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Thesis Submitted in Conformity with the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Graduate Department of Classics University of Toronto

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Thesis Submitted in Conformity with the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Graduate Department of Classics University of Toronto An Archaeology of Cicero’s Letters: A Study of Late Republican Textual Culture by Robert McCutcheon A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Graduate Department of Classics University of Toronto © Copyright by Robert McCutcheon 2013 An Archaeology of Cicero’s Letters: A Study of Late Republican Textual Culture Robert McCutcheon Doctorate of Philosophy Department of Classics University of Toronto 2013 Abstract This dissertation examines the hermeneutic role of the material epistula in the correspondence of the Roman elite at the end of the Republic. Through close readings of descriptions of the physical letter in Cicero’s Letters and with reference to the papyrological record and later epistolary cultures, I reconstruct the meaning of the material epistula for Cicero and his social cohort. Elite epistolography was not only a site of intricate discursive strategies, but also of complex material politics. Physical aspects of the epistula – such as whose handwriting (the author’s or a scribe’s) the recipient reads, the choice of medium for the epistle, and the identity of the letter-carrier – constituted a complex social performance on the part of the epistolographer that helped to delineate both his status in the community and his relationship with the letter’s addressee. By examining how the material form of an epistula could influence the reception of its linguistic contents, this dissertation also facilitates a more nuanced understanding of Cicero’s correspondence, in particular his epistolary relations with such figures as Atticus, Caelius, Plancus, and Antony. ii The first two chapters demonstrate that the mode of production for an epistula was a key material feature that republican epistolographers used in constructing and negotiating their relationships with each other. This investigation also shows how republican epistolography functioned as a symbolic economy, which covertly interacted with the commercial economy. The third chapter examines Atticus’ handwriting practices in his correspondence with Cicero as a means to engage in a larger discussion regarding Atticus’ place and function in Roman elite society. The fourth chapter examines the cultural genealogy and larger social perception of wax-tablets and papyrus (the two forms of media for republican epistolography) in order to better appreciate why Roman epistolographers would employ each medium in particular epistolary transactions. Chapter five explores how Cicero and his correspondents deployed particular letter- carriers to affect the reception of a letter. Finally, the conclusion briefly examines the letter-writing practices of the epistolographers from the Roman fort at Vindolanda in order to review the findings of this dissertation, while also suggesting avenues for future research. iii Acknowledgments It is one of the odd conventions of the dissertation format to allot such a small amount of space for recognizing the multitude of people who contributed in large ways to its successful completion. Traditions are traditions, though. Nevertheless, the amount of text here in no way fully acknowledges the size of the debts that I have incurred in writing this thesis. First, I would like to thank my supervisor, Erik Gunderson, and the rest of my dissertation committee (Andreas Bendlin, Alison Keith, and Deidre Lynch) for their unflagging energy and invaluable help in bringing this dissertation to fruition. In every case, their notes and suggestions improved and nuanced my arguments and allowed me to avoid embarrassing mistakes. Whatever errors and infelicities remain are entirely my fault. I would also like to thank Coral Gavrilovic and Ann-Marie Matti for their help in shepherding me through the bureaucracy of the graduate program. The members of my graduate cohort – Melanie, Kevin, Sarah, Ariel, Randi, and Jessica – also deserve thanks for the friendship and moral support that they offered during the grueling campaign which is a PhD program. I would also like to thank (and blame) my parents, Brian and Gill, and my sister, Bea, for fostering a scholarly home environment in my childhood. The sea of books in our house and the dinnertime debates concerning the rankings of Canadian prime minsters likely had much to do with where I find myself today. (For the record, McKenzie King ranks first in such a poll with Sir Charles Tupper bringing up the rear.) I also want to thank and recognize the contributions of my family in Toronto, Bee Mudge and Gary Hoskins, for their boundless hospitality and endless encouragement (in addition to the many rides to and from the airport). Finally, I would like to express a special and heartfelt thanks to Kimberlina Paulson for her patience. iv Table of Contents INTRODUCTION; OR, TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN 1 CHAPTER ONE: THE POLITICS OF HANDWRITING 25 CHAPTER TWO: AN ECONOMY OF LETTERS 72 CHAPTER THREE: ATTICUS AND THE BUSINESS OF LETTER-WRITING 106 CHAPTER FOUR: THE SOCIOLOGIES OF WAX-TABLETS AND PAPYRUS IN ROMAN EPISTOLOGRAPHY 132 CHAPTER FIVE: THE DELIVERY AND RECEPTION OF AN EPISTULA 175 PS. 218 BIBLIOGRAPHY 226 v Introduction; Or, To Whom It May Concern Cicero: I dare say, your work today will earn you immortality. Pullo: How’s that? Cicero: I will be in all the history books. My killer’s name will live on also, no doubt. Pullo: Ah (pause), my name (laughs); I thought you meant me. Rome. Episode no. 18, first broadcasted February 18 2007 by HBO. Directed by Roger Young and written by Eoghan Mahony. I Cicero’s Textuality There are many versions of Cicero’s bloody demise.1 The most fascinating version of the mors Ciceronis in my opinion is not found in the ancient sources, but in the HBO/BBC drama Rome. With sicarius (and series protagonist) Titus Pullo having been dispatched by the triumvirs to murder him, Cicero furiously writes a letter to Brutus and Cassius warning them of Octavian and Antony’s newfound coalition. After hastily finishing the epistle, Cicero quickly pours ash on the ink to dry it, rolls up the sheets of papyri, and places the epistula into a capsula. Cicero then gives this capsula to a tabellarius and extracts a promise (“on your life!”) that he will transport this epistle to its destination. The tabellarius drops the epistle only a few miles from Cicero’s villa after a near collision with the daughter of Lucius Vorenus, the series’ other main protagonist. Back at the villa, Titus Pullo arrives and, after Tiro ineffectually attempts to defend his former dominus, Cicero and Pullo discuss their respective places in history in a scene that provides me with my epigraph. Pullo then slays Cicero, who dies the death of a Stoic in every sense of the term. 1 For Cicero’s death in the ancient sources, see Sen. Controv. 7.2 and Suas. 6-7, Livy, Per. 120, Val.Max. 5.3.4, Vell. Pat. 2.66, Plut. Cic. 48-49, App. BCiv. 4.19-20, and Dio Cass. 47.8.3-4 and 11.1-2. On the historiography of Cicero’s death and the interpolation of rhetorical exercises within it, see Roller (1997) and Wright (2001). For discussions concerning the symbolic meaning of the fact that Antony had Cicero’s head and hands amputated, see Richlin (1999) and Butler (2001). 1 2 The Cicero of Rome is in many ways my Cicero: he is an epistolographer who also happened to give speeches and write philosophical treatises. As is their prerogative, many scholars (perhaps the vast majority of them) envision Cicero as an orator or a philosopher, who wrote letters in his spare time.2 In particular, though, it is Cicero and Pullo’s gallows conversation that best embodies the themes of this dissertation, since it places on display Cicero’s relationship with textuality. For this version of Cicero, the idea that his textual persona will outlive his corporeal existence offers him some comfort in his final moments. Cicero’s entire mode of living was thoroughly embedded in letters (i.e. litterae, both literature and epistles) right up to and including the moment of his death. Hence Rome has captured something important about Cicero despite the many liberties which the series takes. We could say that texts, or more abstractly textuality, made Cicero. He was not wealthy to the same scale as many of his peers, nor did he have a patrician lineage or command the loyalty of an army. Cicero was a writer. He was a novus homo who made his way up the cursus honorum largely by his shrewd exploitation of textuality. For Cicero, texts were central to his self-conception and presentation, crucial for the creation and maintenance of his social relations, and even, as we shall see, critical for his financial well-being. This is not, however, to deny the importance of Cicero the performer. His skill in manipulating live audiences (that is, in performing) clearly played an important 2 By way of comparison, Hutchinson (1998: 3) notes that the Letters occupy 1431 pages in the Teubner editions, roughly half of what Cicero’s speeches do, but near equal to Cicero’s philosophical treatises and twice the length of his rhetorical works. Of course, for all these genres of Cicero’s oeuvre, there are missing works; however, in the case of the Letters these lacunae are particularly large. At least forty books of Letters that circulated in antiquity are now lost (cf. Nicholson [1998: 76-77]) and perhaps more. Achard (1991: 139) implies that even these known collections likely only represent a small fraction of Cicero’s total epistolary output over his lifetime given his estimate that Cicero wrote ten letters a day. 3 role in his rise to fame and to cultural and political authority.4 Nonetheless, for obvious reasons, these performances are difficult to access. Even when they speak of the performance, what scholars are analyzing is their durable textual traces.
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