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Citation: White, W. (2014). The : A Noble Experiment changes America’s drinking patterns. Posted at www.williamwhitepapers.com

The Roaring Twenties: A Noble Experiment Changes America’s Drinking Patterns William L. White Emeritus Senior Research Consultant Chestnut Health Systems [email protected]

NOTE: The original 1,000+ page manuscript for Slaying the Dragon: The History of Addiction Treatment and Recovery in America had to be cut by more than half before its first publication in 1998. This is an edited excerpt that was deleted from the original manuscript.

If you think this country ain't dry, just watch latter added fuel to the drive for alcohol 'em vote; if you think this country ain't wet, . just watch 'em drink. Will Rogers (Cited in America’s new immigrants clustered Sinclair, 1962, p. 195) in urban industrial areas, where the number of saloons doubled between 1880 and 1900 The Prohibition Context (Mendelson and Mello, 1985). Nowhere was the change in the urban landscape more The story of alcohol and other drug visible than in the areas that came to be prohibition movements that reached their known as “Skid Rows.” The term "Skid Row" peak in the early 1920s cannot be told dates to 1852 In Seattle, Washington. A without mention of the broader sawmill built in Pioneer Square near Puget transformations that were taking place in Sound used skids (tracks of peeled logs) to American culture. The alcohol and drug carry the timber to the mill. This area, which prohibition movements of the early 20th later became home to vagrants and destitute century reflect many larger stories. alcoholics, was known as Skid Road—and The prohibition movements reflect a later shortened to "Skid Row." A similar story of changing American demography. name was "the Bowery," a term that Seven million immigrants entered the United originally referred to a 16-block street on the States between 1865 and 1900, nearly half lower East Side of Manhattan in New York coming from Germany and Ireland. They City. The terms “Skid Row” and “Bowery” brought with them their labor and their were picked up by the national press to tendency to drink alcohol. The former describe the blighted city areas frequented helped fuel the industrial revolution, and the by alcoholics. The terms were applied to city williamwhitepapers.com 1 neighborhoods characterized by vagrants, drive was exactly what it represented itself to alcoholics, cheap hotels and lodging houses, be: an attempt to solve the problems that bars, brothels, temporary employment alcohol was creating for individuals, families, agencies, pawnshops, second-hand stores, and communities. soup kitchens, and missions. The Skid Row The fact that the prohibition and Bowery neighborhoods—and those who movement had its symbolic aspects lived there—seemed to be in the last stages shouldn’t cloud the facts that, in the decade of deterioration (Abel, 1987; Fleming, 1975; before the Eighteenth Amendment, per- Levinson, 1974). The number of these areas capita alcohol consumption had reached its in America grew dramatically between 1870 highest level in more than 50 years and and the turn of the century. alcohol-related problems were becoming The Skid-Row alcoholic, and the increasingly visible. (Blocker, 1979). In spite broader problem of increased public of the fact that America continued her intoxication, attracted more and more civic love/hate relationship with alcohol after its attention and civic resources during the last enactment, prohibition was one way the half of the 19th century. Concern with the country could address these problems by chronic alcoholic was the centerpiece of saying, “Enough!” growing worries about public order. Responsibility for public inebriates placed The Final Prohibition Campaign pressure on local police, who in turn generated pressure for new local community Although the drive to legally prohibit remedies to the problem of chronic the sale of alcohol ebbed and flowed alcoholism. The climate was ripe for the between 1850 and 1900, a new combination emergence of a new institution: the urban of arguments and circumstances in the first rescue mission. two decades of the 20th century led to the This growing national focus on urban final success of this movement. The major problems was a signal that something was thrusts of these arguments were the fundamentally shifting in America, and the following. nature of that shift became evident in the 1920 census. For the first time in American 1. Alcohol is an evil substance that history, more people lived in cities than in contributes to personal debauchery rural areas. America was shifting from a and social disorder. This argument had rural to an urban culture, and the battle over its origin in the 19th-century alcohol served perhaps more than any other ’s struggle to absorb the struggle to see who would between the rural Protestant farming shape America’s social and moral norms. class and the urban Catholic industrial The prohibition debate, like the “Scopes class. Gusfield’s important study, The Monkey Trial” in 1925, was filled with Symbolic Crusade, presents prohibition disguised, “coded” language that allowed as a movement by the former to control much larger social issues to be played out in the latter. symbols and metaphors. The prohibition movement—and the repeal movement that 2. All other American social reform followed—reflect larger stories. These movements depend on alcohol social movements were carried by broader prohibition. The drive to prohibit the reform movement currents and filtered sale of alcohol unfolded in an era of through stormy world events. World War I reform never before seen in America. set the climate for the beginning of Alcohol prohibition arose among prohibition, and the Great Depression set the progressive movements to address climate for its end. But one should be careful such issues as civil rights, women's not to read too much into the larger forces suffrage, child labor, anti-trust that fueled the drive toward alcohol legislation, universal public education, prohibition. At its most central point, this conservation, social services for unwed williamwhitepapers.com 2 mothers and prostitutes, and prison While these were presented as reform. Alcohol laws unfolded rational arguments for alcohol prohibition, alongside parallel movements to ban the campaign to instill these beliefs was other drugs and behavior whose anything but rational. Like the prohibitionist morality was in question. “Blue laws” campaigns described in earlier chapters, the defined what people could and could campaign for alcohol prohibition used quite not do on Sundays, and other proposed inflammatory themes and images. laws sought to enforce standards of The mainstream temperance propriety in music, dress, and dance. movement, reflected in the WCTU and other Alcohol reform was only one thread in women's temperance organizations, a broader tapestry of American reform attacked alcohol for its role in corrupting the movements—but it was portrayed as morals of young women and in drawing the thread upon which the success of women into white slavery. This media all others relied. campaign helped create a sexual double standard based on the idea that men were 3. America’s industrial success hinges on lustful and women were pure. This meant the effective prohibition of alcohol. The that it was the job of the latter—whose call for alcohol prohibition came in the sexual desires did not exist—to restrain the middle of the rising American industrial former—whose sexual desires were revolution. Nothing was to interfere insatiable. Alcohol and other drugs, it was with the business of business. America argued, were the method by which otherwise was shifting from a self-employed pure women were emotionally seduced and artisan workforce (characterized by deflowered. In this view, alcohol prohibition “alternating periods of frenetic was necessary for the protection of production and self-declared holidays”) American womanhood. to an organized industrial workforce In another posted excerpt, we looked that demanded consistent sobriety and at the role of racism in the anti-opium productivity. To make this shift, the movements of the mid-1870s and the anti- capitalist economy demanded that the cocaine movements of the late 1800s and problem of alcohol-related worker early 1900s. The theme of linking a drug impairment be brought under control targeted for prohibition with a politically and—wherever possible—eliminated powerless minority or a foreign enemy (Steinsapir, 1983). Nothing—not even continued in the drive toward alcohol alcohol—would be allowed to threaten prohibition. Racial animosity and fear was productivity and profit. Alcohol exploited by groups like the Anti-Saloon threatened industrial efficiency and League, particularly in the South. The safety, and money spent on alcohol demeaning and stereotypical portrayal of was money that couldn't be spent on Blacks in this campaign was evident in the other manufactured goods. America's literature and the public pronouncements of industrialists—the Rockefellers, the the prohibition leaders. Liquor, as the story Fords, the DuPonts—passionately went, encouraged the Black man to "loose supported prohibition and waged a his libido on White women, incited....by the campaign to change their employees’ nudes on the labels of whiskey bottles." historical view of alcohol as an There were particular products, such as Mr. entitlement and a reward for hard work. Levy’s “Nigger Gin,” that were singled out for attack in this campaign. A 1908 report in Collier’s Weekly Magazine was typical of 4. Alcohol prohibition is essential as an these attacks. emergency wartime measure. Alcohol prohibition was presented as essential In every negro dive of the South, they sell for victory in World War I. brand names of gin, whose very names, for the most part, I cannot mention here. williamwhitepapers.com 3 Obscene titles, obscene labels. . . .The to shape American values. The drama, as viciousness lies in the double meanings, depicted by the prohibitionists, pitted rural clear to every man who knows the Southern against urban, "native" against immigrant, negro, in the pictures of white women on the Protestant against Catholic and Jew, and labels, in every greater obscenities. The white skin against skin of color. suggestion that he do the nameless crime, to The campaign was highly effective in avenge which the Southern white lynches briefly rallying American interest in pursuing and burns, is before every negro consumer the prohibition experiment. One indicator of of gin. (Irwin, 1908, p.10) just how far this new idea had permeated the American culture can be seen in the At home and abroad, prohibitionist attitudes toward alcohol prohibition among missionaries spread the word that the poor college students of the day. Drinking had and "colored people" of the earth were become an important part of student and dangerous when drunk. This theme would faculty life at America’s earliest colleges, but be stated directly by many of the dry leaders during the second half of the 19th century, as they made their case for national under the influence of the temperance and prohibition of alcohol. In 1914 Congressman prohibition movements, most colleges Hobson, in defense of his resolution for an discontinued the practice of providing alcohol prohibition amendment, used the alcohol for their students. racial tactics that had worked so well to What may be even more surprising by support the prohibition of cocaine and today’s standards is the active role that opium: American college students played in the drive toward legal prohibition of alcohol. Liquor will actually make a brute out of a Between 1910 and 1920, national alcohol Negro, causing him to commit unnatural policy was the subject of heated debate at crimes. The effect is the same on the white most colleges, and most colleges had active man, though the white man being further temperance chapters. The Intercollegiate evolved it takes a longer time to reduce him Prohibition Association (IPA) was quite to the same level. (Quoted in Sinclair, 1962, active, having sponsored a multi-school anti- p. 29). alcohol speech contest since 1887. By the end of 1900, IPA had more than 100 local IPA The prohibition campaigners also chapters. Harry Warner’s review of the manipulated religious prejudice. Alcohol surveys of student attitudes toward drinking was subtly webbed through stories of Jews during this period reveal that overwhelming "buying up the virtue of Gentile virgins" or of numbers of students favored both legal Roman Catholic priests "seducing prohibition of alcohol and rigid enforcement Protestant girls in nunneries" (Sinclair, 1962, of the prohibition laws. Surveys of campus p. 59). administrators during prohibition also As World War I approached, another revealed that students’ drinking had declined target of the alcohol prohibitionist emerged: dramatically in the years before prohibition The brewers Pabst and Busch were and continued to do so through the first six German. Liquor stopped soldiers from to seven years of prohibition (Warner, 1970). shooting straight. Grain for alcohol took food After a century of agitation, America away from starving allies. Liquor was was ready to launch a bold new social unpatriotic. By the time alcohol prohibition experiment. was implemented in 1919, alcohol was strongly associated with the German war The Eighteenth Amendment effort, Catholicism, and the growing urban environment with its high percentage of By the time the U.S. Congress implemented foreign immigrants (Sinclair, 1962). The national alcohol prohibition by constitutional alcohol prohibition campaign was portrayed amendment, most of the country was without subtlety as a struggle for the power already dry—and had been so for some williamwhitepapers.com 4 time. Most of the South, for example, was importation, transportation, or sale of alcohol dry by 1907. The growing trend toward in the . The exceptions to this county and state alcohol prohibition came in law included hard cider for personal the wake of increased per-capita alcohol consumption, alcohol for religious consumption in the opening decade of the ceremonies, and alcohol used as a 20th century (Blocker, 1989). The potential medicine. The new federal law was a far success of constitutional prohibition of stricter measure than those to which many alcohol was apparent as early as 1914, states had already become accustomed. when the call for a constitutional amendment The enforcement machinery for the was put before both houses of Congress. Eighteenth Amendment was created in the The House of Representatives cast 197 , which was passed over the votes in favor and 189 votes against this veto of President Wilson in October, 1919. proposal. Although it lacked the two-thirds (Wilson's veto was based on the fact that the majority needed for passage of an wartime rationale for prohibition no longer amendment, the growing strength of the existed.) prohibitionist vote was clearly evident. This power was also reflected in the number of Physicians and Alcohol Prohibition alcohol prohibition laws being passed at the state and local levels. By the time National During prohibition alcohol continued to be Prohibition was voted on and passed, 65% available from a variety of sources. It was of the U.S. population already lived under smuggled into the United States. It was local or state prohibition laws. Thirty-three of brewed and distilled illegally. Industrial the 48 states had at one time passed state alcohol was "washed" and re-routed into the prohibition laws, and 28 states had statewide illegal alcohol market. And—perhaps most prohibition laws in force. The momentum interesting—it was available by doctor's toward federal action was building—a prescription. momentum orchestrated in part by the Anti- Doctors played an interested role in Saloon League, the political action group alcohol prohibition in the United States. In that linked thousands of American 1917 the head of the American Medical temperance groups. Association (AMA) came out in favor of The 65th Congress of the United prohibition, and the AMA's House of States convened in March, 1917 and Delegates passed the following resolution: immediately declared war on Germany. It then took many actions to prepare the Resolved, the American Medical Association country for demands of the coming war, opposes the use of alcohol as a beverage; including the passage of a wartime measure and be it further resolved, that the use of banning the production and sale of alcohol. alcohol as a therapeutic agent should be This action was designed to conserve the discouraged. (cited in Sinclair, 1962, p. 61) grain that would be needed for the war effort. Senator Morris Sheppard of Texas called for In spite of the above resolution, the AMA was an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that successful in making sure that alcohol would prohibit the manufacture and sale of prescribed for medical purposes was listed alcohol as a beverage. Sheppard’s as an exception under the Volstead Act. In resolution passed both houses of Congress the six months following passage of the and required only ratification by two/thirds of Volstead Act, 15,000 doctors and 57,000 the state legislatures before becoming the druggists applied for licenses to prescribe law of the land. The states took this action, and sell alcohol (Sinclair, 1962). Doctors and alcohol prohibition went into effect on prescribed beer, ale, and malt liquor; they January 16, 1919 (Mendelson and Mello, prescribed wine; and they prescribed 1985). whiskey, gin, and brandy (Jones, 1963). The Eighteenth Amendment to the More than 45,000 physicians eventually Constitution prohibited the production, registered to prescribe alcohol. In one year, williamwhitepapers.com 5 these physicians issued more than the prohibition years. The cocktail fit the 13,800,000 prescriptions for alcohol (Lewin, sought-for elegance of the nightclub and 1931). By 1928, doctors were making an and served to mask the taste of estimated $40 million a year writing badly made and watered-down booze. prescriptions for whiskey. During the 14 During prohibition the portability of distilled years of prohibition, physicians wrote an alcohol made the hip flask an icon of the average of 10 million prescriptions for daring and sophisticated. alcohol per year. Regarding this practice, Fantus commented in a 1920 article in the From Saloon to Speakeasy Journal of the American Medical Association that "The popularity of proprietary Prohibition also changed the location medicines. . .is directly proportionate to the of American drinking. By the end of the 19th amount of alcohol they contain and the century, while the saloon was under assault inoffensiveness of their other ingredients" from the temperance advocates, a new (Fantus, 1920, p. 1143). Physicians were alcohol-serving institution emerged. Just as not the only ones who profited from this the saloon replaced the colonial tavern, the loophole in the Volstead Act. Louis Lewin nightclub arose from the ashes of the saloon. attributed the increase in the number of The Cabarets and Nightclubs of the pre- pharmacies in the State of New York—from prohibition years evolved into the exclusive 1,565 in 1916 to 5,190 in 1922—to the of the 1920s. This new pharmacies’ new role as distributors of institution was stylish and catered to the alcohol’ (Lewin, 1931, p. 185). upper classes. The use of alcohol in medicine Prohibition also brought alcohol into became a point of great controversy. Dry the home, where it was both made and interests fought to get whiskey and brandy consumed. Alcohol was a source of income removed from the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, and for some women during this time. Widows, more than 20 states outlawed medicinal in particular, were known to support alcohol (Jones, 1963). themselves and their children by operating “stills,” or homemade distilleries. In the homes of the affluent—and Prohibition and American Drinking those who wanted to reach that status— mixing exotic drinks became as much a male In the years 1921 and 1922, domestic task and claim to fame as Americans consumed less alcohol (3/4 barbecuing would a generation later gallon per person per year) than at any time (Grimes, 1993). Some critics of prohibition in American history (Blocker, 1989). claimed that the alcohol industry wasn't Although overall alcohol consumption eliminated, just reorganized. One critic declined during prohibition, the nature of retorted to the dry reformers: "You did not American drinking practices changed exterminate the brewery. You made millions profoundly during this era. of little breweries and installed them in the homes of the people" (Sinclair, 1962, p. The Shift to Distilled Liquor 354.). While prohibition reduced overall alcohol consumption, it brought women and Prohibition influenced what children into much more direct contact with Americans drank. What is most significant is alcohol than had been the case in the days that it sped up the shift in preference toward of the saloon. distilled alcohol. This dominance of distilled liquor during the 1920s was due primarily to Prohibition and Women the greater difficulty involved in producing, transporting, and storing beer and wine The drinking habits of American (Levine, 1984). Fancy cocktails became women changed dramatically during the first something of an American institution during decades of the 20th century. In his 1908 williamwhitepapers.com 6 text, Social Welfare and the Liquor Problem, Class distinctions further shaped Warner noted: women’s drinking during the prohibition years. Although the alcohol-related There is a decided growth in the drink habit admission of women to public institutions among young and middle-aged women in declined significantly during prohibition, society functions, at restaurants, soda admission of women to private hospitals and fountains and refreshment parlors, making sanitaria catering to more affluent clients this their main business, as they are increased during this period. For example, becoming nothing but woman’s saloons during the years 1920 and 1933, admission (Warner, 1908, p.219). of women and men for alcoholism at the Bloomingdale Hospital in Plains, New York Prohibition escalated this trend and reached a ratio of one woman for every two brought women into drinking rituals in a way men (Wall, 1937, p. 943). that had not been seen since the early colonial period. New social institutions Alcohol and Other Drug Use Becomes emerged that helped change women’s Chic relationship to alcohol. The saloon had been the province of men, but the nightclub, the The pre-prohibition image of the cabaret, the speakeasy, and the jazz clubs drunkard and the saloon gave way to a of the 1920s were consciously designed to "Roaring Twenties" view of alcohol. include women. Although most women According to Mendelson and Mello, this stayed away from the saloon because of its image “portrayed drinking as fashionable, associations with prostitution, these new defiant, trend-setting, sophisticated and social establishments admitted well-to-do convivial—a perfect complement to the new women and provided an environment in leisure-class life-style made possible by the which women could drink with social automobile, the cinema, the radio and the approval. Special clubs for women were phonograph" (Mendelson and Mello, 1985, even started, such as the Cafe des Beaux p. 89). Alcohol consumption among the Arts in New York City, where a man could be poor and the working class declined in the admitted only if he were accompanied by a 1920s, just as drinking was becoming a woman (Erenberg, 1980). symbol of “conspicuous consumption” The increased acceptability of among the affluent and of “conspicuous drinking by women that evolved during the rebellion” among the young (Clark, 1976, p. prohibition and early repeal years is clear in 148). Prohibition gave alcohol and the the results of a 1936 survey of young adults institution of the speakeasy an image of risk in New York City. That study revealed that and daring—a defiance of convention that 83% of those surveyed drank at least was very attractive to a culture that seemed occasionally and that there were no in a particularly festive mood. Alcohol was significant differences in the percentages of fused into changes in clothing styles, the men and women who reported drinking. rising popularity of jazz, new dance forms, Other surveys of the period showed that the co-ed colleges, and the emergence of the increases in alcohol use by women were automobile as an American institution. greater in the use of distilled spirits (in the Living on the fringe of the law brought form of cocktails) than in the consumption of excitement to the lives of the celebrities and wine and beer. A Literary Digest survey the idle rich of the 1920s. Three spots were conducted in the 1930s concluded that at the center of these changes: Greenwich women no longer felt any “moral revulsion” Village, Harlem, and Hollywood. Each associated with drinking (Warner, 1970). exerted its own influence on the national With the laws restricting the sale of alcohol culture. to women now gone—and the stigma Greenwich Village was the first against women’s drinking on the decline— Bohemian colony to touch the American women took to drinking in great numbers. consciousness. In the 1920s the term williamwhitepapers.com 7 "Bohemian" evoked images of young radical social scene of the 1920s. They became thinkers and artists living unconventional accepted feminine symbols of a new era of lifestyles in the midst of their self-imposed liberation—a trend manipulated in part by poverty. Located in New York City, tobacco companies whose psychoanalyst Greenwich Village drew an exotic consultants suggested that cigarettes be assortment of intellectuals, social activists, portrayed to women as “torches of freedom” writers, artists, and musicians, as well as the (Heiman, 1960, p.250). As drinking became young and affluent who visited the Village in chic and the nightclub, cabaret, and search of pleasure and adventure. The speakeasy emerged as the new social Village’s literary credentials were indeed institutions of the 1920s, women who would impressive, with authors like Willa Cather, have never entered a saloon walked through Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, the doors of these new institutions again and Eugene O'Neill, Edgar Allen Poe, and Edna again. St. Vincent Millay living and writing there. This new trend also changed the The young men and women of African-American community. In cities like Greenwich Village enjoyed laughing in the New York, downtown rich folks traveled face of conventional standards almost as uptown to Harlem to visit speakeasies and much as the newspapers and magazines nightclubs like the Cotton Club and the enjoyed publishing their antics. The Savoy Ballroom. Whites were drawn by coverage of Greenwich Village during the what they perceived to be the sensuality of 1920s portrayed hedonistic lifestyles that Harlem. Erenberg’s study of the tended to normalize drinking and other drug transformation of New York City Night Life in use—this during the most intense period of the 1920s noted that white visitors came to drug criminalization in the country's history. Harlem looking for “hotter music, hotter The Village was a gathering place for those dancing, life lived at its quickest” (Errenberg, who sought escape from social convention— 1981, p. 257). and for those who felt like outcasts. Gay Prohibition changed many African- men and lesbian women found the Village a American communities. In many cities haven, and the Village was one of the few Blacks became the center of urban nightlife places where the races easily mixed without because the Whites who controlled vice incident. The exotic atmosphere of the tended to concentrate their speakeasies, Village drew many people to its apartments prostitution, and gambling in predominately and lofts and made it a gathering place for black areas. This period also saw a the social elite. Young college men, and decrease in the influence of the church and their dates in full flapper style, flocked to an increase in alcohol consumption in the speakeasies like Julius' or to jazz joints like African-American community. Economic Nick's (Churchill, 1959). opportunities arose for entertainers, The young women portrayed in the musicians, dancers, and people in all the Greenwich Village stories were part of a other roles that supported these institutions. larger picture unfolding in America. This was Areas like Harlem were wide open during a wave of protest against the social and legal prohibition. restrictions within which women lived their Drinking patterns in Black lives. Images of “Flapper Girls” smoking and communities were fundamentally altered as drinking were but one dimension of this these communities were drenched with broader protest and challenge of gender- bootleg alcohol. While the nightclub culture based social conventions. Saloons, which was raging in northern cities, poor Blacks in had been the territory of men before the South were playing an increasing role in prohibition, gave way to the speakeasies, the South's underground bootlegging nightclubs, and cabarets that men and complex. Blacks helped distribute bootleg women shared. alcohol for White bootlegging operators and The cigarette and the drink became sold the alcohol to other Blacks. standard props for young women in the williamwhitepapers.com 8 In his classic study of prohibition, of the Night Club (1929) (Brownlow, 1990). Andrew Sinclair noted: "Prohibition, instead Johnson describes the effect of this of keeping Negroes from vice, put them in normalized drinking in the enormously control of it" (Sinclair, 1962, p. 290). As the popular new medium of motion pictures with nightclub culture touched many areas of the sound. Black community, an increasing number of Those who began drinking during this people found their livelihoods drawing them era were, to some extent, emulating their into environments that centered around favorite motion picture celebrities. Those drinking. Given this continual exposure, it is who chose not to drink were reminded each little wonder that drinking by Blacks time they went to the movies that they were increased. Other factors during this period out of step with the times (Johnson, 1959, p. also helped alter the role of alcohol in the 176). lives of Blacks in America. The depression By the end of alcohol prohibition, was particularly hard on Blacks, and the few social drinking was increasing among the available methods of survival included middle class and moving from the cities into involvement with bootleg operations. During the American countryside. So was the the depression, normally law-abiding increasing trend toward smoking among citizens hosted "house-rent parties," in which women. The latter emerged under the they charged admission and sold drinks in influence of tobacco industry marketing order to pay for rent and food (Larkin, p. 127- campaigns. These campaigns included 128). This infusion of alcohol into the Black tactics such as paying attractive models to community set the stage for a dramatic rise smoke in public and ad campaigns that in alcohol-related problems. Denies Herd promoted cigarettes as a weight control describes this transition: device through such slogans as, “For a The strong emphasis on temperance Slender Figure—Reach for a Lucky Instead among 19th century blacks (forged by the of a Sweet” (Sobel, 1978, p. 101). close association of temperance with the anti-slavery movement) gave way to new Prohibition Repealed cultural images of alcohol as an elixir of freedom and pleasure. . . .The generational Prohibition advocates claimed that shifts in cultural attitudes and drinking prohibition failed because of flaws in the patterns were mirrored in the massive construction and enforcement of the law. increases in cirrhosis mortality for blacks Foremost among these charges were that born after the turn of the century. (Herd, the Act: 1987, p. 220) • excluded certain types of alcohol, such Hollywood must be added to as hard cider; Greenwich Village and Harlem as a • placed criminal penalties on the seller, detonation point for changing perceptions of but not on those who possessed or alcohol. What Hollywood contributed was a consumed alcohol; new medium—talking movies—that boldly • placed enforcement responsibilities on normalized drinking in marked contrast to the Treasury Department, rather than on alcohol’s illegal status. Drinking and the Justice Department; smoking were transmitted in continuing • provided an inadequate number of fashion through the rise of American stars. people and adequate salaries to provide From Fields, Cagney, Gable, Powers, and for a fully functioning professional Bogart to Garbo, Harlow, and West, new enforcement operation; and lifestyles that included cigarettes and alcohol • allowed legal production and distribution were being held up for the world to imitate of alcohol for scientific, medical, and (Clark, 1976). Men’s and women’s religious purposes—alcohol that was enjoyment of glamorous night life during the routinely diverted into bootleg operations prohibition years was portrayed in such films (In 1924 nearly three million gallons of as Night Life in New York (1925) and Queen "sacramental wine" was withdrawn from williamwhitepapers.com 9 government warehouses, allegedly for also growing resentment over the class religious purposes.) (Sinclair, 1962, p. differences in the application of the 290). prohibition laws. The public was coming to Public efforts to undermine realize what Sinclair would later note of the enforcement began even before the last 1920s: “. . .the rich drank openly and well state approved the Eighteenth Amendment. under prohibition, while the poor were forced After national prohibition became the law of to drink badly" (Sinclair, 1962, p. 346) the land, juries in some areas refused to Drinking “badly” could include dying. convict those who violated prohibition laws. There were casualties among alcohol Lender and Martin (1982) report that, of consumers during prohibition, mostly among 7,000 people arrested for violation of the poor. Those drinkers who could not prohibition in New York between 1921 and afford imported alcohol became vulnerable 1923, only 27 were convicted. This lack of to contaminated and outright poisonous support for enforcement suggests that a concoctions. In 1927 12,000 deaths were correction of the above-noted flaws in the blamed on "bad booze"—wood might have brought repeal efforts more meant for industrial use but rerouted into the quickly, rather than led to the sustained illegal alcohol traffic. In addition to deaths, triumph of alcohol prohibition. this highly toxic form of alcohol could also Proponents of national Prohibition produce serious neurological injuries, continued to agitate for stricter enforcement including blindness and partial paralysis of of these laws and for tougher penalties. the hands and feet. This last condition Some advocates suggested stricter became popularly known as "jake foot." measures that included deporting all aliens, There was also growing concern that poisoning bootleg liquor to kill the alcoholics, prohibition itself was giving birth to new and and sterilizing or tattooing drinkers. As if more dangerous forms of crime and these measures were not extreme enough, violence. Many incidents drove this point one proposal suggested the execution of into the national consciousness, but perhaps drinkers and their offspring to the fourth none more graphically than what came to be generation; another suggested that any known as the Valentine’s Day Massacre. On liquor-law violator be hung by the tongue February 14, 1929, five of ’s men, under an airplane and flown across the dressed as Chicago Police officers, raided United States (Sinclair, 1962). As people the turf of a rival bootleg gang and executed became disillusioned with prohibition, it gang members. Pictures of the bodies of the might have provoked a tightening of the slain men riveted the attention of the nation Volstead Act and its enforcement, or it might and speeded public calls for an evaluation of have provoked stronger sentiment for repeal the harm that prohibition might do. The fact of prohibition. The suggestion of extreme that criminals appeared to be getting rich— measures such as those described above Capone’s annual income was being reported may have helped tip the scales toward at more than $100 million per year—while repeal. working class people were being crushed by Many factors contributed to the loss of the depression forced many people to public support for the continued prohibition rethink their earlier support of prohibition of alcohol in America. By the mid-1920s, the (Brownlow, 1990). fight for prohibition—which had been as As America entered a Depression of much a fight against the corrupting unimaginable dimensions, economic influenced of the saloon as it was against concerns began to dominate discussions of alcohol—seemed to have been won. The the repeal of prohibition. First, the saloon as the center of crime, vice, and maintenance of prohibition was getting political corruption was gone, and its expensive. Six new federal prisons had replacements—the nightclubs and been built to house the growing number of speakeasies—seemed remarkably invisible people jailed for liquor offenses (Sinclair, and harmless by comparison. There was 1962). Second, as the depression williamwhitepapers.com 10 deepened, support for prohibition was and student drinking began to increase gradually replaced with the possibility that a (Warner, 1970). A Literary Digest Poll of legitimate alcohol beverage industry might 1930 noted that 30% of the public wanted bring employment and needed tax revenues. prohibition to continue, 30% wanted it to be The industrialists themselves, who had been modified, and 40% wanted total repeal of such a driving force for prohibition, withdrew prohibition. Major defections from the “dry” much of their support out of fear that open camp, such as John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and violations of the prohibition laws would lead William Randolph Hearst, tipped the public to a general disregard for law and public opinion scales toward the final collapse of order. In an era of anarchists, Bolsheviks, prohibition and the inevitability of repeal. contentious labor strikes, urban riots, and (Clark, 1976, p. 196) widespread economic hardship, it is not Several organizations fought for the impossible to imagine that legal alcohol repeal of Prohibition, including the might have been embraced as a way of Crusaders, The Moderation League, and the “sedating” growing social discontent. While Constitutional Liberty League. But none was wealthy industrialists were particularly more effective than the Association Against preoccupied with the potential threat of the Prohibition Amendment, an organization public disorder that could evolve out of that had been actively pursuing repeal since escalating disrespect for law, they also 1918. Many constituencies came together in hoped that renewed alcohol tax revenues support of repeal—alcohol industry would offset personal and corporate taxes representatives, financially strapped state (Levine, 1984; Levine, 1985). There was, in governments, business people, the end, a growing public perception that the philanthropic causes seeking alcohol problems prohibition was creating industry financial support—but none is more outweighed the problems that it was meant interesting than the story of women’s role in to eliminate. the repeal efforts (Aaron and Musto, 1981). The final blow to the Noble The popular notion of the role of Experiment might have been that people women in prohibition history calls up images simply stopped taking it seriously. More and of women standing at pledge booths, or of more aspects of prohibition had become a Carrie Nation unleashing her famed hatchet sort of cultural joke that threatened to create against the Kansas saloons. However, a broader disrespect for law and social order. women played important roles on both sides This change was reflected in the changing of the prohibition debate. In 1929, Mrs. perception of a single figure: Carrie Nation. Charles Sabin resigned as a National When Carrie Nation attacked the Carey Republican Committeewoman and Hotel Bar in Wichita, Kansas in December, announced that she was going to organize 1900—then repeated the act at other such support among women for the repeal of establishments that were supposedly illegal national prohibition—an act that challenged under Kansas law—the image of her somber the 1928 Republican Party plank calling for face and hatchet-wielding hand became a prohibition enforcement. Under her symbol for the fight of good against evil. leadership, the Women's Organization for Twenty-five years later, the same image was National Prohibition Reform (WONPR) was used more in mockery than in respect as she founded in Chicago on May 28, 1930. In was at once immortalized and ridiculed in 1931, membership in WONPR surpassed cartoon after cartoon, and in films such as that of the WCTU, and by 1933 it had The Kansas Saloon Smashers and Why reached 1,326,862 for the organization’s Mrs. Nation Wants a Divorce (Brownlow, third national conference, held in 1990). Washington D.C. (Blocker, 1989). Through By 1928, general support for its speaker’s bureaus, publicity campaigns, prohibition and its strict enforcement had and active lobbying, WONPR played an dramatically deteriorated. After 1928, important role in the movement to repeal student attitudes shifted against prohibition, national prohibition of alcohol. One of the williamwhitepapers.com 11 founding principles of WONPR effectively 14-year experiment with national prohibition summarized what would come to be one of was over. In spite of many proposals for the folk justifications for the repeal of moderating prohibition, the forces of full prohibition. repeal had won. The alcohol beverage industry ...its [the Eighteenth Amendment and wasted no time. Families that grew rich Volstead Act’s] attempt to impose total running booze during prohibition rapidly abstinence by national government fiat retooled for the now-legitimate alcohol ignores the truth that no law will be distribution and sales. By 1935, some respected or can be enforced unless 225,000 retail outlets were doing a brisk supported by the moral sense and the business (Burnham, 1993). But all was not common conscience of the communities as bright for the liquor industry as one would affected by it. (Root, 1934, p. 161) think. As we shall shortly document, Americans were not drinking as much after A key stage in the history of repeal as they were in the years before prohibition repeal began with President prohibition. The industry also found itself Herbert Hoover’s appointment of the facing stronger competition in the 1930s. National Commission on Law Observance The American soft drink industry had grown and Enforcement to investigate crime in in sales from $135 million in 1919 to $175 America. The Commission’s findings, million in 1931—and would reach $1.5 billion known as the Wickersham Report, by the 1950s (Baron, 1962). documented what much of the country knew The perception that prohibition had already: The United States had enacted a failed and the growing revenues generated prohibition law that was not and could not be by liquor sales (from $259 million to $2.3 effectively enforced, and which was in itself billion in federal tax revenue in the 12 years contributing to crime in America. The report following repeal) served as powerful noted many examples of the incompetence antidotes to any new efforts at alcohol and corruption that had undermined control (Courtwright, 1992). The passage of prohibition enforcement. Although the report the Twenty-first Amendment limited the stopped short of recommending repeal, its federal government’s role to the taxation of detailed criticisms constituted a mortal alcohol and placed the responsibility for wound for prohibition. regulating alcohol back on the individual The status of prohibition was a states. Rockefeller, who had been significant issue in the 1932 Presidential instrumental in both the passage and repeal Election. Hoover promised to address the of prohibition, also shaped the post-repeal shortcomings of the “noble experiment,” era by subsidizing a study by Raymond while Franklin D. Roosevelt promised from Fosdick on how alcohol might be best the moment he was nominated that “the controlled after repeal. Fosdick’s findings Eighteenth Amendment is Doomed!” Almost and recommendations, published in 1933 as immediately after he was elected, Roosevelt Toward Liquor Control, was highly influential. asked Congress to raise the legally What emerged after prohibition were allowable alcohol content in beer from 0.5% local option laws that allowed states and to 3.2%. Beer (the 3.2% variety) became counties to declare themselves wet or dry legal again on April 7, 1933. and, if they were wet, to determine how In February 1933, the Senate and the alcohol was to be regulated. Most states House of Representatives passed a responded with variations on one of two resolution calling for passage of the Twenty- systems. The first was a licensing system first Amendment (the repeal of the through which private businesses distributed Eighteenth Amendment); and on December and sold alcohol under guidelines set by the 5, 1933, the Utah legislature became the state. In the alternative—the monopoly 36th state to ratify this Amendment, casting system—the state was the only legitimate the deciding vote for the nation. America's seller of alcohol. Mark Keller described the williamwhitepapers.com 12 significant differences in state regulations subculture, set up new patterns of criminal governing alcohol after prohibition. violence, provided a breeding ground for Some laws required that drinks could public corruption, and contributed to a be served only with food; but elsewhere the number of accidental deaths from provision of food in liquor-dispensing places contaminated alcohol. All of these points are was forbidden. Some laws required that the as true for alcohol prohibition then as they windows of drinking places be curtained are for other drug today. We from public view; others, that they be have also noted that during prohibition there uncurtained. Some laws forbade the were changes in patterns of the people who presence of unescorted women in drinking consumed alcohol, the places it was places; others only forbade women to drink consumed, and the circumstances standing at the bar.... (Keller, 1976, p. 20). surrounding consumption. But in a more Keller found only two areas of objective evaluation of prohibition, two common ground for post-prohibition alcohol questions dominate: 1) Was per-capita control: restricting access to alcohol to alcohol consumption reduced during adults and taxing alcohol to generate prohibition? and 2) Did alcohol-related government revenue. Harry Levine, in his problems decline during prohibition? study of post-repeal alcohol controls, John Burnham (1968) has provided a suggests that the most significant change provocative re-analysis of prohibition’s during this period was the shift to a large effectiveness, and Ernest Kurtz has called number of sites where alcohol could be sold the positive effects of prohibition the “best and consumed. Off-site consumption of kept secret in American history.” Let’s alcohol, particularly in the home, continued explore why these historians are challenging to increase in the post-repeal period (Levine, the traditional wisdom about what prohibition 1985). was able to achieve. After the repeal of prohibition, the First, did Americans as a whole continuing role of the federal government in reduce their alcohol intake during alcohol control was defined by the legislature prohibition? The answer is a definite yes. in the Federal Alcohol Administration Act of Citizens upheld the prohibition of alcohol to 1935. This law placed federal responsibility a much greater extent than people currently for alcohol control within what later became believe. Alcohol use dropped during the the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and 1920s, particularly during the early years of Firearms of the Department of Treasury. The prohibition. Gusfield's (1963) analysis of new bureau licensed importers, drinking data during prohibition suggested manufacturers, and wholesalers of alcohol; that alcohol consumption dropped between enforced laws governing the manufacture 30 and 50%, and that it remained at a low and sale of illegal alcohol; and regulated the level even after the repeal of prohibition. labeling and advertising of alcoholic Lender and Martin’s (1982) analysis of products (Mendelson and Mello, 1985). annual per-capita alcohol consumption reveals a drop from 2.60 gallons in 1910 to Prohibition: A Re-evaluation 0.97 gallons in 1934, and that drinking levels had still not reached pre-prohibition levels The popular conception of alcohol (1.56 gallons per person) by 1940. Although prohibition in America between 1919 and the people, places, and circumstances of 1933 is that this experiment in social alcohol consumption occurred did change engineering was a complete failure. This during prohibition, it appears that the overall cultural perception has been challenged by volume of alcohol consumed significantly modern historians, whose more detailed declined during this period. examination of the prohibition years After repeal, per-capita alcohol suggests a more complex story. None of the consumption rose, but at a very slow rate-- experts would disagree that alcohol from one gallon in 1934 to 1.5 gallons in prohibition created a flourishing criminal 1941 (Lender & Martin, 1982) This rise williamwhitepapers.com 13 continued until after the second World War, return alcohol to its “Good Creature of God” declined slightly in the 1950s, then rose status. (It would take a new conception of again beginning in the early 1960s alcohol problems and years of subsequent (Buchanon, 1992). This suggests that the alcohol industry advertising to do that.) decline in overall alcohol consumption not Repeal did declare that the economic and only continued during prohibition, but also social costs of prohibition—the crime, produced a reduction in use that lasted for violence, corruption, deaths, and debilitation an extended number of years after repeal. produced by “bad” alcohol, and the The second question is whether or increased economic burden from lost alcohol not alcohol-related problems declined during tax revenues—outweighed the perceived prohibition. There is substantial evidence of harmfulness of the drug. decreases in liver cirrhosis deaths, alcohol- related admissions to psychiatric facilities, Alcohol Prohibition and Alcoholism alcohol-related admission to specialty alcoholism treatment facilities, and alcohol- It seems that there were fewer new cases of related arrests during the prohibition years— alcoholism, and that the overall prevalence particularly the early years. John Burnham’s of alcoholism declined during alcohol (1968) investigations also underscore the prohibition. Perhaps even some of those important contribution prohibition made to with serious drinking problems may actually the elimination of the saloon as a vice- have drunk less during the prohibition years. breeding social institution. Even in But there is no doubt that, for others, populations whose use was believed to be prohibition did nothing to check the rising, the actual number of problems related progression of their alcoholism. A unique to alcohol seemed to decline. For example, fellowship of recovering alcoholics was in spite of wide public perception of formed just four years after the repeal of increased drinking by women during prohibition. Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) prohibition, Norman Jolliffe reported that the was born on the heels of the both repeal of actual number of admissions of alcoholic prohibition and the Great Depression. All of women to Bellevue Hospital fell by almost the early members of A.A. had developed or 50% during prohibition (cited in Roizen, sustained their alcoholism during the years 1991). of America’s Noble Experiment with the legal Although these gains were sustained prohibition of alcohol. through most of the 1920s, most of the alcohol-related problem indicators began to Alcohol Prohibition, the Popularization of rise again by 1928-1930—the period in Other Drugs, and Other Prohibition which overall support for and enforcement of Movements prohibition seems to have dropped sharply. In its early years prohibition reduced both Drug prohibition movements brought alcohol consumption and alcohol-related increased municipal, state, and federal problems. These reductions were sustained control of opium, morphine, heroin, and for years after America’s brief experiment cocaine, as well as brief experiments with with prohibition officially came to an end. In anti-tobacco laws. These movements the end, alcohol prohibition fell, not because overlapped considerably with the movement of a changing public view of alcohol, but to prohibit the sale of alcohol. We see because America decided it could no longer figures such as Colonel Hobson and afford the problems created by prohibition. organizations such as the WCTU playing Prohibition failed, not because it failed to prominent roles across these movements. It reduce alcoholism and alcohol-related was during the first three decades of the 20th problems, but because the lack of cultural century that these movements had their consensus and compliance raised fears that highest degree of interaction and shared this disregard of national law would weaken goals and methods. As federal drug control the stability of the state. Repeal did not came into effect in 1914 and the Eighteenth williamwhitepapers.com 14 Amendment was passed in 1919, reformists texts of the 1920s quoted a New York City turned their attention to tobacco. Magistrate who claimed that 99% of the boys Anti-tobacco agitation increased who appeared before him for criminal acts during the first two decades of the 20th had “fingers disfigured by yellow cigarette century. Although it was not able to achieve stains” (Kellogg, 1922, p. 132). Popular tobacco prohibition, the anti-tobacco lobby magazines claimed that more than half of was able to influence the passage of local, “the insane” were born to smokers and that state, and federal legislation designed to the process of insanity was accelerated bring tobacco under some degree of control. when the children themselves became In the late 1890s, reformers such as the smokers (Ray, 1972, p. 100). Smoking was WCTU-trained Lucy Page Gaston launched also linked with suicide. The publisher of a highly visible anti-tobacco campaigns. popular 1916 anti-tobacco text entitled The Gaston organized the Chicago Anti- Brown God and His White Imps reported that Cigarette League in 1899 and the National two of his employees who smoked cigarettes Anti-Cigarette League in 1903. Sustained committed suicide when they became anti-tobacco agitation may actually have despondent over their addiction to tobacco— influenced a decline in cigarette smoking in a fate that he claimed befell many smokers the late 1890s. Anti-tobacco forces even (Frech and Higley, 1916, pp. 60-61). launched a bid for the Presidency. In 1920 The health themes in the early anti- Lucy Gaston sought the Republican tobacco campaigns are surprising by today’s nomination for President, on a campaign standards because they did not focus on platform that included the complete cancer, respiratory disease, or heart prohibition of tobacco (Wagner, 1971; Sobel, disease. They focused instead on: 1) female 1978). A generation of young women in the infertility that supposedly occurred when the 1920s and 1930s were raised with the “foolish consumption of cigarettes has slogan, “We don’t smoke, and we don’t impregnated the sexual organs with smoke chew, and we don’t go with boys who do!” and nicotine,” keeping them inflamed and The anti-tobacco forces generated a unable to perform their natural function body of anti-drug literature with familiar (conception); and 2) the early deaths of themes. The first of these themes was the children (Ashley, 1975, p. 14-15). As late as proposition that tobacco leads to alcoholism 1930, some physicians were claiming that and drug addiction. Hygiene texts of the day, “60% of all babies born to mothers who are such as the 1889 text authored by Dr. Joel habitual smokers die before they are two Steele, proclaimed that “Tobacco causes years old” (Quoted in Sinclair, 1962, p. 180). thirst and depression that only too often and Between 1895 and 1925, state and naturally lead to the use of liquor” (Steele, local legislation was passed that made it 1889, p. 218). Charles Towns, the noted illegal for women and people under age 16 addiction expert, drew an even more to smoke in public, that prohibited the use of elaborate connection in a popular magazine coupons as a cigarette sales gimmick, and article: that—in some states—prohibited the sale of cigarettes in any form. These efforts were The relation of tobacco, especially in the supported by early 20th-century animal form of cigarettes, and alcohol and opium is studies that linked tobacco to cancer a close one....Morphine is the legitimate (Wagner, 1971). By 1927, however, most consequence of alcohol, and alcohol is the anti-tobacco measures had been repealed legitimate consequence of tobacco. and the anti-tobacco movement was on its Cigarettes, drink, opium is the logical and deathbed. regular series (Towns, 1912). The fledgling anti-tobacco sentiment had been overwhelmed and defeated by five Another theme in the anti-tobacco things: 1) the rise of a new tobacco product campaign was the charge that tobacco (the cigarette), 2) new cigarette causes crime and insanity. Anti-tobacco manufacturing technology (the Bonsack williamwhitepapers.com 15 machine), 3) a tobacco trade war that thrust Ashley, R. (1975). Cocaine: Its history, uses tobacco companies into aggressive and effects. NY: Warner Books. advertising campaigns, 4) the organization of a strong tobacco lobby (the Allied Tobacco Baron, S. (1962). Brewed in America: A League), and 5) the widespread popularity of history of beer and ale in the United States. the cigarette during and following World War Boston: Little & Brown Co. I (cigarette production rose from 36 billion to Blocker, J. (1979). Alcohol, reform and 54 billion cigarettes during the first two years of the war). These factors collectively paved Society: The liquor issue in social context. the way for the wide dissemination of a Westport, CT: Greenwood, Press. cheap, socially acceptable tobacco product. Blocker, J. (1989). American temperance For a brief period in the 1920s, it movements: Cycles of reform. Boston: appeared that America was going to force a Twayne Publishers. consistent policy of prohibition of the major intoxicants, but this changed with the repeal Brownlow, K. (1990). Behind the mask of of alcohol prohibition and the declining innocence. NY: Alfred A. Knopf. influence of anti-tobacco forces. The years after the end of alcohol prohibition saw the Buchanon, D. R. (1992). A social history of beginning of popular distinctions between American drug use, Journal of Drug Issues, good drugs and evil drugs. The drugs that (Winter Issue). were within the experience of the majority of Americans were considered good; the drugs Burnham, J. (1993). Bad habits: Drinking, that tended to be used primarily by minority smoking, taking drugs, gambling, sexual and fringe groups were defined as evil. misbehavior, and swearing in American Alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine became more history. NY: New York University Press. and more thoroughly integrated into the very fabric of American life. Cocaine, opium, and Burnham, J. (1968). New perspectives on heroin (and later, marijuana and the the prohibition "experiment" of the 1920s. hallucinogens) continued to be defined as Journal of Social History, II, 51-68. evil—physically, emotionally, and morally Churchill, A. (1959). 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williamwhitepapers.com 16 Fleming, A. (1975). Alcohol: The delightful America. Alexandria, Virginia: Douglass poison. NY: Delacorte Press. Publishers, Inc. Frech, T.F. and L.H. Higley (Eds.) (1916). Lender, M and Martin, J. (1982). Drinking in The brown god and his white imps. Butler, America. NY: The Free Press. Indiana: L.H. Higley. Levine, H. (1984). The alcohol problem in Grimes, W. (1993). Straight up or on the America: From temperance to alcoholism, rocks: A cultural history of American drink British Journal on Addiction, 79, 109-119. NY: Simon and Schuster. Levine, H. (1985). The birth of American Gusfield, J. (1963). Symbolic crusade: alcohol control: Prohibition, the power elite, Status politics and the American temperance and the problem of lawlessness. movement. Urbana: University of Illinois Contemporary Drug Problems, 12 (Spring), Press. pp. 63-115. Heimann, R. (1960). Tobacco and Levinson, D. (1974). The etiology of Skid Americans. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Rows in the United States. International Company, Inc. Journal of Social Psychiatry, 20, 25-33. Henderson, R. And Bacon, S. (1953). Lewin, L. (1931). Phantastica: Narcotic and Problem drinking: The Yale Plan for stimulating drugs, their use and abuse. Business and Industry. Quarterly Journal of London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Studies on Alcohol, 14, 247-262. Mendelson, J. and Mello, N. (1985). Alcohol: Herd, D. (1987). Rethinking Black drinking. Use and abuse in America. Boston: Little, British Journal on Addiction, 82, 219-233. Brown and Company. Irwin, W. (1908a). Who killed Margaret Ray, O. (1972). Drugs, society, and human Lear? Collier's Weekly, 41, 10, May 16. behavior. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Irwin, W. (1908b). More about Nigger Gin. Roizen, R. (1991a). The American discovery Collier's Weekly, 41, 27- 28, 30, August 15. of alcoholism, 1933-1939 (Ph.D. Dissertation). Berkeley: University of Jones, L. (1963). Blues people. NY: California. William Morrow. Roizen, R. (1991b). Redefining alcohol in Keller, M. (1976). Problems with alcohol: An post-repeal America: Lessons from the short historical perspective. In: Filstead, W., life of Evert Colby's Council for Moderation, Rossi, J. and Keller, M. Alcohol and Alcohol 1934-1936. Contemporary Drug Problems, Problems: New Thinking and New 18, 237-272. Directions. Cambridge, MA: Balinger Publishing Company. Root, G. (1934). Women and repeal: The story of the Women's Organization for Kellogg, J. (1922). Tobaccoism. Battle National Prohibition Reform. NY: Harpers & Creek, Michigan: The Modern Medicine Brothers. Publishing Company. Rubington, E. (1982). The chronic public Larkins, J.R. (1965). Alcohol and the Negro: offender on Skid Row In: Gomberg, L., Explosive issues. Zebulon, NC: Recod White, H. and Carpenter, J. Alcohol, science Publishing. and society revisited. Ann Arbor: The Larkins, J. (1976). Historical background. In University of Michigan Press. Harper, F. Alcohol Abuse and Black

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