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How Has the Phenomenon of Revolutionary Groups Been Resilient in Greece? a Relational Study of Two Contentious Episodes (1965 – 2002)

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How Has the Phenomenon of Revolutionary Groups Been Resilient in Greece? a Relational Study of Two Contentious Episodes (1965 – 2002) How Has the Phenomenon of Revolutionary Groups Been Resilient in Greece? A Relational Study of Two Contentious Episodes (1965 – 2002) Sotirios Karampampas Department of Politics University of Sheffield A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2017 Acknowledgements If life is a journey, then PhD is a remote island in a wild ocean. It is a solitary trip in yourself and the great world that stands beside you ready to be discovered. This trip would have been, though, impossible without the help and active support of a number of people that deserve to be named as the least sign of gratitude. First, I want to thank my supervisors, Prof. Maria Grasso, Dr Liza Stampnitzky and Dr Rhiannon Vickers. Maria has been a great inspiration throughout the process, as through her advice, guidance and comments contributed significantly to this work. Besides, through her general attitude and mentality made me want to become better as a researcher and academic. Lisa was there in the final stages of the PhD, providing highly-appreciated feedback and helping me to (re)gain a macro-level perspective to the whole project. Finally, Rhiannon provided great feedback and support during the first two crucial years of this project. Thank you all for the great support. I also want to thank those that helped with all their “paddling” to keep me and this project afloat. A big thanks, then, (in order of appearance…) to Martha, Hisham, Giannis, Dimitris and Andreas that managed to make my life in Sheffield easier. A huge thanks goes to my family: my mother, my father and my sister that believed in me, even in times – especially for those – that I did not. Finally, I want to thank Bekky. I and this PhD would not have been the same without her. Thank you for all the small and big miracles in my life… Abstract This thesis addresses a major issue in contentious politics. Why are revolutionary groups resilient in Greece? Greece has experienced regular instances of political violence in the past decades – from low-level phenomena, such as vandalisms, riots and clashes with the police, to high-level occurrences, such as the operation of clandestine groups. Particularly critical has been the rise of a series of revolutionary groups from the 1960s onwards. Identified as clandestine left-wing groups that organise underground and use violent methods to disrupt the political system and cause radical political change, revolutionary groups have been one of the most enduring challenges faced by the modern Greek state. By employing mixed methods for a deep analysis of the phenomenon’s causes in Greece, this thesis shows how the emergence of the revolutionary groups can be traced back in the military junta’s era (1967 – 1974) – making Greece the oldest and most protracted case of revolutionary violence in Europe, and one of the most resilient globally. To trace the phenomenon, this thesis follows a relational analytical approach (McAdam, Tarrow and Tilly 2001; Alimi, Demetriou and Bosi 2015) that emphasises the role of mechanisms and posits the content of interactions as key to the understanding of groups’ violence. Based on a comparative design across generations of armed groups and the study of their communiqués, this research provides a detailed analysis of the mechanisms that facilitated the radicalisation process of two different revolutionary groups: the Revolutionary Popular Movement (LEA) (1965 – 1974) and the Revolutionary Organisation November 17 (17N) (1975 – 2002). By combining a process-oriented approach with an analysis of the groups’ collective action frames and framing strategies, this thesis traces the similarities and dissimilarities of the two contentious episodes, revealing the recurring mechanisms that triggered the revolutionary groups’ emergence, resilience and decline in Greece. List of Most Important Abbreviations 17N: Revolutionary Organisation November 17 1MA: Organisation 1 May 20Oct: 20 October Movement 29M: 29 May Movement ARF: Aris – Rigas Feraios CCF: Conspiracy of the Cells of Fire CPA: Contentious politics approach CTS: Critical terrorism studies DA: Democratic Defense DOC: Dynamics of contention DYL: Democratic Youth Lambrakis EAT-ESA: Special Interrogation Unit of the Military Police EDA: United Democratic Left EEC: European Economic Community EK: Centre Union EKIN: Greek-European Youth Movement EKKE: Revolutionary Communist Movement of Greece ELA: Revolutionary Popular Struggle EMEP: Society for the Study of Greek Issues ERE: National Radical Union FEA: Student Committees of Struggle J78: Group June 1978 KKE: Greek Communist Party KKE-ES: Greek Communist Party-Interior KYP: Central Intelligence Service LEA: Popular Revolutionary Resistance LMAT: Lumpen Grand Bourgeois Class MAT: Unit for the Restoration of Order ND: New Democracy O80: Revolutionary Organisation October 1980 PAM: Patriotic Antidictatorship Front PAK: Panhellenic Liberation Movement PASOK: Panhellenic Socialistic Movement RF: Rigas Feraios RS: Revolutionary Struggle SMT: Social movement theory 8 Content list List of Figures and Tables ...................................................................... 13 Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................... 15 1.1 Background of the Thesis ......................................................................... 15 1.2 Scope of the Thesis ................................................................................... 18 1.3 Outline of the Thesis ................................................................................. 20 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ................... 22 2.1 Theories of Contentious Collective Action .............................................. 23 2.1.1 Terrorism studies ....................................................................................... 23 2.1.2 Social Movement Theory (SMT) ............................................................... 26 Schools of thought ..................................................................................................... 26 Frame theory .............................................................................................................. 28 Frames and political opportunities ............................................................................. 31 Approaches on political violence ............................................................................... 36 2.1.3 Contentious Politics Approach (CP) .......................................................... 38 Dynamics of Contention ............................................................................................ 38 Relational approach to radicalisation ......................................................................... 44 2.1.4 Contribution of SMT and CP to the Study of Political Violence .............. 48 2.2 The Study of Contentious Politics and Revolutionary Groups in Greece 50 2.3 Theoretical Framework............................................................................. 54 Chapter 3: Methodology and Data ......................................................... 61 3.1 Research Design and Case Selection ........................................................ 62 3.2 Methods .................................................................................................... 65 3.2.1 Frame Analysis .......................................................................................... 65 3.2.2 Mechanism-Based Process Tracing ........................................................... 67 3.2.3 Methodological Contributions ................................................................... 70 3.3 Data Collection and Analysis ................................................................... 70 3.3.1 Data Collection .......................................................................................... 70 3.3.2 Data Analysis ............................................................................................. 72 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework Chapter 4: The Context of Radicalisation .............................................. 77 4.1 From the Civil War to the “Stunted” Democracy..................................... 78 4.2 The Junta and the Antidictatorship Struggle ............................................ 89 4.2.1 Hard-Line Phase and the First Wave of Antidictatorship Struggle (1967 – 1969) ................................................................................................................... 94 4.2.2 Phase of Limited Reforms and the Second Wave of Antidictatorship Struggle (1969 – 1972) ....................................................................................... 98 4.2.3 Liberalisation Phase and the Third Wave of Antidictatorship Struggle (1972 – 1973) .............................................................................................................. 101 4.2.4 Repression Phase and the End of the Junta (1973 – 1974) ...................... 105 4.3 The Early Metapolitefsi (1974 – 1981) .................................................. 106 4.4 The Intermediate Metapolitefsi (1981 – 1990) ....................................... 121 4.4.1 The Era of PASOK’s Dominance (1981 – 1985) .................................... 122 4.4.2 The Era of PASOK’s Decline (1985 – 1990) .......................................... 128 4.5 The Late Metapolitefsi (1990 – 2002) .................................................... 132 Chapter 5: The Popular Revolutionary
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