CONTENTS

Preface ...... ix Introduction ...... 1 Part I: Background and Education ...... 11 1At the 19th Century’s E n d...... 11 1.1 Union of Norway and Sweden ...... 11 1.2 The Royal Frederik University in Kristiania ...... 12 1.3 Early Investigation of the Aurora and Geomagnetism ...... 13 2 ANew Abel ...... 17 2.1 The Birkeland Family ...... 17 2.2 High School and University Education ...... 19 2.3 Postgraduate Research in France, Switzerland, and Germany .... 22 Part II: Geomagnetic and Solar System Research ...... 27 3 Aurora inaVacuum Chamber ...... 27 3.1 Electromagnetic Wave Experiments ...... 27 3.2 EarlyLaboratory Simulations ...... 28 3.3 Birkeland’s O ffices and Laboratories at theUniversity ...... 34 3.4 TerrellaasAnodeExperiments ...... 36 4 The Norwegian Auroral Expeditions ...... 45 4.1 Birkeland’s First Expeditions ...... 45 4.2 Arctic Expedition of 1902–1903 ...... 57 4.2.1 The Four Stations...... 61 4.2.2 Birkeland’s Main Research Contribution ...... 66 4.3 Classification of Geomagnetic Disturbances ...... 70 4.3.1 Polar Elementary Storms ...... 72 4.3.2 Equatorial Perturbations...... 73 4.3.3 Cyclo-Median Perturbations ...... 74 4.3.4 Field-Aligned Currents in Space ...... 75 4.4 The Permanent Station at Haldde Mountain ...... 77 4.5 Controversies with the British School ...... 80 5 The Universe in a Vacuum Chamber ...... 87 5.1 Terrella as Cathode Experiments ...... 87 5.2 Sunspots and the Solar Magnetic Field ...... 87 5.3 Comet Tails ...... 90 5.4 Saturn’s Rings...... 93 5.5 Zodiacal Light...... 94 5.6 Conflicts with Carl Størmer...... 98 vi CONTENTS

Part III: Technology and Applied Physics ...... 101 6 Fast Switches and Electromagnetic Cannons ...... 101 7 Inas LittleasFourYears...... 109 7.1 Plasma Torch and Nitrogen Fixation ...... 109 7.2 Foundation of Norsk Hydro ...... 115 7.3 Conflict with Sam Eyde...... 120 7.4 Marcus Wallenberg ...... 123 7.5 Other Technical Applications...... 125 7.5.1 X-Rays ...... 126 7.5.2 Atomic Energy ...... 126 7.5.3 Rocket Propulsion ...... 128 7.5.4 Radiowave Propagation ...... 128 7.5.5 Production of Margarine ...... 129 7.5.6 Hearing Aid ...... 129 7.5.7 Cod Caviar ...... 130 7.5.8 RadiationTreatment...... 130

Part IV: Birkeland the Man ...... 131 8As Seen in His Own time ...... 131 8.1 Teacher and Experimenter ...... 132 8.2 Birkeland as a Popular Author ...... 135 8.3 Positions and Honors ...... 137 8.4 Nominations for theNobel Prize ...... 138 8.4.1 Nobel Prize inChemistry ...... 139 8.4.2 Nobel Prize inPhysics...... 140 9 Consummatus in brevi, explevit tempora multa ...... 141 9.1 Birkeland’s Health...... 141 9.2 Marriage and Divorce ...... 143 9.3 Sojourn in Egypt ...... 145 9.4 DeathinTokyo...... 148 9.5 Many Friends ...... 156 9.6 Birkeland’s Will...... 162

Part V: Birkeland’s Heritage ...... 165 10 From Small Acorns...... 165 10.1 Science Education in Norway ...... 166 10.2 Influence on Solar-Terrestrial Research...... 167 11 In Memoriam ...... 175 11.1KristianBirkeland Research Fund ...... 175 11.2 Birkeland Symposium...... 176 CONTENTS vii

11.3 Birkeland Lecture Series ...... 176 11.4 The Norwegian 200 Kroner Banknote ...... 179 Appendix 1 Birkeland’s Scientific Publications ...... 181 Appendix 2 Archives and Unpublished Sources ...... 189 Olaf Devik’s Personal Archive ...... 189 The Birkeland-Eyde Industrial Museum at Notodden...... 189 Norwegian Technical Museum in Oslo...... 190 The National Library Archive ...... 191 Norsk Hydro Archive ...... 191 Sam Eyde Archive ...... 191 Norwegian Storting Archives ...... 192 University of Oslo, Central Administration...... 192 Stockholm Enskilda Banken Archives ...... 192 Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Archive ...... 192 Printed Sources from Norwegian Newspapers and Journals ...... 192 Biographies...... 194 Appendix 3 Patents ...... 195 Appendix 4 Letters ...... 201 Letter: Birkeland to Kaja Geemuyden ...... 201 Extracts from Terada’s Diary Concerning Kristian Birkeland in May–June 1917 ...... 203 Letter: TeradatoBirkeland(written in English)...... 205 Letter: TeradatoBirkeland(written in English)...... 206 Letter: NagaokatoBirkeland(written in English)...... 207 Letter: TeradatoBirkeland(written in English)...... 208 Letter: NagaokatoBirkeland(written in English)...... 209 Letter: GerdaThomsen to Karl Devik ...... 210 Letter: Eriksen to Birkeland ...... 213 Bibliography ...... 215 Index ...... 219