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Home , Kristian Birkeland, Sam Eyde

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VOLKER HESSEL1*, QI WANG1, JUERGEN LANG2 *Corresponding author 1. Micro Flow Process Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands 2. Innovation Management, Verfahrenstechnik & Engineering, Evonik Technology & Infrastrukture GmbH, Hanau, Germany

Volker Hessel

Innovation management in the Belle Epoque How plasma went commercial in 1903

KEYWORDS: Plasma, innovation management, N-fixation, , Birkeland-Eyde process, Industrial history.

This article features a historic industrial development concerning chemical synthesis of nitric acid from Abstract , the Birkeland-Eyde process, which was started up in 1903. The whole development was done at great technological risk and also at the financial risk of having not enough backup by investors. It is a truly systemic development which needed a full team with different skills. In a similar way, networking was needed to ensure to have investors supporting the costly development and scale-up. Already at that time, this was a multinational initiative and an ad-site evaluation of a multi-headed expert team gave the final decision. The decision, while aiming at thorough technological check, was finally guided by the motivation and interaction capability of the developers. Thus, the human factor was finally decisive in a complex systemic development. This historic recap provides a nice learning curve as well for today’s innovation management.

BUSINESS CASE IN THE BELLE EPOQUE and so more food could be provided. The expenditure spent on food decreased from 60% in 1850 to 10% in 2009 (relative Innovation management is not an invention of our modern to total income). times, yet it virtually began with the industrial revolution. The In order to activate the inert molecule nitrogen for above time before World War I has been glorifi ed as Belle Epoque mentioned N-fi xation reactions, typically catalytic high- (1870-1914). Around the turn of the second-last century temperature processes are needed which is demanding in (1900), the industrialization of chemistry had just begun a many aspects and last not least on the construction materials. few decades ago and awaited still its greatest processes The activation energy may well be provided in another kind, to come. Chemical companies of the fi rst hour like the by use of a plasma. Plasma is commonly called the fourth Farbwerke vorm. Meister Lucius & Brüning AG (the later state of matter, being an ionized gas with free electrons. Hoechst Company) and the Badische Anilin- und Soda- Plasma can be high temperature (arcs) or low temperature. Fabrik (later BASF) grew considerably in those years into the The latter is particular interesting as the bulk phase can be dimension which is now familiar to us. kept at low temperature while the electrons may A particular interesting industrial history chapter have several thousand degrees is concerned with the so-called Celsius and are correspondingly N-fi xation, the conversion of reactive. nitrogen from air to ammonia and to NOx/nitric acid to give The early attempts of Birkeland (ammonium nitrate). and Eyde After the turn of the 1900 century, After the fi rst Cyanamide-based this changed the world and the processes (most well known is Haber-Bosch process become the Frank-Caro process) were the most widely used industrial developed to fi x atmospheric process for ammonia making. nitrogen in the late turn of the The provision of large amounts eighteenth century, a very fi rst of fertilizers on a bulk-industrial plasma process was settled scale has considerably in 1902 by the Atmospheric contributed to the growth of Air Products Co (USA). This mankind. From that point onwards, a faster population growth constitutes the fi rst large scale production initiative applying happened, as the cereal yield of soils was much improved electric arcs. Since hydroelectric power was at that time the

78 Chimica Oggi - Chemistry Today - vol. 34(1) January/February 2016 only way to satisfy the high energy demand of an industrial- – he gave enthusiasm to the staff so that they were working scale plasma, it is not surprising that the company was really hard and with passion. He also brought in foreign operated in Niagara Falls. The process failed due to too low experts as advisors. This engaged engineering team play had yield and too high power costs. The company got bankrupt. a vital role in documenting the results and developing the In 1903, a second trial on industrializing plasma technology for project to an industrial scale. means of N-fixation was started in Europe. This finally led to the first industrial process for N-fixation, the Birke-Eydeland process. Teamwork is the key The Birke-Eydeland process is a good example for innovation Yet, with giving credit to the inventors and their team of management. It exemplifies the fear to undergo a risky and engineers, we make a simplified picture of how innovation costly decision, yet it stands also for a glorious team which management really happens (Figure 2). It would ignore finally had the willingness to do so and made a quite unusual completely the indispensable financial side. In the autumn and unique industrial process possible. In this sense, this process of 1903, and the Swedish industrialist Knut Tillberg, stands in the authors’ view for “Belle Epoque”. Especially in searched for investors and found interest both in Germany our current times, of cutting costs in Europe and somewhat and Sweden. Within a very few months, two Swedish investors, exhausted Asian markets, it would be good to restore that the half-brothers Knut and Marcus Wallenberg, joined positive spirit to allow us to undertake the endeavors which are the project. This led to the establishment of the company needed for good future. Thus, let us recap what happened in Elektrokemisk–Elkem, which is now a major international 1903 and the time after. supplier of metals and materials. The Swedish Enskilda Bank of (1867–1917) and Sam Eyde (1866–1940) provided the financial backening. were Norwegian citizens. This had to be so as plasma energy demands for provision of reliable high-energy sources and at that time only a country rich in strong waterfalls could guarantee that. was undoubtedly the ideal place for that. Birkeland was, in a way, the brain and the inventor of the whole project. He developed the plasma process not only on a lab scale, but also managed to construct the large electric coils which were finally used for the production. He was seven SYSTEMIC times nominated for the Nobel Price (in ) without finally getting it, which must have been a torture for his psyche. Seven times the hope, seven times the disappointment. Einstein had virtually same fate, but finally with the triumph to get the ultimate scientific award which Birkeland never received.

Figure 2. Teamwork towards a systemic solution and networking was needed already in 1903 to constitute an industrial process.

Early attempts were made in the basement at the Royal Frederik’s University in Christiania. The need to have access for more power in May 1903, moved the trials to a warehouse at the Frognerkilen Fabrik. Here, an arc flame of a diameter of 55 cm and a load of 45 KW was ignited. To get access to even more power, a new pilot station was built right next to the power station Christiania Elektricitetsværks sekundærsatsjon, which meant receiving high-voltage power to the oven directly from the hammer power plant in Maridalen. At the Figure 1. Evenstad power station Vassmoen, in the vicinity of , the method was fully developed from 1904 onwards. The Kristian Birkeland Sam Eyde first full industrial scale for the Birkeland-Eyde process was Source: https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkeland-Eyde-prosessen developed in the pilot plant at Vassmoen.

Investment negotiations Eyde was the electrical engineer, and in a way the pragmatist Eyde negotiated meanwhile with the management of BASF and ‘locomotive’ of the whole project. He was the one in Germany. This was quite natural, as they had an overlap who had to assemble the whole process and plant around in business interests with BASF being on its way to a leading the plasma reactor core part. He had to ensure that the fertilizer company. In modern words, one would assign them hydrostatic energy found its way to the plasma reactor in as the ‘technology leader’. In that time, they were on their an efficient manner. Engineer Eyde had not only acquired way of inventing their Haber-Bosch process (1908-1912). Still, rights to develop waterfalls, he also ran a highly successful scaling up was difficult because of mechanical constraints of engineering firm. In 1903 Birkeland and Eyde signed an the reactor material under the high-pressure conditions applied agreement and conducted experiments in Christiania (now at high temperature. Thus, there must have been an interest in ). Other engineers were needed for the chemical trials. alternative solutions of N-fixation at that time. Yet, despite some Eyde was also a great motivator and thus ideal team leader visits between BASF researchers and Birkeland/Eyde, finally

Chimica Oggi - Chemistry Today - vol. 34(1) January/February 2016 79 this did not result in a contractual agreement. The plasma Alike today banks can function as investor if they realise a big technology was clearly a high-risk technology. There was likely margin in a risky development. Sights were set on the French some if the courageous Norwegians could really make their bank, Paribas (Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas). final achievement. Accordingly, it was concluded that the arc With the step in of Paribas, the discussion turned from a technical method was still too uncertain to warrant risking a substantial roundtable to a business plan presentation. Yet, we should amount of capital. not forget there was no email and even phone connections Is this not like today? Promising negotiations find an end, might not have been sufficient to do anything alike a telecon. sometimes abrupt and out of a sudden, without anyone later Therefore, it was needed to meet each other. A 12-man teamed knowing why. The famous Japanese movie Rashomon showed Paribas Banque Commission visit was held by 14.07.1905. This was us that one storyline can have seven ways of interpreting it. in fact a commission of top league experts in industry, chemistry Technology belief – on an industrial scale – is by no means trivial. and agronomics. One should not forget that airplane lights Publication even of lab-scale achievements in peer-reviewed were commercial only about 15 years later. Going from France journals typically finds different referee judgements. If to that is to Norway was a long trip and not just a question of one or two added the risk of million investments, the tendency to reject is days alike today. simply very lowe. The Paribas visit went rather like a visit from external examiners The developments in than being a critical assessment. Norway nonetheless went From the start on it was clear to on. , in the south anyone involved that they had of Norway, was chosen as to make a good impression, to the site for taking the leap document that the factory could from laboratory to factory. produce a sufficient amount of A hydroelectric power nitric acid, and thus simply show station was built there in 1901 that all was up to expectations. and the nitrate company The commission somehow came Notodden Salpeterfabriker AS to the same conclusion as BASF. It was established in 1904. The was just difficult to predict if such experiments continued, but a risky development might come preparation had meanwhile to a good end. One should not been made for the gas forget chemical engineering as absorption facility - two rows a discipline emerged much later of sandstone and a ten-meter and an industrial process design granite tower filled with quartz. and detailed engineering did In this way,more than 500 kilos virtually not exist. nitric acid per kilowatt year The French bank commission could be produced. The first asked Birkeland and Eyde to production began then in ensure two issues they regarded Notodden on May 2, 1905, with to be essential. around 100 workers employed 1) To have secured favorable at the factory. Three arc hydroelectric power rights furnaces were used, each at and to be clear about capital 520 kW. / operational costs and the From the first moment, electric arc furnace. dissemination was 2) To have the chemistry accompanying the production. evaluated – the value of the By November 19 1905, professor fertilizer was indubitable so that Otto Witt at the Technical this may finally have pushed the University in presented decision. As recommendation Figure 3. Arc furnace (left) and acid adsorption towers of and discussed the process. By granite (right). was given that the absorption December 5 1905, the process system could be further Source: http://www.notoddenhistorielag.no/index was published in Norway in two php?page=lysbueovnen improved. lectures; Birkeland gave a talk I find fascinating how the Paribas at the National Academy and Banque Commission finally Eyde at the Polytechnic Association. Three days earlier the quoted: “However we feel unable to complete our work without Norwegian Hydro-electric Company Kvælstofaktieselskab pointing out the fertile innovation, the exceptional enterprise was founded in Christiania. and the opportune boldness the authors of this process, their employees and investors.” They point at the fascination of The Paribas bank step-in – the door-opening to industrial technology as “enterprise” and finally give their credits and dimensions belief to the human factor. Instead of today’s risk analysis, the There was still a lot of doubt what the investors were to expect key to debottlenecking at that time was – trust. from the Notodden plant. “Isn’t it an experimental unit?” Thus, the brave bankers from Paris finally decided for the asked a local newspaper in September 24, 1904. 26-year-old Norwegian wonder project. The Wallenberg brothers paved the construction engineer Sigurd Kloumann answered bravely. “No, way for securing the French capital. The Wallenbergs, Tillberg it’s a factory.” The Norwegians still needed another even bigger and Eyde travelled to Paris at the end of August, and returned investor. France was alike Germany a superpower at that time. home with NOK 2.5 billion (EUR 300,000 at 2003 exchange rate).

80 Chimica Oggi - Chemistry Today - vol. 34(1) January/February 2016 Plasma technology at industrial scale Core of the industrial technology was an alternating current arc struck between -cooled copper electrodes which is deflected by a powerful applied in a direction at right angles to that containing the electrodes. The arcs formed across the shortest air space are driven outwards in the form of a semicircle until their resistance becomes so great that they are extinguished, or until the direction of the current changes so that the arcs are directed to the other side. The result is a disc of electric flame or an electric “ ”. Alphonse Mucha In the winter months of 1906 also experiments with with BASFs competitive arc furnace (developed by Otto Schönherr) were for an ammonia process at lower pressure. This failed and the undergone, but finally given up. pilot project was closed down in 1924. In 1927 the Norwegian Hydro finally had to go over to the Haber-Bosch process and The emerge and vanishing of the Birkeland-Eyde plasma enter into a partnership with IG Farben. The German chemistry process until the thirdies giant took over 25 percent of the shares in Hydro. A new In Notodden by 1906 a larger factory was built and the Norwegian Hydro plant was installed in Herøya by 1929 that operational start was by October 2, 1907. 32 light arc in the course of the 1930s started to produce fertilizer. The furnaces were installed, each of 1000 HP (750 kW). The Birkeland-Eyde ovens were in use in Notodden until April 7, 1934, electricity was supplied from a waterfall power station that and in until the spring of 1940. was built at the same time with the factory. After some initial adjustment problems the factory was in full operation from 1908 onwards. CONCLUSIONS The Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas finally had to allocate much more money than initially planned - not only for the It was the Belle Epoque – a shear endless series of making Birkeland-Eyde process, but also for some other similar cases things better and better. So many landmarks were achieved with companies from Russia. In each case, they were drawn such as the construction of the Eiffel tower which some into an industrial adventure by external initiatives and had critics predicted to fall down, the first world expositions which no real control over management decisions. Then, they had seemed to show ever-growing prosperity, and more of such to take the charge over with industrial restructuring of the technological and economical miracles. Ships went ever firms. The consequence of these difficulties was a profound larger and faster. Yet, with the sinking of the Titanic a first distrust by the top management at Paribas towards other warning to the simple technological euphoric was given. future industrial investments. Already in 1905, Director The World War then brought all to an end that the greatest Dupasseur said “… I will never try to persuade my board pessimist could not foresee. to start a new one.”, denoting a new industrial investment The Birkeland-Eyde process did not last long. It remains a case. The share of industrial investments of Pariba’s portfolio curiosum in the history of chemical industry. The low energy went down to 11% by 1913. efficiency finally gave other processes the advance. In the The Birkeland-Eyde process never got any commercial 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a success outside of Norway, although license rights were sold combination of the and the Ostwald process. overseas after the oven technology was fully developed Yet, one thing the Birkeland-Eyde process has given the by the development of the new industrial facility ‘Rjukan II’ world for sure. The belief in the magic and power of industrial in 1912. Main reason is that the Birkeland-Eyde process was achievements despite all hindrances and resistance. very energy-intensive and needs facile access to the cheap electric power. By 1926, the plasma arc process required in average 61,000 kWh to produce 1 tonne of fixed nitrogen, REFERENCES while the competing Frank-Caro process required 12-14,000 kWh and the Haber-Bosch process only required 4000 kWh for the same job. 1. Makoto Kasuya (Ed.), Coping with Crisis: International Financial Institutions in the Interwar Period, Eric Bussiere: The French ‘Banques In 1913, the year after the Birkeland-Eyde-oven was fully d’affaires in the interwar period: The case of Banque de Paris et developed, the by far more effective Haber-Bosch process des Pays Bas (Paribas), Fuji Business History Series, Oxford University was opened at the Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik in Oppau/ Press, 2003. Ludwigshafen (Germany). In 1926, only 6% of all fixed nitrogen 2. G. J. Leigh, The world’s greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and was produced by the Birkeland-Eyde process. The remaining agriculture. Oxford University Press US. 2004, 134–139. production was 24% through the Frank-Caro process and 70% 3. K. Fisher. W.E. Newton. G. J. Leigh, at the through the Haber-Bosch process. In the 1920 ‘s, the Norwegian millennium, Elsevier, 2002. Company Hydro's share of the world’s total fertilizer production 4. http://yara.com/about/history/1900-1905/procject_of_calibre.aspx was no more than between one and two percent. 5. http://nitrogen.atomistry.com/arc_processes.html The Norwegian Hydro Company had through its cooperation 6. https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkeland-Eyde-prosessen 7. https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland with BASF an option on the Haber-Bosch method. In 1913, the 8. http://www.notoddenhistorielag.no/index.php?page=lysbueovnen Board decided not to accept this offer. As part of the settlement 9. http://www.google.com/patents/WO2012150865A1?cl=en after World War I the French State secured the Haber-Bosch 10. http://people.idsia.ch/~juergen/haberbosch.html process and wanted a partnership with Norwegian Hydro 11. http://www.agro.basf.com/agr/AP-Internet/en/content/Blog/Blog_ about the industrial exploitation of the process. In the 1920s the Archive/31_-_a_new_century_in_agriculture_the_haber_bosch_ Norwegian Hydro rejected that offer, while themselves searching process

Chimica Oggi - Chemistry Today - vol. 34(1) January/February 2016 81 Connecting Global Competence

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