również rozpowszechniał sfałszowane podejrzane dokumenty oraz raporty wywiadowcze, dyskredytując środowisko emigracyjne i zachodnie służby wywiadowcze. W trakcie operacji zwabiono do ZSRR, skazano na śmierć i zamordowano najgłośniejszego wówczas agenta brytyjskiego, Sidneya Reilly’ego. W szczytowym okresie w operacji zaangażowano niewyobrażalną na tamte czasy liczbę 5 tysięcy agentów i funkcjonariuszy. Zob. W. Michniewicz, Wielki bluff sowiecki, Chicago 1991, ss. 338; M. Świerczek, Modus operandi GPU na przykładzie operacji „Trust” opisanej w „Trioch stloicach” W. W. Szulgina. Próba analizy, „Przegląd Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego”, 12/2015, ss. 211-223. 7 B. Światłowski, Prometejska racja stanu. Źródła i dzieje ruchu prometejskiego w II Rzeczypospolitej, „Poliarchia. Studencko-doktoranckie czasopismo naukowe Wydziału S t r o n a | 163

Stockiego, NKWD było bardzo dobrze poinformowane o składzie i organizacji nie tylko emigracji politycznych, ale także środowisk związanych z ruchem prometejskim. O represjonowaniu niektórych gruzińskich działaczy niepodległościowych przez służby bezpieczeństwa ZSRR i Gruzji wspomina G. Mamoulia, a problem zainteresowania ruchem prometejskim porusza także w swojej książce opartej na archiwaliach Służby Wywiadu Zagranicznego Federacji Rosyjskiej, gen. lejtnant Lew Sockow. Poświęca on kilka rozdziałów swej książki zagadnieniu prometejskiemu i opisuje antysowiecką działalność polskiego wywiadu i ruchu prometejskiego. Choć książki Sockowa spotykają się z dużymi zastrzeżeniami wśród badaczy, świadczą jednak o tym, że wywiad ZSRR uważnie obserwował ruch prometejski i pozyskiwał dokumenty na jego temat, o niemałym znaczeniu.

Rola służb wywiadowczych w wojnach hybrydowych

Dzisiejsze wywiady, w okresie kiedy działania hybrydowe zostały podniesione do rangi obowiązujących standardów prowadzenia współczesnych wojen, z pewnością mogłyby sporo skorzystać na doświadczeniach przedwojennej Dwójki. Przedstawione wyżej przykłady działań Oddziału II SG WP świadczą o pomysłowości ówczesnych oficerów wywiadu w pracy nad popularyzacją akcji prometejskiej i koncepcji Intermarium, a także o dużym wysiłku operacyjnym związanym z tworzeniem struktur, które mogły przyczynić się do zaistnienia korzystnych dla II RP zmian politycznych w krajach sąsiedzkich. I chociaż operacje te nie zakończyły się powodzeniem, to z pewnością można je potraktować, jako szkoleniowy przykład przygotowania przez wywiad ofensywnej operacji hybrydowej. Od tamtych czasów znaczenie wywiadów we wspomaganiu rządów państw, w realizacji ich koncepcji politycznych, niepomiernie wzrosła. Zaś szczególnego znaczenia wywiady nabrały obecnie, kiedy poza powszechną percepcją toczą się niewypowiedziane wojny hybrydowe, we wszystkich swoich odmianach. Uważa się, że jednym z głównych problemów związanych z zagrożeniami hybrydowymi jest to, że obiekt ataku nie od razu rozumie, że znajduje się pod wpływem aktywnego oddziaływania sił nieprzyjaciela. Często takie opóźnienie w ocenie zagrożenia i reakcji ma tragiczne konsekwencje dla obiektu agresji hybrydowej. Dlatego ujawnienie w odpowiednim czasie faktu przygotowań wroga do przeprowadzenia operacji hybrydowej i określenie przygotowywanego przez niego zestawu zagrożeń hybrydowych, jest kwestią absolutnie priorytetową. Realizacja tego zadania zwykle powierzana jest służbom wywiadowczym. To wywiady mają obowiązek ujawnić wszystkie obszary aktywności nie przy-

Studiów Międzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego”, Nr 1(2)2014, ss. 147-180.

164 | S t r o n a jaciela w zakresie działań hybrydowych, a w tym: tworzenie strategii działań wywrotowych, tworzenie i dystrybucję niezbędnych zasobów materiałowych, ustanawianie kanałów komunikacji i interakcji. Warto też podkreślić, że zaangażowanie wywiadów w wojnie hybrydowej ma nie tylko charakter defensywny. Po stronie nieprzyjaciela, również działają służby wywiadowcze, które jednak działają ofensywnie, przygotowując aktywne działania hybrydowe (pewnych analogii można się tu doszukać w działaniach Oddziału II SG WP w okresie międzywojennym). W działaniach defensywnych, dla wykrycia na czas planów przygotowania przez przeciwnika wojny hybrydowej, oraz w celu jej przeciwdziałania, przygotowuje się odpowiednią, długoterminową strategię militarno-polityczną, tworzy się specjalny organ krajowy/koalicyjny w celu koordynowania działań wywiadowczych na wszystkich poziomach, od strategicznego do taktycznego, wypracowuje się pryncypialne podejścia do skutecznego i tajnego użycia sił operacji specjalnych i naniesienia uderzeń bronią precyzyjną. Dokładnie określa się obszary, które mogą zostać objęte wojną hybrydową. Wstępnie bada się i określa wszystkie cechy charakterystyczne potencjalnych działań hybrydowych, w tym zagrożeń związanych ze środkami nacisku ekonomicznego i sankcjami ekonomicznymi, informacje o planowanych operacjach informacyjnych i dezinformacyjnych, itp. Jednym z podstawowych zadań wywiadu w wojnie hybrydowej jest również uzyskanie informacji o ukrytych elementach wywrotowych, działających najczęściej w sieci, składającej się z izolowanych komórek. W tym kontekście w regionach objętych wojną hybrydową przydatne może być utworzenie grup wywiadowczych i uderzeniowych z własnymi kanałami niezawodnej i tajnej łączności operacyjnej. Źródłami informacji dla wywiadu o zagrożeniach hybrydowych są: własne niezależne wyszukiwanie niezbędnych informacji z wszelkich możliwych źródeł i, co chyba najważniejsze, rozległa sieć agentów. Te i niektóre inne zadania stawiane przed wywiadem sprawiają, że konieczne jest utrzymanie służb wywiadowczych i rozpoznawczych w wysokiej gotowości, ciągłe ich ulepszanie, z uwzględnianiem procesów transformacji współczesnych konfliktów i skrytego wprowadzania w życie elementów zagrożeń hybrydowych. Wywiad wykorzystywany jest również do oceny szkód spowodowanych wojną hybrydową, gdy trzeba uciekać się do np. porównania ekonomicznego i strategicznego znaczenia terytoriów kontrolo- wanych przez rebeliantów i siły rządowe. Terminowe wykrycie i prawidłowa interpretacja przez wywiad zagrożeń hybrydowych pozwalają przewidzieć zamiary wroga, dotyczące wyboru strategii wojny hybrydowej. Opracowanie środków zaradczych powinno uwzględniać ważną rolę wsparcia zewnętrznego (koalicyjnego) w takich wojnach. Wspólne sposoby przeciwdziałania wojnom hybrydowym sprowadzają się do niezawodnego blokowania kanałów finansowania sił wywrotowych, wykorzystania środków dyplomatycznych do izolowania i S t r o n a | 165 karania państw sponsorów, ukierunkowanie działań wszelkiego rodzaju sił wywiadowczych na wykrycie i identyfikację liderów sił dywersyjnych oraz przygotowanych obozów szkoleniowych i magazynów sprzętu i broni, jako priorytetowych celów do neutralizacji. Pierwszeństwo należy przyznać również doskonaleniu obrony terytorialnej, która w swoich działaniach powinna uwzględniać dane wywiadu i kontrwywiadu, dotyczące planów operacyjnych nieprzyjaciela. Jeżeli chodzi o rozumienie omawianych wyżej kwestii wśród głównych antagonistów, to w Federacji Rosyjskiej termin „zagrożenia hybrydowe” nie jest używany w oficjalnych dokumentach odzwierciedlających postrzeganie przez Rosję wyzwań, ryzyka, niebezpieczeństw i zagrożeń współczesnego świata. Jednocześnie jednak różnorodność i skala zagrożeń wymienionych w rosyjskiej strategii bezpieczeństwa narodowego z 2015 r., doktrynie wojskowej z 2014 r. i niektórych innych dokumentach, ich oczywiste skupienie się na słabościach Rosji, połączenie obiektywnie istniejących i sztucznie stworzonych zagrożeń, w pełni upoważnia do mówienia o sformułowanym w tych doku- mentach całym zestawie zagrożeń hybrydowych, skierowane przeciwko Federacji Rosyjskiej. Utworzenie w 2016 roku Sił Operacji Informacyjnych, tylko potwierdza wprowadzenie działań hybrydowych do arsenału przedsięwzięć sił zbrojnych FR, możliwych do zastosowania w razie konfliktu. Natomiast w NATO, zagrożenie wojną hybrydową zostało uznane za jedno z najważniejszych, co doprowadziło do utworzenia specjalnego oddziału analizy zagrożeń hybrydowych w Departamencie Wywiadu i Bezpieczeństwa. Oddziału, który będzie ściśle współpracował z centrami doskonalenia kompetencji (szerzej przedstawionymi niżej). W związku z wagą przywiązywaną do zagrożeń hybrydowych, NATO i UE dążą do poprawy świadomości sytuacyjnej w swoich gremiach decyzyjnych poprzez zwiększenie liczby źródeł danych wywiadowczych, poprawę procedur analizy, wymianę i odpowiednią interpretację informacji wywiadowczych, aby móc przewidzieć i zrozumieć rozwój sytuacji, i odpowiednio wcześnie reagować na zagrożenia hybrydowe.

Intermarium w obecnej rozgrywce geopolitycznej pomiędzy USA i Rosją

O tym, że historycznie państwa wchodzące w skład regionu określanego, jako Międzymorze miały zawsze duże znaczenie geopolityczne, nikogo nie trzeba przekonywać. O znaczeniu niektórych z tych państw dla realizacji globalnej polityki Stanów Zjednoczonych pisał m.in. Zbigniew Brzeziński w swojej książce Wielka Szachownica: główne cele polityki amerykańskiej (The Grand Chessboard) z 1997 roku, w której stwierdzał, że przez co najmniej jedno pokolenie władza nad światem należeć powinna do USA, że w tym celu trzeba koniecznie uczynić Ukrainę częścią „strefy atlantyckiej”, bo jest to kluczem do panowania nad Eurazją. Głównym przeciwnikiem była w tej

166 | S t r o n a perspektywie Rosja. W Wielkiej Szachownicy Brzeziński dowodzi, że: „Ukraina, nowe, ważne pole na szachownicy eurazjatyckiej, jest sworzniem geopolitycznym, ponieważ samo istnienie niepodległego państwa ukraińskiego pomaga przekształcać Rosję. Bez Ukrainy Rosja przestaje być imperium eurazjatyckim: może wciąż próbować zdobyć status imperialny, lecz byłaby wówczas imperium głównie azjatyckim, stale wciąganym w rujnujące konflikty z od niedawna suwerennymi narodami Azji Środkowej, które nie pogodziłyby się z utratą niepodległości i byłyby wspierane przez bratnie kraje islamskie na południu. […] Jeżeli jednak Moskwa ponownie zdobędzie władzę nad Ukrainą, wraz z pięćdziesięcioma dwoma milionami jej obywateli, ogromnymi bogactwami naturalnymi oraz dostępem do Morza Czarnego, automatycznie odzyska możliwość stania się potężnym imperium spinającym Europę i Azję. Utrata niepodległości przez Ukrainę miałaby natychmiastowe konsekwencje dla Europy Środkowej, przekształcając Polskę w sworzeń geopolityczny na wschodniej granicy zjednoczonej Europy”8. Koncepcję Brzezińskiego, w odniesieniu do regionu Międzymorza, podjęło wielu amerykańskich ekspertów i strategów. Między innymi polsko- amerykański analityk polityczny Jan Marek Chodakiewicz, pracujący dla Institute of World Politics, pro-republikańskiej szkoły podyplomowej dla dyplomatów i agentów tajnych służb w Waszyngtonie, argumentował w 2012 r., że USA w swojej strategii musiały skupić się na Intermarium z kilku powodów. Intermarium, jak twierdzi, tworzy „regionalny sworzeń geopolityczny (pivot) i bramę ze Wschodu na Zachód”, a ponadto jest „najbardziej stabilną częścią obszaru poradzieckiego (i najbardziej wolną i demokratyczną)”. Dlatego Chodakiewicz radzi: „Stany Zjednoczone powinny skoncentrować się na umacnianiu swoich wpływów w tym regionie, aby wykorzystać go, jako trampolinę do uzyskania wpływów w pozostałych państwach powstałych po rozpadzie ZSRR, w tym państw Kaukazu, Azji Środkowej, a także samej Federacji Rosyjskiej”. Ostrzegając przed sojuszem między Berlinem, a Moskwą, pisze: „W istocie promowanie proamerykańskiego bloku w środku Europy, w celu uzupełnienia lub zrównoważenia coraz bardziej antyamerykańskiej Europy Zachodniej, byłoby niezbędne, aby przywrócić wpływy Stanów Zjednoczonych na Starym Kontynencie”9. Inny ekspert polityczny George Friedman, założyciel i były szef prywatnej agencji wywiadowczej Stratfor, która utrzymuje bliskie powiązania z amerykańskim aparatem wojskowym i wywiadowczym, również wielokrotnie podkreślał potrzebę takiej strategii. Podczas Forum Nowych Idei w 2012 roku, Friedman opowiadał się za powrotem do strategii Intermarium Piłsudskiego. Argumentował, że Europa ponownie stanęła w obliczu odradzających się

8 Z. Brzeziński, Wielka Szachownica: główne cele polityki amerykańskiej, Warszawa 1998. 9 J. M. Chodakiewicz, Intermarium. The Land Between the Baltic and the Black Seas, New Jersey 2013, pp. 2, 391. S t r o n a | 167

Niemiec i możliwego sojuszu między Moskwą, a Berlinem. Wezwał Polskę do objęcia przewodniej roli w Europie. Podkreślając, że UE nie ma możliwości ochrony Polski w przypadku konfliktu zbrojnego, Friedman powiedział: „Polska musi teraz polegać na sobie. […] Przedstawię wam bardziej radykalny pomysł, który pochodzi z Intermarium generała Piłsudskiego. […] Podobnie jak polityka powstrzymywania z lat 1945-1989, idea ta znów […] łączyłaby oszczędność sił i finansów z naszej strony oraz ograniczałaby rozwój Rosji, jako potęgi hegemonicznej, sprawiając jednocześnie, że Stany Zjednoczone narażone byłyby jedynie na ograniczone i kontrolowane ryzyko. Istotę tej strategii jest rozwój wydarzeń, który przedstawiam w swoich dwóch książkach »Następna dekada« i »Następne 100 lat«, jako pojęcie, które nazwałem Intermarium. Intermarium było planem realizowanym po I wojnie światowej przez polskiego przywódcę Józefa Piłsudskiego dla stworzenia federacji krajów Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej, pod egidą Polski. Idea, która pojawia się teraz, to nie dokładnie przedwojenne Intermarium, ale jest bliska koncepcji Piłsudskiego. Idea ta na naszych oczach przekształca się z abstrakcyjnej prognozy w konkretną, choć wciąż rodzącą się rzeczywistość”10. Kolejny współpracownik Stratfor, Robert D. Kaplan stwierdza natomiast: „Trend jest zauważalny. Zintensyfikowały się spotkania na wysokim szczeblu między krajami Intermarium, ponieważ Pentagon i Departament Stanu działają, jako swego rodzaju hub dla kreowania współpracy wojskowej, wywiadowczej i dyplomatycznej, tych krajów. Silniejszemu wsparciu USA dla Europy Wschodniej i Środkowej muszą towarzyszyć silniejsze dwustronne więzi między samymi krajami – nie mówiąc już o zwiększonych wydatkach na obronę w regionie”11. Tymczasem po drugiej stronie barykady, w Moskwie uważają, że: „Dla polskich nacjonalistów Intermarium od dawna stanowi ważną koncepcję operacyjną. Nowością jest to, że koncepcja ta została podchwycona przez amerykańskich strategów i wojskowych. […] Intermarium może stać się najskuteczniejszym amerykańskim klinem wbitym w zachodni kraniec wielkiego kontynentu eurazjatyckiego. Inicjatywa ta na zawsze pogrzebie dążenie do budowy wspólnej przestrzeni bezpieczeństwa i demokratycznej współpracy od Lizbony do Władywostoku. Nie można pozwolić, by Chimery wywodzące się Intermarium pogrążyły Europę i cały świat w chaosie nowego konfliktu”12.

10 Wizja polityki Stanów Zjednoczonych wobec Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, nakreślona w artykule: G. Friedman, From Estonia to Azerbaijan: American Strategy After Ukraine, (31.12.2019). 11 R. D. Kaplan, Pilsudski's Europe, (31.12.2019). 12 V. Krasheninnikova, Os' NATO — sdvig vpravo: „Mezhdumor'ye”, 6.04.2019, (31.12.2019).

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Rosyjskie media zauważają również, że „Ukraińska skrajna prawica nie mogła nie poprzeć takiego projektu”. Wskazują, że: „Jeden z neonazistowskich przywódców Andrei Biletsky13 utworzył Grupę Wsparcia Międzymorza. Równolegle w ramach »podziemia« ukraińskich organizacji neonazistowskich powstała sieć »Reconquista«, posiadająca wszystkie atrybuty podziemnej struktury paramilitarnej przyszłego Intermarium. Organizacja takich nielegalnych, zmilitaryzowanych grup, posiadających realne doświadczenie bojowe, podświadomie prowadzi do przerażających skojarzeń ze słynną Operacją Gladio14 z okresu Zimnej Wojny”15 . Rosyjski publicysta Stanisław Stremidłowski, śledzący sytuację w regionie, (również z pozycji Warszawy), zawarł w swoim artykule dla portalu internetowego IA Regnum wyraźną przestrogę, zauważając, że: „Jeśli Waszyngton naprawdę zainteresował się koncepcją Intermarium, jeśli amerykański podział polityczny w Ameryce nie rozprzestrzenił się na politykę zagraniczną, jeśli wizyty gości z USA, nie są tylko wycieczkami turystycznymi, to w Polsce jest zbyt wcześnie, by cieszyć się takim zainteresowaniem. Wcześniej Stany Zjednoczone były aktywnie zainteresowane »Wielkim Bliskim Wschodem« i »nowym Wielkim Bliskim Wschodem«. A co z tego wyszło, wszyscy wiedzą”16. Stremidłowski zauważa zbliżone do międzywojennego Międzymorza inicjatywy, które jawią się, jako elementy konfrontacji (wojny) ekonomicznej: „Nowym wcieleniem politycznym i gospodarczym Intermarium była wspierana przez USA inicjatywa »Three Seas« zaproponowana przez polskich narodowych konserwatystów z partii Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. Odbyły się już trzy szczyty tej nowej struktury. W jednym z nich, w lipcu 2017 r. uczestniczył D. Trump. Omówiono m.in. dostawy amerykańskiego skroplonego gazu do Europy, czyli wyparcie stamtąd gazu rosyjskiego”. Stremidłowski zauważa, że jednym z twórców koncepcji „Trójmorza” był były dowódca sił NATO w Europie, James

13 Członek grup Patriota Ukrainy, Zgromadzenie Społeczno-Narodowe, Prawy Sektor – wszystkie te organizacje są zakazane w Rosji. 14 Gladio – tajna struktura bojowa utworzona w łonie wojskowych służb specjalnych we Włoszech, w latach 50. XX w., kiedy to doszło do porozumienia włoskiego wywiadu wojskowego SIFAR z CIA w sprawie amerykańskiego planu „Demagnetize”, w którym postanowiono, że zapobieżenie możliwości przejęcia władzy przez komunistów we Włoszech i we Francji jest celem priorytetowym, co należy osiągnąć przy użyciu wszelkich środków. Struktury Gladio funkcjonowały później w wielu krajach zachodniej części Europy, Grecji i Turcji. Trzonem tej organizacji byli zatwardziali antykomuniści, głównie konserwatyści, także naziści, których zadaniem było zapobieżenie ewentualnej inwazji ze strony ZSRR. Zob. G. Daniele, NATO's Secret Armies – Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe, Londyn 2005; P. L. Wiliams, Operation Gladio: The Inholy Aliance beteween the Vatican, the CIA, and the Mafia, Buffalo 2015. 15 A. Dzermant, „Mezhdumor'ye” kak regional'naya ugroza. I ser'yoznaya tema dlya Rossii (31.12.2019). 16 S. Stremidlovskiy, Chem dlya Pol'shi obernutsya geopoliticheskiye eksperimenty SSHA, (31.12.2019). S t r o n a | 169

Jones – „Oczywistym jest, że czterogwiazdkowy amerykański generał wchodzi w takie przedsięwzięcie, nie w imię realizacji zadań społecznych”17. Również w białoruskich oficjalnych mediach rządowych projekt Międzymorza oceniany jest jednoznacznie negatywnie, jako destabilizujący sytuację w regionie. I chociaż publikacje te po części określają projekt, jako utopię polityczną, to nie brakuje ocen traktujących tę ideę bardzo poważnie. Istotę takich właśnie ocen, dobrze ilustruje wywiad z białoruskim ekspertem politycznym Aleksiejem Dzermantem pt. Mezhdumore kak regionalnaja ugroza (Międzymorze, jako regionalne zagrożenie). A. Dzermant stwierdza m.in., że: „Dla nas (Białorusi) jest to bezpośrednie zagrożenie dla państwowości. Projekt Intermarium, to projekt geopolitycznej konfrontacji, a jeśli zostanie wdrożony, zostaniemy wciągnięci w niego, jak w rodzaj frontu, który niesie ze sobą ogromne ryzyko. […] Dla Unii Europejskiej, w szczególności dla starej Europy – Paryża, Berlina i Brukseli – nie jest to opłacalne, ponieważ Intermarium jest w rzeczywistości kordonem sanitarnym między Rosją, a tymi krajami, a np. w przypadku Niemiec powiązania gospodarcze z Moskwą i Unią Euroazjatycką, są korzystne. W przypadku Stanów Zjednoczonych jest odwrotnie. Muszą mieć ciągłe konflikty w Europie, aby kraje regionu nie mogły zmienić się w siłę, która może rzucić wyzwanie Ameryce. Dlatego wspierają Polskę w staraniach, aby ten kordon sanitarny został utworzony i przede wszystkim zakłócał bezpośrednie kontakty handlowe, gospodarcze i polityczne starej Europy i Rosji”. I dalej stwierdza: „Intermarium w rzeczywistości jest przede wszystkim antyrosyjskie. W przypadku jego realizacji, Rosja może wzmocnić sojusz gospodarczy i wojskowy z Białorusią. Jeśli na zachodnich granicach będzie silna Białoruś, powstrzyma to wzrost wpływów Polski ze względu na fakt, że Mińsk ma własny potencjał gospodarczy i obronny. Pod tym warunkiem będziemy rodzajem przeciwwagi. Ten »białoruski balkon« ma strategiczne znaczenie i w tym przypadku Republika Białorusi jest ważna dla Rosji”18. Tak krańcowo różne z amerykańskiej i rosyjskiej strony oceny współczesnej koncepcji Międzymorza mogą świadczyć o ścieraniu się w tym regionie ważnych interesów geopolitycznych obu mocarstw jądrowych. Zakładając jednak, że „straszak jądrowy” skutecznie eliminuje z rozgrywki między USA i FR ostateczne rozwiązania siłowe, jedynym rozwiązaniem, które mogą w tym wypadku oba państwa zastosować jest wykorzystanie elementów wojny hybrydowej, angażując w tym celu swoich sojuszników, zainteresowanych „przepchnięciem” własnych interesów w regionie. Nie są znane poglądy oficjalnego Kremla, dotyczące koncepcji Międzymorza, ale można domniemywać, że nie różnią się wiele od przedstawionych wyżej przez rosyjskich publicystów i że kwestia ta nie jest przez Rosjan bagatelizowana. Przecież na terenie państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej już toczy się wiele

17 Ibidem. 18 A. Dzermant, op. cit.

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„bitew”, które z powodzeniem zaliczyć można do tych, z gatunku działań hybrydowych.

Działania hybrydowe wobec Intermarium

W koncepcji dowodzenia strategicznego NATO zagrożenia hybrydowe definiuje się, jako zagrożenia tworzone przez przeciwnika zdolnego do adaptacyjnego wykorzystywania tradycyjnych i nietradycyjnych środków do osiągnięcia własnych celów. Zakres typowych zagrożeń hybrydowych obejmuje realizację scenariuszy konfliktów o niskiej intensywności, a w tym sankcje gospodarcze i wojny ekonomiczno-finansowe, wojny informacyjne (w tym cybernetyczne), ograniczone operacje wojskowe, wykorzystanie i wsparcie ruchów separatystycznych i wyzwoleńczych, międzynarodowego terroryzmu i piractwa, wykorzystanie lokalnych konfliktów etnicznych i religijnych, a nawet międzynarodowej przestępczości zorganizowanej. Mówiąc o koncepcji wojny hybrydowej niektórzy amerykańscy analitycy wojskowi sugerują, że konflikty mieszane będą charakterystyczne dla przyszłych konfliktów. Ich zdaniem w wojnach hybrydowych stosowana jest unikalna kombinacja zagrożeń, skoncentrowana na wąskich gardłach i słabościach państwa przeciwnego, a do ich realizacji stosowane są jednocześnie wszystkie formy wojny, w tym zachowania przestępcze. Wydarzenia na Ukrainie w 2014 spowodowały gwałtowny wzrost napięcia politycznego pomiędzy Stanami Zjednoczonymi i większością państw Intermarium, a Federacją Rosyjską. Ze strony USA posypały się sankcje polityczne, ekonomiczne i dyplomatyczne, których celem było nie tylko ukaranie Rosji za jej działania wobec nowych władz w Kijowie, ale także wskazanie Moskwie jej miejsca w istniejącym światowym porządku. Amerykański parlament przyjął Ustawę o wsparciu wolności na Ukrainie 2014, który pod względem prawnym umacnia konfrontacyjną strategię USA w odniesieniu do Rosji. Ustawa ta otworzyła administracji drogę do podejmowania wszelkich możliwych działań w sferze polityki, ekonomii, informacji i dyplomacji, mających na celu zastopowanie rosyjskich ambicji geopolitycznych, czyli de facto stworzyła możliwość podejmowania działań wobec Rosji, o charakterze hybrydowym (zastosowanie pełnej opcji militarnej, ze względu na posiadanie broni jądrowej przez oba kraje, nie wchodzi oczywiście w rachubę). Jednak Rosja podjęła rękawice i trzeba przyznać, że z lepszym lub gorszym skutkiem przeprowadza szereg kontr-działań pochodzących również z arsenału wojen hybrydowych. Odnowiona inicjatywa Międzymorza, zaowocowała licznymi przedsięwzięciami, które po części stanowią analogię tych, które wspierały koncepcję Intermarium z okresu międzywojennego. Powstają promujące tę ideę stowarzyszenia i portale internetowe. Organizowane są liczne konferencje, S t r o n a | 171 spotkania ekspertów politycznych itp. Problematyka ta promowana jest w ramach publikacji różnych ośrodków naukowo-badawczych, szczególnie tych zajmujących się problematyką wschodnią. Ze względów oczywistych nie wiemy dzisiaj, czy służby specjalne zostały w jakikolwiek sposób włączone w realizację tej koncepcji. Natomiast na szczeblu politycznym współczesna inicjatywa Intermarium, zyskała duże deklaratywne poparcie ze strony prezydentów i rządów RP. Swego rodzaju ekonomicznym wsparciem koncepcji Intermarium jest inicjatywa Trójmorza19. Polska, promując ideę Intermarium i reprezentując nie tylko własne, ale również amerykańskie interesy w regionie, staje się automatycznie uczestnikiem poważnej geopolitycznej gry, ze wszystkimi, wynikającymi z tego faktu, konsekwencjami. Staje się również uczestnikiem niewypowiedzianej wojny hybrydowej, która co prawda nie jest inicjowana w ramach Intermarium, ale „niepostrzeżenie” obejmuje również kraje nie Międzymorza. I tak: Wojny ekonomiczne. Do prowadzonych w ramach wojny hybrydowej z USA i szerzej rozumianym Zachodem, działań o charakterze ekonomicznym z pewnością zaliczyć można inicjatywy Rosji związane z obejściem systemu gazociągów Ukrainy, za pomocą gazociągu Nord Stream I i II i związane z tym próby storpedowania tego przedsięwzięcia przez USA i Polskę (nie mówiąc o samej Ukrainie). W tej kategorii działań hybrydowych mieści się również próba budowy przez Rosję gazociągu South Stream, skutecznie zablokowanego w 2015 roku przez naciski USA, m.in. na Bułgarię. Jednak Rosja znalazła inne rozwiązanie dla swoich koncepcji gazowych, budując wspólnie z Turcją gazociąg Turkish Stream. A ostatnio przekonała nawet Bułgarię (która policzyła straty związane z blokadą South Stream) do budowy przez swoje terytorium łącznika pomiędzy gazociągiem tureckim, a systemem gazociągów w Europie Południowej i na Bałkanach. Wojny ekonomiczne z Rosją, toczące się na terenach krajów Intermarium dotyczą również kwestii izolacji systemów energetycznych tych krajów od rosyjskiego systemu przesyłu energii elektrycznej, zawirowań wokół budów elektrowni jądrowych, wzajemnych sankcji na towary eksportowe, itp. Wojny dyplomatyczne. Część państw leżących na obszarze Międzymorza ma złe, a nawet bardzo złe stosunki z Federacją Rosyjską. Objawia się to również w poziomie wzajemnych stosunków dyplomatycznych. Tworzone są „czarne listy” osób niepożądanych i sztucznie tworzone są problemy z

19 Trójmorze – międzynarodowa inicjatywa gospodarczo-polityczna skupiająca 12 państw Unii Europejskiej położonych w pobliżu mórz Bałtyckiego, Czarnego i Adriatyckiego. W skład grupy wchodzą: Austria, Bułgaria, Chorwacja, Czechy, Estonia, Litwa, Łotwa, Polska, Rumunia, Słowacja, Słowenia i Węgry. W ramach Trójmorza zapowiedziano m.in. powołanie Funduszu Trójmorza (podpisano w tej sprawie list intencyjny) oraz Sieci Izb Handlowych. Zaprezentowano także katalog wspólnych inwestycji w dziedzinach transportu, energetyki i cyfryzacji, które są wspólnym priorytetem państw Inicjatywy.

172 | S t r o n a wydawaniem wiz. Ma miejsce wzajemne „okładanie” się notami dyplomatycznym, co wiąże się np. z inną interpretacją faktów historycznych, nieakceptowanymi wypowiedziami polityków czy też z konkretnymi działaniami obu stron. Trwa wzajemne wydalanie dyplomatów oskarżanych o zachowania naruszające ich status, a w krańcowych przypadkach odwoływani są ambasadorowie. Napięcie w stosunkach dyplomatycznych między Rosją, a szeroko rozumianym Zachodem, miało miejsce w 2018 roku, kiedy po próbie otrucia byłego pułkownika KGB w Wielkiej Brytanii, państwa regionu przyłączyły się do akcji USA i Wielkiej Brytanii wydalania rosyjskich dyplomatów. Wojny informacyjne już toczone są na terenie Intermarium z dużą intensywnością. Obie skonfrontowane strony oskarżają się o ataki cybernetyczne na infrastrukturę informatyczną przeciwnika. Prowadzone są działania medialne mające wywrzeć wpływ na społeczeństwa krajów regionu. Moskwa przykłada dużo uwagi do aktywnych działań informacyjnych. Według byłego szefa Sztabu Generalnego, generała Jurija Bałujewskiego, w obecnych realiach na pierwszy plan wysuwa się właśnie konfrontacja informacyjna. „Zwycięstwo nad przeciwnikiem w tej wojnie może być o wiele ważniejsze niż zwycięstwo w klasycznej konfrontacji wojskowej, ponieważ jest bezkrwawe, a efekt jest uderzający, bezkrwawy i paraliżuje wszystkie władze państwa przeciwnika” – twierdzi Bałujewski. Podczas posiedzenia Dumy Państwowej 2 października 2017 minister obrony Siergiej Szojgu ujawnił, że w Rosji powstały Wojska Operacji Informacyjnych. Po tym wystąpieniu ministra, media dowiedziały się, że po raz pierwszy „walkę informacyjną” z prawdopodobnym przeciwnikiem ćwiczono już rok wcześniej, podczas ćwiczeń Kaukaz-2016 czyli na terenach sięgających bezpośrednio do Międzymorza. W ćwiczeniach tych zaangażowano I Zarząd Operacyjny Sztabu Generalnego, Wojska Operacji Informacyjnych i walki radioelektronicznej, ośrodki walki informacyjnej w okręgach wojskowych, a także specjalistów służby ochrony tajemnicy państwowej20. Rosja aktywnie wykorzystuje w swoich działaniach media i portale społecznościowe. Telewizja RT i radio Sputnik stworzone zostały według najlepszych zachodnich wzorców medialnych z pomocą amerykańskich firm consultingowych (np. firma Ketchum). Głośno jest o tzw. fabryce trolli21 ulokowanej na przedmieściach St. Petersburga. Utrzymanie tej jednej „fabryki trolli” kosztuje – jak oceniają rosyjscy dziennikarze śledczy –

20 V Rossii sozdany voyska informatsionnykh operatsiy, (31.12.2019). 21 „Trollowanie” (trolling) – antyspołeczne zachowanie charakterystyczne dla forów dyskusyjnych i innych miejsc w Internecie, w których prowadzi się dyskusje. Jego celem jest wywołanie gniewu lub skupienie na sobie uwagi użytkowników sieci. Osoby uprawiające „trolling” nazywane są „trollami”. Tzw. trolle internetowe i farmy kont, jako elementy wojen informacyjnych, tworzone są w celu siania dezinformacji i podgrzewanie debaty publicznej. S t r o n a | 173 kilka milionów dolarów rocznie. Na stronach opanowanych przez „trolle” widoczne są tendencje odpowiadające aktualnej tematyce mediów rosyjskich. Zachód, w tym kraje leżące na obszarze Międzymorza nie pozostaje obojętny na rosyjską aktywność informacyjną. Amerykańskie i europejskie think tanki organizują liczne konferencje i szkolenia, na które zapraszane są osoby związane z koncepcją Międzymorza z krajów całego regionu. W 2016 r. Grupa Analityczna Pentagon ds. Wojen Asymetrycznych (Asymmetric Warfare Group – AWG) opracowała Przewodnik po nowej generacji wojen rosyjskich. Ambitne zadanie nakreślone w preambule miało na celu systematyczny opis wojen hybrydowych, jako „wojen nowej generacji”, rosyjskich sił zbrojnych obecnej dekady, w celu ujawnienia osiągniętego poziomu i trendów rozwojowych poglądów doktrynalnych, strategii, sztuki operacyjnej i taktyki, broni i sprzętu wojskowego. Pod patronatem Strategicznego Dowództwa Transformacji NATO powstały 24 centra doskonalenia kompetencji, ustanowione w ciągu ostatniej dekady w wielu krajach członkowskich (w tym Military Police COE w Bydgoszczy). Kolejne 3 centra są w procesie tworzenia. W regionie Międzymorza, powstały trzy takie centra, które koncentrują się na opracowaniu hybrydowych strategii wojennych i przeciwdziałaniu zagrożeniom hybrydowym. I tak: w Estonii funkcjonuje centrum koncentrujące się na zagrożeniach cybernetycznych, na Łotwie – na komunikacji strategicznej (StratCom22) i na Litwie – na bezpieczeństwie energetycznym. Ten swego rodzaju łańcuch centrów doskonalenia działań hybrydowych, na północnych granicach Rosji, został niedawno uzupełniony o Europejskie Centrum Doskonalenia ds. Walki z Zagrożeniami Hybrydowymi, uruchomione w Helsinkach. Centrum ma na celu poprawę współpracy i koordynacji między UE i NATO, uogólnienie informacji wywiadowczych, opracowanie metodologii oraz przeprowadzanie eksperckich analiz i szkoleń w celu zwiększenia zdolności reagowania na zagrożenia hybrydowe. Centra zostały utworzone w celu zwiększenia orientacji sytuacyjnej kierownictwa NATO i UE, to znaczy do poprawy sposobu zrozumienia tego, co się dzieje, do zapewnienia możliwości sporządzenia prognozy i planu dalszych działań. Komisja Europejska powołała grupę wewnątrz EBU (Europejskiej Unii Nadawców), która ma zajmować się zwalczaniem rosyjskiej dezinformacji i propagandy zarówno tej występującej w Unii Europejskiej, jak i w Federacji Rosyjskiej. Z kolei na obszarze Partnerstwa Wschodniego utworzono zespół w

22 NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence (NATO StratCom COE). Jest to wielonarodowa organizacja wojskowa z akredytacją NATO, nie będąca jednak częścią struktury dowodzenia Sojuszu. Polska jest jednym ze współzałożycieli. Od czasu powstania, centrum jest jednym z wiodących ośrodków, budujących kompetencje w zakresie komunikacji strategicznej, w tym w walce z dezinformacją. W 2018 roku zrzeszała jedenaście krajów, a trzy kolejne finalizowały procedurę dołączenia. Zob. StratCom COE (31.12.2019).

174 | S t r o n a ramach Europejskiej Służby Działań Zewnętrznych, którego zadaniem będzie przeciwstawianie się propagandzie Rosji na obszarze państw tego Partnerstwa. Litwa, Dania, Estonia i Wielka Brytania wspólnie zaproponowały m.in. wspieranie wybranych rosyjskojęzycznych mediów i audycji, aby stworzyć alternatywę dla społeczności rosyjskojęzycznych korzystających dotąd z mediów kontrolowanych przez państwo rosyjskie. Natomiast Polska i Holandia zaproponowały w UE stworzenie rosyjskojęzycznego kanału telewizyjnego, by lepiej przeciwdziałać rosyjskiej propagandzie w mediach. Studium wykonalności dotyczące przeciwdziałania rosyjskiej propagandzie w mediach przygotował też Europejski Fundusz na rzecz Demokracji. Jednym z pomysłów proponowanych w studium wykonalności jest utworzenie agencji informacyjnej dla obszaru rosyjskojęzycznego. Eksperci sugerują też np. stworzenie „fabryki treści”, która zajmowałaby się produkcją medialną, a także funduszu, z którego wspierano by różne przedsięwzięcia i inicjatywy, takie jak np. działająca w Rydze gazeta internetowa Meduza, stworzona przez byłych dziennikarzy rosyjskiego portalu Lenta.ru. Konfrontacje o charakterze militarnym. Otwarty konflikt zbrojny w rejonie Międzymorza, jak już wspomniano wcześniej nie wchodzi w rachubę. Obecnie poważnym źródłem napięcia jest Ukraina, która stała się polem prowadzonej pomiędzy Rosją, a Zachodem swego rodzaju „proxy war”23. Po zajęciu Krymu Rosjanie militaryzują ten półwysep starając się stworzyć w jego rejonie strefę A2/AD24. Podobna strefa została stworzona wokół Kaliningradu. Amerykanie, z kolei postanowili zbudować trzy obiekty morskie na wybrzeżu Morza Czarnego w celu wykorzystania ich do rozpoznania, naprawy i konserwacji statków NATO oraz do organizowania ćwiczeń i przygotowania operacji rozpoznawczych. Kolejnym elementem konfrontacji o podłożu militarnym związane jest z tworzeniem strategicznej obrony przeciwrakietowej USA i NATO i rozmieszczeniem elementów obrony przeciwrakietowej w Rumunii i Polsce oraz opracowaniem koncepcji szybkiego globalnego uderzenia (Prompt Global Strike – PGS) opartego na niejądrowej broni o wysokiej precyzji i amunicji do dostarczania uderzeń z morza i kosmosu. Niebagatelne znaczenie dla regionu ma wycofanie się Rosji i USA z układu o ograniczeniu broni rakietowej średniego zasięgu. Potencjalne rozmieszczenie tych amerykańskich i rosyjskich

23 Wojna zastępcza (ang. proxy war) – rodzaj wojny, w której dwa lub więcej znajdujących się w konflikcie państw rozstrzyga spór nie za pomocą starć militarnych prowadzonych bezpośrednio na własnym terytorium, ale zastępczo za pomocą działań na terenie państwa trzeciego, a więc na terenie zewnętrznym, zastępczym. 24 Obszary anty-dostępowe A2/AD, obszary z rozwiniętymi elementami wojsk obrony przeciwlotniczej i przeciwrakietowej (ros. PWO/PRO), walki radioelektronicznej (ros. REB), wojsk rakietowych obrony brzegowej i innej infrastruktury (lotniska, dowództwa, składy, koszary, węzły łączności etc.). S t r o n a | 175 rakiet w regionie Intermarium, stanowiłoby dla tego regionu, w razie eskalacji napięcia na linii Moskwa-Waszyngton, poważne zagrożenie bezpieczeństwa. Podejmowane są również działania, które można zakwalifikować, jako pośrednie działania militarne. W ich ramach np. rosyjscy i natowscy instruktorzy wojskowi prowadzą szkolenia zwaśnionych stron w Donbasie, a nawet kierują operacjami wojskowymi. Do walk angażowani są najemnicy. Funkcjonuje jawne i „ciche” dozbrajanie walczących stron. Swego rodzaju symbolem sojuszu wojskowego w ramach Międzymorza jest Litewsko-Polsko- Ukraińska Brygada. LITPOLUKRBRIG jest wielonarodową jednostką, składającą się z pododdziałów Sił Zbrojnych Litwy, Polski i Ukrainy. Porozumienie o jej utworzeniu podpisano 19 września 2014 roku w Warszawie. Brygada ostatecznie uformowała się na jesieni 2015 roku25.

Hybrydowe zagrożenia Polski w kontekście jej zaangażowania w koncepcję Intermarium

Wg Matthew Czekaja z amerykańskiego think tanku Jamestown Foundation, „od początku kryzysu na Ukrainie Warszawa przoduje w Europie pod względem wspierania Kijowa w walce z Moskwą”26. Polska jest również motorem napędowym utworzenia współczesnego Intermarium. Tymczasem kwestia stworzenia kordonu sanitarnego wzdłuż zachodnich granic Rosji, z czym bezpośrednio w Moskwie wiąże się powstanie Intermarium, musi budzić w tym kraju reakcję i przeciwdziałanie, tym bardziej, że na Kremlu ciągle nie wygasły nadzieje na zbudowanie Europy od Lizbony do Władywostoku. Z uwagą śledzi się wszelkie poczynania nie tylko naszych władz i zaangażowanie USA, ale również wszelkie inicjatywy o charakterze społecznym, ekonomicznym czy naukowym dotyczące idei Międzymorza i jej wpływu na bezpieczeństwo Rosji. Z analizy publikacji na ten temat w rosyjskich, otwartych źródłach informacji wynika, że Kreml traktuje Intermarium, jako kolejną płaszczyznę konfrontacji w wojnie hybrydowej, jaką Stany Zjednoczone prowadzą wobec Rosji. Celem tej wojny jest, według Moskwy, osłabienie ekonomiczne i polityczne Rosji i pozbawienie jej ambicji wielkomocarstwowych. W tej sytuacji międzynarodowej Intermarium w proponowanym kształcie ma wszelkie szanse stać się nie tylko obszarem lokalnej konkurencji państw regionu, ale także kolejną areną zmagań mocarstw

25 Litewsko-Polsko-Ukraińska Brygada. LITPOLUKRBRIG jest wielonarodową jednostką, składającą się z pododdziałów Sił Zbrojnych Litwy, Polski i Ukrainy. Porozumienie o jej utworzeniu podpisano 19.09.2014 r. w Warszawie. Brygada ostatecznie uformowała się na jesieni 2015 roku, a pełną zdolność operacyjną uzyskała 24.01.2017 r. Dowództwo Brygady mieści się w Lublinie. 26 M. Czekaj, Russia’s Hybrid War Against Poland, Publication, “Eurasia Daily Monitor”. Vol. 12, Issue 80, April 29, 2015.

176 | S t r o n a jądrowych, z wszelkimi tego konsekwencjami dla naszego kraju. Wszystko to sprawia, że Polska jest logicznym celem rosyjskich działań hybrydowych. I chociaż wg M. Czekaja: „Polska nie ma żadnej znaczącej mniejszości rosyjskiej lub rosyjskojęzycznej i jest zbyt głęboko zakorzeniona w euroatlantyckiej architekturze bezpieczeństwa, aby oczekiwać, że prowadzona przeciwko niej hybrydowa wojna Moskwy może wkrótce przerodzić się w działania ‘zielonych ludzików’”27, to warto z pewnym wyprzedzeniem zastanowić się, jakie kontr-działania m.in. w związku z naszą inicjatywą Międzymorza, może podjąć Moskwa i jakie skutki mogą one mieć dla naszego kraju. Działania Moskwy wydają się mieć co najmniej trzy główne cele. Po pierwsze, Rosja chce zasiać zamieszanie, wątpliwości i lęk przed niestabilnością gospodarczo-polityczną w kraju poprzez propagandę medialną oraz cyberataki na instytucje rządowe i finansowe(potwierdzają to analizy CERT.gov.pl)28. Po drugie, stara się stworzyć w Polsce elity polityczne, które nie tyle będą wspierały politykę przyjazną Rosji (to byłoby skazane na niepowodzenie), ale swego rodzaju „piątą kolumnę”, która może w perspektywie wejść do parlamentu, a nawet stworzyć przyszły rząd, nawet pod hasłami antyrosyjskimi. Po trzecie, Moskwa stara się osłabić zdolność Warszawy do rozwijania pozytywnych stosunków z sąsiadami, aby przełamać zdolność regionu do kolektywnego przeciwstawienia się presji rosyjskiej. Tak więc, celem rosyjskiej wojny informacyjnej może być sianie nieufności i pogłębianie napięcia między Polską, a jej najbliższymi sąsiadami, co może przełożyć się na krach takich przedsięwzięć, jak koncepcja Międzymorza. Przykładowo, na początku 2015 r., anonimowe osoby stworzyły kilka stron na Facebooku poświęconych, tak zwanym lwowskim i wileńskim „republikom ludowym”. Zdjęcia umieszczone na górze obu stron przedstawiały uzbrojonych żołnierzy z polskimi insygniami, a obie strony wzywały do ogłoszenia referendów w sprawie wydzielenia obszarów większości polskiej na Litwie i Ukrainie i przyłączenia ich do Polski29. Wydawałoby się, na co zwraca uwagę M. Czekaj, że „plany Kremla są łatwe do rozpoznania i Warszawa z powodzeniem może podjąć skuteczne przeciwdziałanie”30. Jednak rozwój sytuacji wewnętrznej w Polsce zdaje się temu przeczyć. Ostatnie lata, to zdecydowana polaryzacja polityczna społeczeństwa. Odżywają animozje historyczne z okresu powojennego, a nawet sprzed II Wojny Światowej. Opozycja przestaje być przeciwnikiem politycznym, a wrogiem, którego należy całkowicie wyeliminować. A czyż nie

27 Ibidem. 28 CERT.GOV.PL, Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa cyberprzestrzeni RP w roku 2014, Warszawa 2015. 29 M. Czekaj, op. cit. 30 Ibidem. S t r o n a | 177 o to chodzi Kremlowi? Rozbicie wewnętrzne i skłócenie społeczeństwa, kiedy hasło „wszystkie ręce na pokład” dla tworzenia polskiej prosperity, zastępowana jest hasłem „im gorzej jest, tym lepiej”, musi doprowadzić do osłabienia kraju i zmarginalizowania jego znaczenia na arenie międzynarodowej. W tym miejscu warto przypomnieć słowa ministra obrony FR S. Szojgu, kiedy ogłaszał w rosyjskim parlamencie o utworzeniu Wojsk Operacji Informacyjnych i stwierdził m.in. „propaganda musi być mądra, kompetentna i skuteczna”. Oznacza to, że realizowane przez Moskwę operacje informacyjne, powinny być perfekcyjnie przygotowane z uwzględnieniem specyfiki teatru działań i prowadzić do osiągnięcia postawionych przez władze FR celów. A jeżeli takim celem jest wyeliminowanie z gry politycznej najbardziej zajadłego przeciwnika, to najlepiej zrobić to wykorzystując historycznie sprawdzone działania, które już raz doprowadziły do wymazania Polski z mapy Europy.

Zakończenie

Wojny hybrydowe faktycznie zmieniają dotychczasowy obraz konfrontacji międzypaństwowej, dostarczając skonfliktowanym stronom skutecznych narzędzi do strategicznego odstraszania (niejądrowego). Jak już wspomniano wyżej w wojnach tych wykorzystywane są wszelkie możliwe oddziaływania na przeciwnika od ekonomicznych i finansowych, poprzez informacyjne i dyplomatyczne do militarnych. Dodatkowo we współczesnych wojnach hybrydowych wykorzystywana jest tzw. technologia kontrolowanego chaosu. Polega ona na oddziaływaniu zarówno na świadomość pojedynczego człowieka, jak i na tzw. punkty wrażliwe (centra podejmowania decyzji), za pomocą całego systemu uzgodnionych, co do celu, czasu i miejsca przedsięwzięć, o charakterze psychologicznym, propagandowym, informacyjnym i innym. Cechy współczesnych konfliktów determinują treść misji wywiadowczych, które powinny zostać podjęte przez wszystkie rodzaje wywiadu (rozpoznania) w ramach przygotowań do wojny hybrydowej oraz w jej trakcie. W tych warunkach wiele uwagi należy poświęcić zwiększeniu efektywności pracy wywiadu – jako struktury zdobywającej informacje i dokonującej ich analiz – zdolnej do prowadzenia systematycznych prac, których celem jest przewidywanie działań wroga, ujawnianie na czas zagrożeń i sugerowanie sposobów ich przezwyciężenia. Natomiast wnioski wynikające z analiz niektórych historycznych operacji wywiadów, takich jak Intermarium, mogą być przydatne zarówno w szkoleniu oficerów wywiadu do pracy w warunkach zagrożeń hybrydowych, jak i przy tworzeniu nowych planów takich operacji.

178 | S t r o n a

BIBLIOGRAFIA:

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Międzynarodowych i Politycznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego”, Nr 1(2)2014  V Rossii sozdany voyska informatsionnykh operatsiy,  Wiliams P. L., Operation Gladio: The Inholy Aliance beteween the Vatican, the CIA, and the Mafia, Buffalo 2015

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III. REVIEWS

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem” 2019, Nr 2(13) DOI: 10.33674/201914

Przemysław FURGACZ Polska

SOUAD MEKHENNET, POWIEDZIELI, ŻEBYM PRZYSZŁA SAMA: ZA LINIĄ DŻIHADU, WYDAWNICTWO POZNAŃSKIE, POZNAŃ 2019, SS. 580

Souad Mekhennet to obywatelka Niemiec, dziennikarka śledcza i korespondentka specjalizująca się w popularnej od wielu dekad tematyce dżihadystów i różnej maści ekstremistów islamskich. Na przestrzeni ostatnich dwudziestu lat pisywała, robiła reportaże i przeprowadzała śledztwa dziennikarskie dla wielu słynnych gazet amerykańskich (Washington Post, New York Times), niemieckich (, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zaitung) i niemieckiej telewizji ZDF. Jej specyficzne pochodzenie, zakorzenienie zarówno w kulturze zachodniej, jak i arabskiej oraz biegła znajomość języków niemieckiego, arabskiego, francuskiego i angielskiego uczyniły z niej bardzo dobrą dziennikarkę w zakresie problematyki radykalnych ruchów islamskich. Pochodzi ona zarówno po mieczu, jak i po kądzieli wprost z rodziny proroka Muhammada. Jej przodkowie po stronie ojca wywodzą się ze zdeklasowanej i wyzutej z majątku przez francuskich kolonistów szlachty marokańskiej. Jej ojciec jest sunnitą. Z kolei jej matka jest Arabką szyickiego odłamu islamu wychowaną w południowej Turcji nieopodal granicy z Syrią. Pochodzenie od rodziny proroka oraz zrozumienie dla obu głównych odłamów islamu spowodowały, iż Souad Mekhennet nader łatwo nawiązać kontakty z ekstremistami islamskimi zarówno sunnickimi, jak i szyickimi. Wydana w zeszłym roku książka Powiedzieli, żebym przyszła sama: Za linią dżihadu jest dziennikarskim reportażem a zarazem autobiografią autorki. Liczy ona aż 580 stron – nie jest więc to pozycja na jeden wieczór – niemniej jednak autorka ma niewątpliwie dar pióra. Pisze na tyle intrygująco, że przebrnięcie przez 580 stron nie jest ani męczące, ani trudne. Książka wciąga, co jest jej dużą zaletą. Souad Mekhennet opisuje w niej swoje liczne, zazwyczaj niebezpieczne, przygody w świecie islamskim: próby nawiązania kontaktu z radykałami islamskimi, robienie wywiadów z przywódcami

182 | S t r o n a islamistów, wizyty w obozach dla uchodźców czy też w jeszcze mniej przyjemnych miejscach, jak np. katowniach egipskiego Muchabaratu, gdzie była świadkiem torturowania ludzi. Wielką zaletą autorki jest jej obiektywizm, neutralność, zdrowy dystans, bezstronność, próba zrozumienia wszystkich stron. Nie ukrywa ona swojego krytycznego stosunku do ekstremistów islamskich, wskazując na ich okrucieństwo, szowinizm w stosunku do kobiet, krótkowzroczność i upodobania w przemocy. Z jej obserwacji i doświadczeń wynika jednak, że za sporą część złego stanu, w jakim znajdują się państwa i społeczeństwa arabskie, odpowiada Zachód, szczególnie USA. Co więcej, podaje wiele autentycznych przykładów nieetycznych, niemoralnych czy wręcz głupich zachowań i decyzji powziętych chociażby przez amerykańskie służby specjalne czy amerykańskich przywódców politycznych. Rozkwit ruchów ekstremistycznych w łonie islamu jej zdaniem po części jest „zasługą” USA. Kilka historii, które opisuje jest szczególnie wymownych. Autorka osobiście badała sprawę Chalida el-Masriego, niemieckiego muzułmanina, który miał to nieszczęście, że uczęszczał co piątek do meczetu, w którym od czasu do czasu modły prowadzili radykalni mułłowie. CIA pomyliła Chalida el-Masri z fundamentalistą islamskim i dżihadystycznym radykałem Chalidem al-Masrim. I tak to Bogu ducha winny Chalid el-Masri został któregoś dnia porwany na zlecenie CIA, a następnie torturowany w różnych tajnych więzieniach CIA rozmieszczanych w państwach osławionych z nieprzestrze- gania praw człowieka. Po wielu miesiącach przetrzymywania w niewoli i znoszenia nieludzkich tortur wreszcie ktoś w CIA zrozumiał, że to była pomyłka, a agencja porwała, więziła i torturowała niewłaściwego człowieka. Tak oto Chalid al-Masri został zwolniony i wreszcie wrócił do rodziny, która przez cały okres jego gehenny poszukiwała go jako osobę zaginioną bez wieści. Niemiecki wywiad BND nie kiwnął w obronie swojego obywatela nawet palcem, mimo że wiedział o jego porwaniu i torturowaniu. Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych groziło autorce książki „poważnymi konsekwencji”, jeśli opublikuje artykuł o historii pechowego obywatela Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. Na tym historia Chalida al-Masriego się jednak wcale nie kończy. Próbował on szukać sprawiedliwości za wyrządzone mu ogromne krzywdy w USA, bez skutku. CIA wprawdzie używając bardzo eufemistycznego, wyłagodzonego języka przyznała w 2007 r. w swoim raporcie dla senackiej komisji ds. wywiadu, iż „brakowało wystarczających podstaw do schwytania i uwięzienia al-Masriego” (nawet tu przekręcając jego nazwisko), niemniej jednak nikt nie poniósł odpowiedzialności za tę dramatyczną dla Chalida el- Masriego i jego rodziny omyłkę, wynikającą z niedbalstwa, nierzetelności i głupoty CIA. Chalid el-Masri niesprawiedliwie naznaczony i napiętnowany jako „islamski ekstremista” nie mógł później już nigdzie znaleźć pracy. Uprzedzeni pracodawcy tak na wszelki wypadek nie zatrudniali go, co zmusiło go do nocowania w przytułkach dla bezdomnych. W 2012 r. Europejski S t r o n a | 183

Trybunał Praw Człowieka przyznał mu – jak się wydaje skromne i nieadekwatne w stosunku do wyrządzonych mu niegodziwości – odszkodowanie w wysokości 60 tys. euro. Finał tej historii jest jednak taki, że el-Masri, który wcześniej radykałem nie był, po wyrządzonych mu nikczemnościach i latach bezskutecznego dochodzenia sprawiedliwości faktycznie zbliżył się do radykałów. Przy czym trzeba podkreślić kolejność i chronologię wydarzeń. Najpierw było porwanie, uwięzienie, torturowanie i odmawianie sprawiedliwości, a potem dopiero ekstremizm. Nie na odwrót. Jeszcze bardziej tragikomiczny był omawiany przez reporterkę przypadek Laida Saidiego. Był on średniego szczebla pracownikiem w muzułmańskiej fundacji charytatywnej al-Haramain, w której od czasu do czasu prali pieniądze islamiści z niesławnej al-Kaidy. Któregoś dnia będąc na placówce w Tanzanii i nie mogąc dogadać się przez telefon z miejscowym interesantem w języku arabskim Laid Saidi przeszedł na krótko na angielski wypowiadając słowo „tyre”, co po angielsku znaczy „opona”. Podsłuchujący go pracownik amerykańskiej NSA źle zinterpretował to słowo jako „tayir”, co po arabsku oznacza „samolot”. W rezultacie tego nieporozumienia Laid Saidi został aresztowany i wydany amerykańskim służbom bezpieczeństwa na tortury. Znowu minęło wiele miesięcy zanim oficerowie CIA zorientowali się, że znęcają się nad niewinnym człowiekiem. I w jego wypadku nikt nie poniósł konsekwencji tej tragicznej w skutkach pomyłki. Kiedy indziej Souad Mekhennet razem ze swoim kolegą dziennikarzem z USA miała przeprowadzić wywiad z niebezpiecznym i wpływowym przywódcą organizacji islamistycznych w Algierii – niejakim Abdelamaleką Droukdelą. Gdy mieli się wybrać na spotkanie jej kolega dostał cynk, że szykuje się zamach na jego własne życie i absolutnie pod żadnym pozorem nie może spotkać się z Droukdelą, bowiem grozi mu śmierć. Nie było natomiast żadnej mowy o zagrożeniu dla życia autorki. Mimo wszystko, kierując się po części zapewne kobiecą intuicją, Mekhennet zrezygnowała z przeprowadzenia wywiadu. Później okazało się, że CIA śledziła obu dziennikarzy i liczyła na to, że Mekhennet nieświadomie doprowadzi agencję do miejsca przebywania Abdelmaleka Droukdeli w celu jego fizycznego wyeliminowania uderzeniem drona bądź operacją likwidacyjną zespołu komandosów. CIA nie chciała jednak, żeby w operacji śmierć poniósł amerykański obywatel. Ewentualna śmierć niemieckiej obywatelki pochodzenia arabskiego uznana została jednak za jak najbardziej akceptowalną i wartą podjęcia ryzyka. Ot, w Langley ktoś napisał scenariusz, w którym Souad Mekhennet przypadło grać rolę robaczka na haczyku wędki, którą zamierzano złowić szczupaka. Ciekawa jest też historia irackiego dyplomaty Ahmeda al-Aniego, który według administracji Busha miał się spotkać z Muhammedem Attą – który z kolei wedle Waszyngtonu był jednym z głównych zamachowców 11/9 – na kilka miesięcy przed tragicznymi zamachami. Autorka zadzwoniła do Ahmeda al-Aniego w Iraku. W trakcie rozmowy telefonicznej solennie ją zapewniał, iż

184 | S t r o n a wszystko to co mówią Amerykanie w tej sprawie jest kłamstwem. Nie powiedział jej jednak żadnych szczegółów. Miał to zrobić następnego dnia. Gdy dziennikarka stawiła się w jego domu okazało się, że nocą zamaskowani żołnierze amerykańscy przyszli i aresztowali Ahmeda al-Aniego. Odtąd ślad po nim zaginął. Jego wersji wydarzeń – jak można domniemywać podważającej wersję administracji Busha – świat już nie poznał. Nawiasem, te i podobne historie z CIA w roli głównej każą zadać pytanie, czy Donald Trump nie ma jednak racji, kiedy oskarża CIA i amerykańską społeczność wywiadowczą o niekompetencję, głupotę, zarozumiałość, arogancję, stronniczość i notoryczne polityczne intryganctwo. Autorka dużo miejsca poświęca w książce antagonizmowi sunnicko- szyickiemu, który dosłownie rozdziera świat islamski, generując od czasu do czasu tu i ówdzie krwawe konflikty. Dla niej, wychowanej w rodzinie sunnicko-szyickiej, w duchu tolerancji i poszanowania dla odmienności religijnych i etnicznych, ten antagonizm jest szczególnie bolesny, niepotrzebny i bezsensowny. Czytając książkę Mekhennet, można sobie zadawać pytanie czy w regionie Bliskiego Wschodu i Afryki Północnej jest jakiekolwiek ugrupowanie polityczne, które nie torturuje i nie prześladuje konkurencyjnych stronnictw. Odważna reporterka wiele uwagi w książce poświęca zagadnieniu werbowania do ekstremistycznych ruchów islamskich. Wspomina o indoktrynacji przyszłych dżihadystów od dziecka i o werbowaniu naiwnych nastolatków z muzułmańskich rodzin do ugrupowań fundamentalistycznych. Przedstawia losy muzułmanów z rozbitych rodzin, którzy trafili w macki radykałów. W książce nie brak przykładów uzmysławiających fakt, że w objęcia ekstremistów islamistycznych w Europie wpadają w przygniatającej większości młodzi muzułmanie z rozbitych rodzin. Autorka barwnie opisuje jej rozmowy z tzw. uchodźcami syryjskimi. Reporterka w interesujący sposób przedstawia kulisy wytropienia i zabicia zamachowca z Molenbeek. Przy okazji przedstawia sposób, w jaki francuska policja usiłowała oczernić ofiarę jej rajdu, próbując wmówić opinii publicznej, że zginęła w wyniku zdetonowania bomby, podczas gdy faktycznie została zastrzelona przez policję, mimo że chciała się oddać w jej ręce. Szczególnie ciekawym wątkiem w książce jest streszczenie rozmów, jakie reporterka przeprowadzała z koczującymi na dworcu kolejowym w Wiedniu imigrantami z krajów muzułmańskich. Znakomita znajomość języka arabskiego oraz różnych jego dialektów pozwoliła dziennikarce ustalić, że większość imigrantów, których spotkała w tamtym miejscu wcale nie pochodziła z Syrii, jak fałszywie podawali, lecz z innych państw arabskich. Wśród rozmówców był m.in. Algierczyk, który odsiedział połowę swojego życia w więzieniu za handel narkotykami i usiłowanie zabójstwa, czy zwolennicy ISIS, którzy uciekali do Europy nie z powodu prześladowań, ale z powodu dążenia do znalezienia dobrze płatnej pracy w którymś z zamożnych S t r o n a | 185 zachodnioeuropejskich państw. Dziennikarka nie ukrywa swojego rozgoryczenia i żalu do niemieckich polityków i mediów, których oskarża o wprowadzanie w błąd niemieckiej opinii publicznej licznymi nieprawdziwymi twierdzeniami, chociażby o tym, jakoby większość imigrantów szturmujących w latach 2015-16 granice Unii Europejskiej była dobrze wykształcona. Podsumowując, książka Souad Mekhennet jest kawałem solidnej reporterskiej roboty. Interesujących wątków, które porusza dziennikarka jest naprawdę wiele. Autorce udaje się zachować zdrowy dziennikarski dystans i obiektywizm. Wydaje się, że nie ukrywa ona niewygodnych faktów dla tych czy innych grup społecznych. Potrafi równie mocno krytykować Zachód, co świat islamu. Książkę można śmiało polecić wszystkim osobom zainteresowanym światem islamu, terroryzmem islamistycznym, kryzysem imigracyjnym i pokrewnymi zagadnieniami.

186 | S t r o n a

S t r o n a | 187

„Ante Portas – Studia nad Bezpieczeństwem”

2019, Nr 2(13)

DOI: 10.33674/201915

Wiktor MOŻGIN Polska

ANNA BAŁDYGA, ZNACZENIE EKSPORTU GAZU ZIEMNEGO W POLITYCE GOSPODARCZEJ FEDERACJI ROSYJSKIEJ, WYDAW- NICTWO WSBIP, OSTROWIEC ŚWIĘTOKRZYSKI 2019, SS. 287

Monografia naukowa dotykająca czynników wzrostu gospodarczego, a w szczególności rozwoju napędzanego przez eksport surowców, jest jedną z bardziej wyczekiwanych wśród badaczy zajmujących się tą tematyką. W tym kontekście obszar tematyczny pracy spełnia niejako podwójną rolę. Z jednej strony bardzo mocno akcentuje aspekty współczesnej teorii ekonomii, podejmując polemikę z ugruntowanym powszechnie poglądem na temat charakteru możliwych czynników wzrostu gospodarczego w XXI w. Powtórne wprowadzenie pod dyskusję czynników o charakterze surowcowym, wobec licznych przykładów z praktyki, potwierdzających tezę o przekleństwie bogactw naturalnych – mogło wydawać się zadaniem karkołomnym. Niemniej jednak autorka poradziła sobie z nim w sposób satysfakcjonujący. Monografia ma solidną podstawę teoretyczną, a poprawnie użyte metody badawcze i precyzyjne przedstawienie wzajemnych zależności badanych zjawisk oraz ich tła, pozwoliły na uzyskanie i zaprezentowanie wniosków podważających sceptycyzm współczesnych ekonomistów w kwestii roli surowców w rozwoju gospodarczym poszczególnych krajów. Fakt ten wpłynie na odświeżenie dyskusji w tym obszarze oraz nadanie badaniom naukowym nowego kierunku. W tym znaczeniu rola publikacji jest w zasadzie nie do przecenienia. Drugim aspektem wartym podkreślenia w obszarze podjętej w monografii tematyki, jest jej, chwilami uderzająca, aktualność i silny wpływ na szereg innych czynników. Eksport surowców energetycznych z Rosji jest głęboko związany z „antyliberalnym” modelem władzy państwowej w tym kraju, upolitycznieniem życia publicznego, bezpieczeństwem energetycznym państw Unii Europejskiej, globalną polityką klimatyczną oraz (a może przede wszystkim) z ogniskami zapalnymi i konfliktami zbrojnymi w różnych zakątkach współczesnego świata. Autorka monografii z dużą dozą sprawności porusza powyższe wątki, otwierając każdorazowo nową perspektywę rozumienia tematu i szerokie pole do dalszych rozważań. Jednocześnie jest w swym stylu pisania na tyle zdyscyplinowana, by zanadto nie odbiegać od

188 | S t r o n a głównego wątku, jakim jest wymiar gospodarczy eksportu rosyjskiego gazu, co jest wyraźnie podkreślone w pracy. Ta wielowątkowość oraz częste odwoływanie się do najnowszych wydarzeń, znanych raczej z przekazów medialnych niż z naukowych opracowań, czynią lekturę monografii dodatkowo interesującą. Badając temat autorka bardzo sprawnie korzysta z różnorodnych metod badawczych. Wybrane metody są użyte zgodnie z ich założeniami, a poszczególne fazy prezentowanych analiz mają poprawny przebieg. W pracy widać umiejętność właściwego doboru i selekcji materiałów źródłowych, logiczne wyprowadzanie wniosków oraz właściwe kojarzenie różnych aspektów problemu – charakterystyczne dla samodzielnych badaczy. Na wyróżnienie zasługuje wykorzystanie metod ekonometrycznych, w tym wektorowego modelu korekty błędem (VECM). Autorka nie tylko w przystępny sposób prezentuje, wieloetapowy proces analizy, lecz także poprzedza całą prezentację wyników wstępem, wskazującym na szerokie wykorzystanie wybranej metody w badaniu problematyki wpływu eksportu surowców na wzrost gospodarczy. Wstęp ten dopełnia wniosków z części badawczej. Oceniając tę publikację warto nadmienić szeroki dobór literatury w trzech językach, co pozwoliło zobiektywizować uzyskiwane informacje. Ma to szczególne znaczenie przy badaniu kondycji społeczno-gospodarczej Rosji – kraju, w którym wolność słowa oceniana jest bardzo słabo, a zjawisko autocenzury wśród dziennikarzy i naukowców jest dosyć powszechne. Autorka odwołuje się do szeregu tekstów źródłowych, w tym aktów prawnych, w ich oryginalnym brzmieniu. Wnioski z analizy materiałów zestawiane są z danymi statystycznymi, prezentowanymi przez uznane, w skali globalnej, ośrodki badawcze. Dają one jednoznaczne i wiarygodne rezultaty, poparte dodatkowo obszernie przytaczanymi publikacjami naukowymi. Zarzutem w tym punkcie mogłoby być wskazanie na dosyć szerokie, jak na standardy publikacji naukowej, wykorzystanie materiałów publicystycznych. Biorąc jednak pod uwagę wysoką aktualność tematyki oraz solidną podstawę naukową pracy, fakt wykorzystania publikacji dziennikarskich w monografii można uznać za ciekawostkę, dopełniającą prezentowanych analiz, bądź też swoisty kontrapunkt dla mocniej ugruntowanych publikacji naukowych. Przy czym należy mieć świadomość, że tak niedawne wydarzenia jak te opisywane w monografii – faktycznie nie doczekały się jeszcze naukowych opracowań. Język, użyty w monografii, ma charakter formalny. Słownictwo i wyrażenia fachowe, typowe dla prac o charakterze ekonomicznym, są prawidłowo używane. Autorka posługuje się nimi nie tylko świadomie, ale też i swobodnie, co świadczy o jej dojrzałości badawczej. Pomimo licznych zwrotów ekonomicznych, monografia jest pisana przystępnym językiem, ułatwiającym odbiór osobom nie mającym wykształcenia ekonomicznego. S t r o n a | 189

Kwestią zasługującą na osobną wzmiankę, jest dobór okresu badawczego (2000-2013). Z jednej strony jest on bardzo krótki, jak na standardy wybranej metody ekonometrycznej, czego autorka ma świadomość. Z drugiej, skomplikowana historia i sytuacja geopolityczna Rosji nie pozwalała wydłużyć badanego okresu ani o burzliwe lata 90. XX w. ani też o kolejne lata tj. 2014- 2019, w związku z radykalną zmianą sytuacji po aneksji Krymu. Jednak te niesprzyjające okoliczności oraz brak wyrazistych wyników w pierwotnych badaniach nie powstrzymały autorki. Rozszerzyła ona bowiem liczbę analizowanych czynników także o ropę naftową. Pozwoliło to pozytywnie zweryfikować postawione w monografii hipotezy badawcze. W tym miejscu należy wskazać niedoskonałość pracy, polegającą na braku, choćby skrótowego, przedstawienia charakterystyki rynku ropy naftowej w Rosji. W monografii autorka stawia 1 hipotezę główną oraz 4 pomocnicze. Wszystkie one sformułowane są w sposób prawidłowy. W toku pracy hipotezy te są kilkukrotnie weryfikowane przy wykorzystaniu odrębnych metod badawczych, co dodatkowo uwiarygadnia wyniki prezentowanych analiz. Pierwszy rozdział pełni rolę szerokiego wstępu teoretycznego do problematyki monografii. Odwołuje się do licznych przykładów współczesnej teorii ekonomii prezentując aktualne podejście ekonomistów nie tylko w kwestii zagadnienia czynników wzrostu gospodarczego czy teorii wzrostu napędzanego przez eksport. Autorka poszerza obszar badań teoretycznych m.in. o problematykę monopolu, własności surowców mineralnych czy też trwałego cofnięcia gospodarczego – co przy ograniczonej objętości publikacji, należy uznać za jej dodatkowy atut. Na pewno nie udało się zawrzeć dorobku badawczego na temat czynników wzrostu w sposób wyczerpujący, jednak autorka zestawia kluczowe teorie w sposób prawidłowy, co w rezultacie umożliwiło jej zrealizowanie celu, jakim było pokazanie aktualnego stanu wiedzy w prezentowanym zagadnieniu. Rozdział drugi miał za zadanie nakreślić tło społeczno-gospodarcze dla przedmiotu prowadzonych badań. Autorka podjęła się próby wyselekcjonowania głównych reform w Rosji w okresie badawczym, co stanowiło niełatwe zadanie. Poszczególne akty prawne prezentowane są w sposób logiczny i uporządkowany, ale też dosyć szczegółowy, jak na wątek poboczny w toku pracy. Zaprezentowano kondycję gospodarczą Rosji w pierwszych dwóch dekadach XXI w. oraz kondycję ekonomiczną kluczowego gracza na rynku gazu – Gazpromu. Całość wzbogacono o szczegółową analizę kondycji społecznej narodu rosyjskiego. Autorka z dużą dozą dociekliwości porównuje wartości poszczególnych wskaźników, wyrażających poziom życia i dobrobytu wśród Rosjan z wartościami ich odpowiedników dla krajów Europy Zachodniej. Atutem tego rozdziału jest połączenie i całościowa interpretacja prezentowanych wątków. Trzeci rozdział jest prezentacją wyników analizy badawczej. Wstęp do rozdziału stanowi opis metody i przykłady jej zastosowania w badaniu wpływu

190 | S t r o n a eksportu surowców na wzrost gospodarczy innych krajów, co w znacznym stopniu uwiarygadnia metodę badawczą obraną przez autorkę. Opis metody jest precyzyjny i klarowny, co powoduje, że nawet osoby mniej biegłe w temacie budowy modeli ekonometrycznych mogą przyswoić i zrozumieć ten aspekt pracy. Zarówno dobór metody jak i prezentacja wyników analizy – są prawidłowe. Autorka uzyskuje pierwotnie niejednoznaczne rezultaty, jednak wzbogacenie badań o dodatkowy czynnik, jakim jest eksport ropy naftowej, pozwoliły na dobitne potwierdzenie stawianych we wstępie hipotez badawczych. Podsumowując, część badawcza pracy stanowi najcenniejszy element monografii, jest również bazą do dalszych badań i rozważań naukowych, w tematyce czynników wzrostu gospodarczego. Kolejny, czwarty rozdział ukazuje perspektywę Unii Europejskiej – głównego odbiorcy gazu z Rosji. Autorka podejmuje się analizy kierunków dostaw, form surowca oraz formuł cenowych, według których kraje europejskie zaspokajają swoje rosnące zapotrzebowanie na gaz ziemny. Szczególną wagę przykłada do krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, które bardzo często są niemalże całkowicie uzależnione od dostaw surowców energetycznych. W tym rozdziale bardzo wyraźnie zarysowują się elementy praktyk monopolistycznych Gazpromu, działania liberalizacyjne organów Unii Europejskiej, handel energią w ramach UE oraz próba zastąpienia w gospodarce tradycyjnych paliw kopalnych przez odnawialne źródła energii. Autorka zarysowuje pozycję i postępy Polski we wszystkich tych aspektach, akcentując trudności negocjacyjne w zakresie kontraktów z Gazpromem. Ciekawym wątkiem pobocznym, zasługującym na wyróżnienie, jest ukazanie alternatywnego kierunku dostaw gazu do Azji. Duże zapotrzebowanie Chin na surowce i rosnące możliwości ekonomiczne tego kraju powodują, iż w niedalekiej przyszłości Europa może stracić swój priorytetowy charakter, jako główny odbiorca rosyjskiego gazu. Jest to dodatkowy walor pracy. Ostatni, piąty rozdział, stanowi zebranie i ewaluację wszystkich dotychczasowych wniosków z prezentowanych analiz. Autorka nie poprzestaje na oszacowaniu roli eksportu gazu ziemnego w polityce gospodarczej Rosji, aktywnie poszukując alternatywnych czynników wzrostu. Ukazuje aktualny obraz innych gałęzi gospodarki, opartych o nowoczesne technologie, a które jeszcze kilka dekad temu należały do czołówki światowej, prezentując wysoki poziom i prestiż. Część prezentująca wnioski końcowe została świadomie rozdzielona na te, dotyczące polityki gospodarczej Rosji w najbliższych latach oraz na rekomendacje dla Polski, jako partnera gospodarczego Rosji oraz potencjalnego eksportera surowców na dużą skalę. Ponadto autorka zarysowuje szczegółowy plan i wytycza obszary do dalszych badań na tematem, co stanowi kolejną, bardzo dużą wartość dodaną publikacji. Reasumując, tematyka monografii o ważkim znaczeniu dla ekonomistów zajmujących się międzynarodowymi stosunkami gospodarczymi, stanowi bazę i przyczynek do dalszych badań, rzucających światło na pytania frapujące S t r o n a | 191 wielu ekspertów. Wszystko to stanowi o wysokiej ocenie merytorycznej oraz wartości naukowej niniejszej publikacji.

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