University of Birmingham

Assessing the environment archaeology of the Cetina Valley, Croatia Smith, David; Gaffney, Vincent; Howard, Andrew; Smith, W; Tetlow, Emma

DOI: 10.1179/174963106x123197

Document Version Early version, also known as pre-print Citation for published version (Harvard): Smith, D, Gaffney, V, Howard, A, Smith, W & Tetlow, E 2006, 'Assessing the environment archaeology of the Cetina Valley, Croatia', Environmental Archaeology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 171-186. https://doi.org/10.1179/174963106x123197

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Download date: 23. Sep. 2021 Assessing the later prehistoric environmental archaeology and landscape development of the Cetina Valley, Croatia

David Smith, Vince Gaffney, Darja Grossman, Andy J. Howard, Ante Milosˇevic´, Krisˇtof Ostir, Tomasˇ Podobnikar, Wendy Smith, Emma Tetlow, Martin Tingle and Heather Tinsley

This paper describes preliminary work on the environmental and archaeological potential of the Cetina River Valley, Croatia. Two seasons of fieldwork and assessment have suggested that the valley contains a preserved landscape, much of which is waterlogged. It is clear that there is the potential to address many local and regional questions concerning land use, subsistence and environmental change in an area where previously only limited environmental archaeology has been undertaken. One pressing issue is how to prospect for both cultural and environmental archaeological deposits within this regional landscape. This is especially true in cases where little ‘base-line data’ exists. This paper outlines the current practice and suggests a number of new approaches to prospecting for environmental ‘hotspots’.

Keywords: environmental prospection, Cetina Valley, Dalmatia, Lidar

Geology and topographical background the catchment and include dolomitic limestone and The Cetina River rises from a spring at Milasˇevo and flysch. The underlying karst geology controls relief flows a distance of 105 km to the Adriatic Sea with a series of structurally aligned basins separated (Fig. 1). In total, the drainage area of the catchment by high ridges, forming a dramatic landscape. is around 12,000 km2 (Bonacci and Roje-Bonacci The Cetina Valley itself (Figs. 2 and 3) is divided 2003). Today the river has an annual discharge of into four large flat-bottomed basins (known locally as 105 m2 s21 as a consequence of a mean annual the ‘polje’ or ‘fields’) linked by narrow valley floors. rainfall of 1380mm (Bonacci and Roje-Bonacci 2003). The two smaller basins in the north of the area, Pasˇko The Cetina Valley is bounded to the east by the and Vrlicˇko Polje, are at present not used for bulk of the Dinaric Alps, which rise to an altitude of agricultural production. South of the modern reser- 2000 m, and to the west by Mount Svilaja (1500 m). voir at Peruc´a, the small basin of Hrvatacˇko is again The majority of the catchment drains calcareous mainly uncultivated. It contains the Roman colonia ˇ rocks of Cretaceous age, predominantly limestone. at Citluk and to the south is bounded by the dramatic Rocks of Triassic and Jurassic age also crop out in limestone ridge at Glavice. The southern basin, Sinjsko Polje, is approximately 6 km by 4 km and is the main area of cultivation around the small town of Sinj. The landscape is characterised by channalised David Smith (corresponding author), Vince Gaffney, Andy Howard, Wendy Smith and Emma Tetlow, the Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity, drainage ditches, lines of willow trees, long open University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; e-mail: fields and black peaty soils. To the British observer, it [email protected]; Darja Grossman, Department of Archaeology, Zavetiska 5, PO Box 580, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Ante Milosˇevic´, is strikingly reminiscent of the Somerset Levels (see Muzej Hrvatskih Arheolosˇkih Spomenika, Stjepana Gunjacˇeb.b,HR- Coles and Coles 1988). A modern bridge is located 21000 Split, Croatia; Krisˇtof Ostir, Tomasˇ Podobnikar, Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies at Scientific Research Centre of just below the confluence of the Cetina with the Ruda Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (ZRC SAZU), Gosposka 13, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Martin Tingle, Dial House, High Street, Creaton, River at Trilj. South of this, the Cetina River flows Northamptonshire NN6 8NA, UK; Heather Tinsley, School of Geographical through a series of narrow gorges before it enters Sciences, University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol BS8 1SS, UK. Received November 2004; revised manuscript accepted October 2005 the sea through the passage at Omisˇ. A more easily

ß 2006 Association for Environmental Archaeology Published by Maney DOI 10.1179/174963106x123197 Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 171 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

functioned as a principal trade route between the Dalmatian coast and the central Balkans. Strategically, its position has been pivotal to the development not only of the Balkans, but also of significant parts of Europe. Although surveyed by Dr Ante Milosˇevic´ and colleagues at the Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments (Milosˇevic´ 1998), the area has never been the subject of a major academic landscape and environmental archaeology research programme, despite its long chronology of habitation. The earliest evidence for agricultural activity is from the Early Neolithic, recorded in the upper Cetina Valley (Mu˝ller 1994). In the Early Bronze Age the Cetina Culture, a geographically pervasive group with contacts throughout the Adriatic basin became dominant (Marovic´ 2002; Marovic´ and Cˇ ovic´ 1983). Extensive ‘mound fields’ are recorded on the lower valley slopes at several locations such as around Cetina, Vrlika and Bajagic´. The core area of the Figure 1 The location of the Cetina Valley culture has never been adequately defined or dated, though the Cetina Valley appears to be particularly passable way out of Sinjsko Polje for both the ancient ‘wealthy’ when compared with other contemporary and modern traveller lies to the south-east of Sinj areas of the Balkans (Marovic´ 2002; Marovic´ and through the narrow gorge at Klis that passes through Cˇ ovic´ 1983). The economy and landscape, which was the coastal mountains behind Split. the basis for this rich culture, has not been studied in detail. The evidence for the nature of settlement in the Archaeological and environmental background: valley at this time is limited, but where it exists it is Cetina in context dramatic. In the early 1950s, Marovic´ (2002) exca- In terms of both archaeology and history, the Cetina vated a number of exceptionally well preserved Valley and the narrow passage at Klis have always Bronze and Early Iron Age timber settlements along

Figure 2 Sketch map of the topography of the Cetina Valley

172 Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

Figure 4 Pollen sites from the Balkans and North Mediterranean (taken from the European Data Base for pollen (www.ngdc.noaa.gov))

provincial capital at Salona. The valley also contains the colony at Aequum (Cˇ itluk). During the early medieval period, toponymic evidence suggests that the Cetina Valley and perhaps the Cetina River itself, became a frontier between Slavic and Late Roman power. The area around Sinj eventually emerged as a centre of Slavic power ultimately establishing itself as a heartland of the Early Croatian State. Figure 3 Hrvatacˇko Polje and Sinjsko Polje showing the location of the sites investigated During later periods the area was highly contested and passed between a number of regional and local the river (Cˇ ovic´ 1987, 444-5; Marovic´ 2002), which powers before conquest by the Ottoman Empire are assumed to be contemporary with multi-period during the early 16th century and re-organisation as hillforts that dominate the surrounding uplands. part of the Klis Sandjak after which, it retained a As in other parts of Europe (Bradley 1998), the frontier role until the re-conquest of the area 150 river appears to have been the focus of the intentional years later (Malcolm 1994, 90). This period is deposition of artefacts throughout prehistory. This is particularly known for the construction of a number particularly true at the confluence of the Cetina and of dramatically positioned castles, such as that at Ruda Rivers at Trilj. In recent years several hundred Klis, as well as others at key ‘choke points’ in the metal objects have been recovered from the riverbed Cetina gorge downstream of Trilj. including 30 Greeco-Illyrian helmets, over 15 Iron In contrast to this rich and dramatic archaeological Age swords, and even weaponry associated with the and historical record, there is an almost complete Roman legions (Milosˇevic´ 1998). There is currently absence of environmental archaeological evidence no stratigraphic context for these finds, although from southern Croatia. Fig. 4 shows the distribution both the quantity and quality of the material accords of the pollen cores in the region (data taken from the the phenomenon to be of international significance European Pollen Database, www.ngdc.noaa.gov) (Gaffney 2004). and demonstrates clearly that southern Dalmatia is The area is intimately associated with the heartland recognised as a pronounced lacuna in the European of the Delmatae and the area’s strategic importance is pollen record (Willis 1994). The nearest pollen emphasised by the citing of the legionary fortress at diagram is from Bokanjacˇko Blato in north Tilurium (Gardun) which guards the entrance to Dalmatia. However, this pollen diagram is partial the valley from the south and the approach to the and poorly preserved (Gru¨ger 1996). South of the

Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 173 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

Cetina Valley the pollen diagrams from Mljet Island, Initial fieldwork and assessment of the Croatia (Beug 1961; 1962; 1967; Jahn 1990) and the geomorphological potential of the Cetina Valley Neretva Lowlands, Bosnia Herzegovina (Brande Methods 1989) are also of limited value. The nearest sub- The potential of the valley for a major palaeoenvir- stantial studies to the south are from northern Greece onmental research project was raised following an (Bottema 1974; Willis 1995). To the north the nearest initial inspection of the valley by VG, DG and AM in diagram is from Istria, Croatia (Beug 1977) and those August 2001 and an initial investigation of the from the Ljubljana Barje (Culiberg and Sˇercelj 1991; valley’s environmental potential was undertaken by Gardener 1997; Sˇercelj 1982; 1996) and other areas DS, AJH, AM and DG in November 2002. In of Slovenia (Andricˇ 2001) some distance away. In addition to a visual inspection of all four basins, addition there is a very limited history of work on a limited number of cores were drilled using a plant macrofossils and insect remains in Dalmatia. hand gouge auger to investigate the sediment As a consequence of this lack of work, there is no stratigraphy and potential for organic preservation high-resolution regional or local environmental and to identify sites with the greatest potential for framework in which cultural archaeological research further work. can be placed. In the summer of 2003 detailed assessment was Though recent political factors and a lack of a local undertaken at three sites in Sinjsko Polje. This ‘tradition’ for environmental archaeology may have a consisted of two detailed auger transects at role to play in explaining the dearth of previous Bilokapic´a Gradina and Okrulgo, which aimed to research; the main issue appears to be one of establish the extent and nature of the site stratigra- preservation. In general, the permeability of the phy. The sediments encountered were described in the underlying karst geology of Dalmatia does not field using standard sedimentological techniques and favour waterlogging and hence the preservation of a the colour assessed using a Munsell soil colour chart. biological archive; however, the broad expanse of The stratigraphy encountered at both sites is illu- wetland mires and peatlands in the Cetina Valley strated in Figs. 5–7. In addition, a single borehole appears to be an exception to this rule. The contrast was sunk at the Ruda Pumping Station, near to the between the Cetina Valley and others in Dalmatia confluence of the Ruda and Cetina Rivers, in order to and the wider Balkans is striking. Although neigh- establish the depth and nature of the stratigraphy at bouring valleys in Bosnia and Herzegovina contain this site (Fig. 8). peatlands and wetlands, they appear to lack the Material was selected from all these sites for associated wealth of material culture that is present in radiocarbon dating, which was undertaken by Beta the Cetina Valley. The combined environmental and Analytic (Florida, USA). These age estimates are cultural wealth found in the Cetina Valley provides a listed in Table 1. potential platform to answer research questions of international significance including the spread of Results agriculture and settlement throughout the Balkans, Field inspection clearly showed that Pasˇko and central and northern Europe and other issues related Hrvatacˇko Polje contain a mosaic of palaeochannels to climate change (Willis and Bennett 1994; Bonsall and active river channels forming part of an et al. 2002; Bonsall et al. 2003). anastomosed floodplain network. The former clearly

Table 1 Radiocarbon dates from the Cetina River valley

Laboratory Measured 2 sigma number Sample number Materials Analysis Preparation radiocarbon 13C/12C Conventional calibration

187254 BK3-4 (Bilokapic´a Organic AMS standard Acid washes 14190¡120BP 225?5 o/oo 14180¡ cal. BC Gradina) sediment 120BP 15560–14520 187255 KWW1 (Okruglo) Willow branch Radiocarbon Acid/alkali/ 2760¡BP 225?0 o/oo 2760¡BP cal. BC wood standard acid 1030–810 187256 KWW2 (Okruglo) Willow branch Radiocarbon Acid/alkali/ 2640¡BP 225?0 o/oo 2640¡BP cal. BC wood standard acid 900–770 187258 Ruda 5 (Ruda) Organic AMS standard Acid/alkali/ 4090¡BP 229?2 o/oo 4020¡BP cal. BC sediment acid 2620–2460 187259 Ruda 6 (Ruda) Organic Radiometric Acid washes 5270¡BP 225?0 o/oo 5270¡BP cal. BC sediment standard 4240–3960

174 Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 niomna Archaeology Environmental mt tal. et Smith 2006 h eiaVle,Croatia Valley, Cetina The VOL 11 NO

2 Figure 5 The stratigraphy of the auger transect below Bilokapic´a Gradina 175 mt tal. et Smith 176 niomna Archaeology Environmental h eiaVle,Croatia Valley, Cetina The 2006 VOL 11 NO 2

Figure 6 The stratigraphy of the west–east auger transect from the west bank of the Cetina River at Okruglo niomna Archaeology Environmental mt tal. et Smith 2006 h eiaVle,Croatia Valley, Cetina The VOL 11 Figure 7 The stratigraphy of the west–east auger transect from the island at Okruglo NO 2 177 mt tal. et Smith 178 niomna Archaeology Environmental h eiaVle,Croatia Valley, Cetina The 2006 VOL 11 NO 2

Figure 8 The stratigraphy at the confluence of the Ruda and Cetina Rivers Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia marked by either standing water or reedbeds. In both dated by organic inclusions to 15,560–14,520 cal. BC basins, augering established that these palaeochan- (Table 1). Above this, a sequence of organic silts of nels contained considerable depths of both inorganic varying preservation and humification was recorded. and organic sediments. In Hrvatacˇko Polje over 2 m This was interleaved by horizons of sandy silt of fine-grained sediment was recorded in one channel, interpreted as hill wash. At the south-east end of including a substantial lense of charcoal suggesting the transect, just below the slopes of the hillfort, a that human activity must have occurred close by. A thick lense of dark grey silty sand with charcoal and second channel contained around 3?5 m of fine- fragments of pottery was recorded; this was inter- grained deposits, which below 1?8 m were highly preted as colluvium originating from the monadnock organic with plant macrofossils and wood preserved. on which the hillfort was situated. Vrlicˇko Polje contains a large body of ‘organic peat’ that was up to 1?7 m deep at its northern edge. Okruglo Though the upper Poljes of the Cetina Valley have This field site is approximately 1 km due east of the only been examined briefly, it is clear that these valley town of Otok (Fig. 3) and was chosen because a basins contain a considerable depth of Holocene number of cut timbers, possibly associated with deposits, including well-preserved organic sediments. timber platforms were known to protrude from the These basins, therefore, have the potential to produce contemporary riverbanks. Inspection of aerial photo- long proxy environmental records for pollen, plant graphs and maps suggested that the archaeological macrofossil and insect remains that should allow site was originally situated on a small island, but had both regional and local questions concerning climate subsequently been dissected by the excavation of an change, vegetation development and human impact artificial channel, which now holds the modern river. within the valley to be addressed. How these basins This new channel was excavated as part of improve- were transformed through time in relation to natural ments undertaken during construction of the Hydro- as well as cultural landscape changes in Sinjsko Polje Electric Power (HEP) Scheme during the 1960s. Both is a particularly interesting research issue. survey by Ante Milosˇevic´ and a ‘swim over survey’ by At Panj on the valley side, a hundred-metre long Croatian Army divers in 1992 indicated that the bed exposure of sediment provides evidence of soil of the river is covered in archaeology, including erosion, colluviation and palaeosol development worked wood, large quantities of animal bone, suggesting periods of both landscape stability and pottery and metal work. Survey in 2003 by the instability. This sequence indicates that the valley has project team recorded the substantial worked tim- the potential to address important questions con- bers, which are present along a 120 m face on both cerning the timing and mechanisms of landscape banks of the river. degradation, in addition to raising issues concerning A 110 m long transect comprising 13 auger holes the preservation of archaeological sites and artefacts, was drilled in 2003 across the east–west axis of the their distribution and visibility (Brown 1992; Howard ‘old’ island in order to establish the extent of this and Macklin 1999). archaeological site (Figs. 6 and 7). A 1–2 m thick Investigation of the geoarchaeology of Sinjsko layer of organic grey silt containing pottery fragments Polje centred on three sites (see Fig. 3 for location). and charcoal was recorded overlying the limestone bedrock across the whole of the original island. The Bilokapic´a Gradina stratigraphy observed in the riverbanks confirms that This field site consisted of an area of black ‘peaty’ this layer represents the occupation horizon/palaeo- alluvial deposits below an extensive Late Bronze Age landsurface. Further augering to the south and north and Iron Age hillfort to the south of the town of of this transect confirmed that the site covers an area Otok (Fig. 3). It was hoped that a study of the of 140 m north to south and 120 m east to west and environmental archive at this location would result in occupied the whole of the ‘old’ island. Two pieces of a detailed reconstruction of the use of both the waterlogged wood from the site produced radio- hillfort and its surrounding landscape. A 120 m long carbon age estimates of 1030–810 cal. BC and 900– auger transect of nine boreholes was drilled to record 700 cal. BC (Table 1). Layers of clay and silt, some of the underlying stratigraphy (Fig. 5). This work which contain fragments of large freshwater bivalve illustrated that a sloping surface of limestone bedrock shellfish, overlie the occupation surface, suggesting is usually overlain by grey clay composed predomi- increasing wetness after the site was abandoned, nantly of weathered limestone; the grey clay was possibly associated with rising ground water levels or

Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 179 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

increased flooding of the valley floor. At present, it is Bilokapic´a Gradina and the Ruda Pumping Station unclear whether increased wetness, by whichever site using a gouge auger (the location of the samples mechanism, was responsible for the abandonment taken is illustrated on the profiles in Figs. 5 and 8). In of this site, but it is a hypothesis worthy of further addition, a single sample of material was recovered examination. by hand excavation from the upper 10 cm of the exposed riverbank archaeological site at Okruglo. The pumping station at the confluence of the Ruda and Cetina Rivers upstream of Trilj This material was collected for dating and to evaluate the preservation of pollen, plant macrofossils and This field site is located on the west bank of the insect remains. Cetina River, immediately below its confluence with Pollen from the samples was prepared using the Ruda River and adjacent to a HEP Pumping standard techniques (Moore et al. 1991). The aim of Station (no. 3). It is believed to be the location of a the assessment was to count at least 300 pollen grains substantial Neolithic site (A. Milosˇevic´, pers. comm.). from each sample in order to assess the potential of the A single borehole was drilled through the deposits at material for full pollen analysis (pollen concentration this location to investigate the stratigraphy (see was so low at Bilokapic´a Gradina that this count could Fig. 8). In total, 2?5 m of deposits were recorded, not be reached). Identifications were made with which were waterlogged below 1?6 m. Between 0?8 reference to type slides, standard keys, particularly and 1?6 m, pale white sand with apparent charcoal those in Moore et al. (1991), and the descriptions in was observed and was correlated with a probable Andrew (1984). The results are shown in Table 2, occupation horizon observed in the eroding river- which lists the number of grains of each pollen taxon bank by earlier workers. Overlying this occupation counted for all samples. As this was a preliminary horizon, clay and silt units, some with freshwater assessment, pollen identifications were limited to bivalve shells were recorded. As at Okruglo, this family or genus. Plant nomenclature follows Stace suggests increasing wetness of the valley floor at the (1997) and pollen types generally follow Bennett end of, or following occupation. Below 1?6m, (1994). No attempt has been made at this stage to be approximately 1 m of wood peat was encountered more precise, since no type slide collection of Croatian before bedrock was reached. Two radiocarbon dates flora was available. The presence of micro-charcoal on from this wood peat suggest that it spans the period the pollen slides was also observed. 4240–3960 cal. BC to 2620–2460 cal. BC (Table 1). Samples for waterlogged plant remains were washed Discussion over a 300-micron mesh sieve and the recovered plant macrofossils were identified under a low power This preliminary assessment of the geoarchaeology of the binocular microscope. The results are shown in Cetina River Valley has clearly demonstrated that the Table 3, with nomenclature following Stace (1997). main basins in the catchment contain considerable depths Insect remains were extracted using the standard of organic-rich sediment capable of providing proxy method of paraffin flotation as outlined in Kenward recordsofclimateandlanduse.InsomeareasofSinjsko et al. (1980). The system for ‘scanning’ faunas follows Polje this may represent a continuous record of Kenward et al. (1985). The time taken to scan each sedimentation from the Holocene back to more than sample was around 20 minutes. All the taxa present 16,000 years BP. In the other basins the record may be have been identified as far as was possible by less continuous since it derives from relatively short-lived comparison to the Gorham Collection of British palaeochannel deposits. However, with a careful program Coleoptera held at the University of Birmingham. of dating it may be possible to ‘stitch’ these palaeochannel The beetle taxa recovered are listed in Table 4. The sequences together to form an almost continuous taxonomy used for the Coleoptera (beetles) follows environmental record. In addition, there are areas of that of Lucht (1987). valley side colluvial deposits and palaeosols capable of providing evidence for periods of increased slope-channel Results coupling, landscape instability and stability. Bilokapic´a Gradina Despite this site’s initial promise, the three samples of Assessment of the biological archive in Sinjsko sediment (BK1, BK2 and BK3 in Fig. 5) recovered Polje from below the hillfort at Bilokapic´aGradina Methods contained very little pollen and no plant macrofossils A number of palaeoenvironmental samples were or insects. Extremely limited amounts of microscopic collected at different depths from the sites at charcoal fragments were recorded. It is possible that

180 Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

Table 2 Palynological assessment of samples from three sites in the Cetina Valley, Croatia. Numbers of pollen grains counted, percentages in brackets (abbreviations Mod. 5 Moderately good, A 5 possible anthropogenic indicator taxon, Occ. 5 Occasional, W 5 taxon associated with wetland)

Bilokapic´ a Bilokapic´ a Ruda 4 Ruda 5 Ruda 6 Bilokapic´ a Gradina Gradina 1?03–1?28 1?81–1?91 2?28–2?38 Gradina BK4 (1) BK4 (2) BK4 (3) Okruglo

Total pollen counted 360 395 365 14 2 7 499 Tree taxa Betula (birch) 23 1 Pinus (diploxylon) (pine) 99 (28) 19 (5) 24 (7) 3 ( z 3 wings) 5 20 (4) Abies (fir) 12 (3) 4 2 1 wing 3 wings Quercus (oak) 108 (30) 133 (34) 109 (30) 1 70 (14) Carpinus (hornbeam) 5 10 (3) 4 8 Fagus (beech) 3 7 9 5 Tilia (lime) 2 2 Ulmus (elm) 1 5 12 (3) 2 Alnus (alder) 1 6 1 255 (51) Fraxinus (ash) 7 76 (19) 71 (19) 3 Acer spp. (maple) 3 Corylus-type (hazel, bog myrtle) 20 (6) 35 (8) 37 (10) 1 12 (2) Salix (willow) 2 12 (3) 5 1 Rhamnus (buckthorn) 1 Frangula (alder buckthorn) 2 Viburnum 13 1 Hedera helix L. (ivy) 1 1 Herb taxa Cereal-type (cereals, also Glyceria, sweet grass) 3 2 1 5 Poaceae (grasses) 29 (8) 36 (9) 32 (9) 1 28 (6) Cyperaceae (sedges) 16 (4) 15 (4) 21 (6) 32 (6) Plantago cf. lanceolata L. (ribwort 46 1 plantain) A Plantago cf. major L. A 1 Asteroideae cf. Solidago virgaurea L.-type (e.g. daisy) A 611 15 Centaurea (knapweeds) A 12 1 3 Artemisia (mugworts) A 1 Achillea-type (yarrows, chamomiles) A 11 Lactuceae (dandelion and related Asteraceae) A 73 2 4 Brassicaceae (cabbage family) A 11 (3) 13 (3) 12 (3) 6 Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot family) A 1 2 Rumex spp. (docks, sorrels) A 2 Sanguisorba cf. minor Scop. (salad burnet, fodder burnet) 2 1 Cannabaceae (hemp, hop) 1 Ranunculaceae (buttercup family) 7 Fabaceae (pea family) 1 1 Caryophyllaceae (pink family) 2 Apiaceae (carrot family) 2 1 2 Heracleum (hogweed) 1 Bupleurum (hare’s ears) 1 Scrophulariaceae (figwort family) 2 Veronica spp. 1 Solonaceae (nightshade family) 1 Iridaceae (iris family) 2 Rosaceae (rose family) 1 2 5 Potentilla 1 Ericaceae (heaths) 1 1 Sparganium emersum Rehmann -type W bur reeds, lesser bulrush) 9 4 2 Filipendula (meadowsweet)W 1 Primulaceae (primrose family) W 1 Lythraceae (purple loosestrife family) W 21 Mentha type (mints) W 1 2 Potomagetonaceae (pond weeds) W 12 3 Filicales undifferentiated (ferns) 15 13 6 11 8 3 Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (bracken) 414 1 Degraded grains/crumpled (unidentified) 45 27 12 5 1 13 Unknown 232 1 Zygnetamaceae (green algae) 2 2 2 Fungal spores/hyphae Present Present Present Pollen concentration High High High V. low V. low V. low High Pollen preservation Poor-mod Poor-mod Mod-good Poor V. poor V. poor Good Charcoal rare occ rare rare occl occ

Environmental Archaeology 2006 VOL 11 NO 2 181 Smith et al. The Cetina Valley, Croatia

recent drainage in the area may have lowered the water (Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium) possible tubular table, humifying this material. Equally, the deposits are water-dropwort (Oenanthe fistulosa) and clubrush at the very edge of the valley floor and it may be that (Bolboschoenus spp./Schoenoplectus spp.). Equally calcareous ground waters have affected preservation. It bur-reeds (Sparganium spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), appears that this initially promising site has no further meadowsweet (Filipendula spp.), figwort (Scrophu- potential for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, laria spp.), mints (Mentha spp) and pondweed although better-preserved material may underlie col- (Potamogetonaceae) are also present. Similarly, the luvium on the south-east side of the hill-fort. leaf beetles Donacia spp. and Plateumaris, as well as the phalacrid and the weevil Notaris spp. suggest Okruglo stands of reeds, rushes and sedges. Pollen, plant macrofossils and insects were all well The pollen suggests that the wider landscape preserved in the sample of sediment recovered from contained mixed oak woodland, with some pine in the upper levels of the occupation horizon at the large places. The presence of Aphodius dung beetles Bronze Age site at Okruglo. Together they indicate probably indicates grazing land and pasture were that the site was covered by alder carr (Alnus cf. also close by. glutinosa) with some buckthorn. A substantial part of Surprisingly, given the size of the timber structures the insect fauna, such as the Dorcatoma and the observed in the riverbank at Okruglo and hence various scolytid ‘shot borers’, indicate that this fen importance of the site for human occupation, there is was full of dead and rotting wood. The ground plants little obvious indication of anthropogenic activity in recovered are typical of wet and damp places, for the pollen spectrum, the plant macrofossils or the example, common nettle (Urtica dioica), crowfoot insect remains. There is also no microscopic charcoal.

Table 3 The plant macrofossils recovered from the Cetina River valley (Numbers of individuals: z 5,10; zz 5.10 but ,25; zzz .25 but less than 50; zzzz 5.50), (Ecological codes , 5 can sometimes occur; 25no particular specific habitat;1 5 woodland; 2 5 wet places; 3 5 nitrogenrichsoils;45 waste places; 5 5 damp places; 6 5 bare ground; 7 5 grassy places; 8 5 possible cultivar)

Site Code BK4 BK4 BK4 KWW Sample Number 1 2 3 2 Habitat Sample Volume 200 ml 300 ml 250 ml 250 ml Code

LATIN BINOMIAL ENGLISH COMMON NAME

cf. Cupressus sp./ Juniperus sp. – fragmented female 222zzz 1 cypress/ juniper cone ??? Larix sp./ Pinus sp. – seed case 222z 1 uncertain larch/ pine Betula sp. 222z 1, ,2 birch Alnus cf. glutinosa (L.) Gaertner – seed 222zzzz 1, 2 alder Alnus cf. glutinosa (L.) Gaertner – stalk of inflorescence 222z 1, 2 alder Quercus cf. robur L. – complete capule z nut fragment 222z 1 pendunculate oak Urtica dioica L. 222z 2, 3, 4 common nettle Rumex spp. 222z 2 dock Chenopodium sp. 2 z 22 2goosefoot Ranunculus repens L./ R. acris L./ R. bulbosus L. - type 222zz 4, 5 creeping/meadow/bulbous buttercup Ranunculus subgenus BATRACHIUM (DC.) A. Graycf. 222zzz 4, 5 crowfoot Reseda sp. Rubus sp. 2 zz22mignonette Oenanthe cf. fistulosa L. 222z 4 bramble Verbena officinalis L. 222z 2 tubular water-dropwort Vitis vinifera L. – pip fragment 222z 6, 7 vervain Lamium sp./ Nepeta sp. - type 2221 8 grape Stachys sp. - type 222z 2 dead-nettle/ catmint Hyoscyamus sp. 222zz 2 woundwort Solanum sp. 2 z 22 3, 4 henbane GRAMINEAE – Large caryopsis 222z 2 nightshades Scirpus spp. 2222 2large-seeded wild grass Carex sp. – 3-sided zzz2 4, 5 club-rush UNIDENTIFIED – buds 222z 4, 5 sedge UNIDENTIFIED – bud scars (detached) 222zzzz 1 2 UNIDENTIFIED – broad leaf fragments 222zzzz 1 2 222zzzz 1 2

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Table 4 The insects recovered from Okruglo (Ecological Given the evidence for alder carr and sedimentation coding: a 5 aquatic; ws5 water side and reed post-construction, it is probable that the upper 10 cm bed; t5 woodland and trees; d5 dung; g 5 grassland; grain 5 grain; h 5 ‘house fauna’), of the ‘occupation horizon ‘ represents events as the (Estimates of numbers of individuals: z 5 1; site was abandoned. zz zzz 5 5; 510) Two indicators do, however, suggest some limited Ecological coding degree of human activity. From the plant macro- fossils there is the find of a possible cultivar, a COLEOPTERA Carabidae fragment of a grape pip (Vitis sp). However, this was Nebria spp. z incomplete and it was not possible to determine if this Dyschiriusspp. z Bembidion spp. zzz was a wild or cultivated specimen. Perhaps spectacu- ?Poecilus spp. z larly, there is one indicator of anthropogenic activity Pterostichus spp. zzz amongst the insect remains. This is the find of three Agonum spp. z ws Dromius spp. z individuals of the granary weevil Sitophilus granarius. Haliplidae This species is only associated with whole, stored grain z Haliplus sp. a and is not found away from human settlement. Its Dytiscidae ?Colelambus sp. z a presence clearly suggests that there is some degree of Gyrinidae human involvement in the formation of these deposits, Gryrinus spp. z a Hydraenidae even if settlement activity is limited by this time. Hydreana spp. zz a Octhebius zz a The pumping station at the confluence of the Ruda and Limnibius spp. zz a Cetina Rivers upstream of Trilj Hydrophilidae Only pollen analysis was attempted on the material Cercyon (aquatic) spp. zzz a Laccobius spp. z a from this auger core due to the small size of samples Histeridae recovered. The results from the pollen are encoura- Actrius spp. z h Silphidae ging with high concentrations and a large variety of Silpha spp. z taxa. However, preservation was variable, ranging Scydmaenidae from good at the bottom of the profile to poor at the Scydmaenidae gen. & spp. indet. z Orthoperidae Orthoperus spp. z Staphylindae Table 4 Continued Trogophloeus spp. zzz ws Oxtelus spp. zz Ecological coding Platystethus spp. z Stenus spp. zz Corticaria sp. zz h Pederus spp. z Anobiidae Lathrobium spp. zz Dorcatoma spp z t Philonthus spp. zz Ptinidae Aleocharinae gen. & spp. indet. zz Ptinus fur (L.) zz h Pselaphidae Scarabaeidae Pselaphidae Gen and spp. indet. zz Geotrupes spp. z d Elateridae Onthophagus spp. d Elateridae Gen and spp. indet zz g Aphodius spp. zz d Helodidae Chrysomelidae Helodidae Gen. and spp. Indet. z a Donacia spp. zz ws (?Cyphon spp.) Plateumaris spp. z ws Dryopidae Altica spp. zzz Tws Dryops spp. zz ws Phyllotreta sp. z Elmis spp. zz a Scolytidae Riolus spp. zz a Scolytidae Gen and spp. zzzz t Nitidulidae indet (at least 5 taxa) ?Omosita spp z Curculionidae Silvanidae Apion sp. zz g Silvanidae Gen. And spp. indet. z t Sitona spp. z g Laemophloeus spp. z Limnobaris spp. z ws Cryptophagidae Notaris spp. z ws Cryptophagus spp. zz h Eremotes spp. z t Atomaria spp. z h Sitophilus granarius (L.) zz grain Phalacridae Ceutorhynchus spp. z g Phalacrus caricis Sturm z ws Rhynchaenus spp. zz t Lathridiidae TRICOPTERA Lathridius minutus (Group) zz h Genus and spp. Indet. zzz

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top, suggesting some degree of desiccation in the Discussion upper part of the sedimentary sequence. It is clear that despite some preservation problems, The pumping station results suggest that the the organic silts from Sinjisko Polje have the predominant vegetation at the site in all of the potential to produce detailed palaeoenvironmental sampled phases was woodland. Initially (c. 4240–3960 sequences that may stretch back to the Upper cal. BC), this was dominated by ash (Fraxinus – 19%) Palaeolithic. Though the scale of pollen work under- and oak (Quercus – 30%). Ash is an under-producer taken at the Ruda Pumping Station site was of pollen compared to oak (Andersen 1970) and preliminary, it is clear that there are patterns of therefore probably dominated the woodland canopy. landscape change to be investigated and interpreted. Ash also tends to thrive on calcareous substrates, and Further work at this site, and a range of other sites so was probably well suited to the local soils. yet to be assessed, will allow a detailed reconstruction Viburnum (Viburnum spp.) is also particularly of the landscape and anthropogenic activity during associated with calcareous soils. In the wider area many of the important periods of the valley’s beyond the field site, there appears to have been prehistory. The numerous palaeochannels through- mixed woodland with pine (Pinus – 7%), and fir out the Cetina Valley should contain sedimentary fills (Abies), as well as elm (Ulmus), beech (Fagus spp.) that, although representing more limited ‘windows’ and hornbeam (Carpinus). The presence of willow of time, will allow continuous sequences to be (Salix) (another under-producer of pollen) suggests ‘stitched’ together (e.g. Smith et al. 2005). This is some local wet woodland, probably near the river. At important since the comparison between land use and the site, the canopy of the woodland must have been valley floor evolution between the basins is critical to quite dense, as the flowering of herbaceous plants elucidating the regional economic and agricultural appears to have been somewhat suppressed despite strategies of the cultural groups that occupied the the range recovered. There are occasional occurrences valley through time. of pollen types often considered to be indicators of The work at the substantial site of Okruglo anthropogenic activity (Behre 1986), such as mem- indicates clearly that the biological archive is intact bers of the cabbage family (Brassicaceae) and the and rich. However, there are many questions Asteraceae (daisies, dandelions, etc.), but these taxa unanswered. In particular do the lower levels of the could also have grown in occasional natural clearings site contain materials that relate to both living in the canopy near to the river. Small amounts of conditions and economic activity on site rather than plantain (Plantago cf. lanceolata) could also indicate after abandonment? Equally, the social and economic some limited grazing activity in the valley. The cereal- relationships between this site and the possibly type grass pollen grains may not necessarily be from contemporary sites at Dugisˇ (Marovic´ 2002) and cultivated grasses. The taxon comprises all grass Ruda are not clear. pollen ,40 microns in diameter and this includes cereals, but also the sweet-grasses (Glyceria) that Further survey and future fieldwork grow by water; the state of preservation of the pollen The strategy followed has already shown that the prevented more precise identifications. Cetina Valley has the potential to provide: By the time the sediments associated with the ‘Neolithic level’ (sample 4) were deposited, the nature 1. Pollen, plant macrofossil and insect sequences of the woodland at the site had changed. Ash had spanning the Holocene, which are of interna- declined markedly, although it was still clearly tional importance to studies of climate change, present in the wider landscape. Oak remained one and vegetation succession. of the major contributors to the canopy, along with 2. A range of insights into the past land use of the pine, which appears to have spread locally. The valley during the crucial periods of its cultural woodland canopy was a little more open than it had development. been earlier and a wider range of flowering herbs 3. Insights into the development of the river and its is recorded. The increased representation of the associated wetlands, which may have influenced Asteraceae (daisies, dandelions etc), plus the presence settlement patterns across the valley floor. of plantains in this uppermost sample, suggest the 4. Direct information on the function, economy possibility of limited anthropogenic activity in the and possibly living conditions associated area. Microscopic charcoal particles were observed to with the waterlogged settlements adjacent to occur rarely in the pollen preparation. the river.

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However, in this extensive, low-lying alluvial land- support project meetings (Grant number SG: 36762). scape, which clearly has a complex geomorphological Fieldwork in 2003 was funded with a British Academy history, the identification and prospection of archae- small grant (Grant number SG: 36762). Dr ological sites requires the development of high- Gianfranco Morelli kindly supplied the Terravision resolution landscape evolution models set within GPR. We are grateful to Bryony Ryder of rigorously developed chronostratigraphic frameworks Birmingham Archaeology, who prepared the various (Howard and Macklin 1999). Such an approach allows maps and illustrations. This paper was presented at the the identification of periods of sediment erosion and 2004 AEA conference in Bad Buchau. deposition and hence the potential for destruction or References burial of archaeological remains and the ‘geological Andersen, S. T. 1970. The relative pollen productivity and pollen filtering’ of the known archaeological record (Bettis representation of Northern European trees, and correction factors and Mandel 2002). If standard methods of archae- for tree pollen spectra. Danmarks Geologiske Undersogelse II, 96, 1–99. ological prospection are used in such landscapes in Andrew, R. 1984. A Practical Pollen Guide to the British Flora isolation, for example, the identification of cropmarks (Technical Guide 1. Quaternary Research Association). Cambridge: Quaternary Research Association. from aerial photographs, only a small number of Andricˇ, M. 2001. The Holocene vegetation dynamics and the formation archaeological sites will be identified. In Britain, a of Neolithic and present-day Slovenian landscape. Documenta Praehstorica XXVIII, 133–76. small number of archaeologists have demonstrated the Behre, K. E. 1986. Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams. potential of using ‘Light Distance And Ranging’, more Rotterdam: Balkema. commonly known as Lidar, to construct high- Bennett, K. D. 1994. Annotated Catalogue of Pollen and Pteridophyte Spores of the British Isles. Cambridge: Department of Plant resolution Digital Elevation Models of valley floors, Sciences, University of Cambridge. which allow the identification of palaeochannels and Bettis III, E. A. and Mandel, R. D. 2002. The effects of temporal and spatial patterns of Holocene erosion and alluviation on the other topographic features (e.g. earthworks) of archae- archaeological record of the Central and Eastern Great Plains, ological interest (Challis in press). The application of USA. Geoarchaeology 17 (2), 141–54. Beug,H.J.1961.Beitra¨ge zu¨r postglazialen Floren- und such techniques to the Cetina Valley could revolutio- Vegetationsgeschichte in Su¨ddalmatien: ‘Malo Jezero’ auf Mljet. nise our knowledge of this low-lying alluvial landscape Flora 150, 600–31. Beug,H.J.1962.U¨ ber die ersten anthropogenen and identify areas for further investigation. Although Vegetationsvera¨nderungen in Su¨ddalmatien an Hand eines no Lidar data is currently available for Cetina, the neuen Pollendiagrammes vom ‘Malo Jezero’ auf Mljet. Vero¨ffentlichungen des Geobotanischen Institutes, Institut ETH, collection of such data should be seen as a research Stiftung Rubel 37, 9–15. priority and would augment the aerial photographic Beug, H. J. 1967. On the forest history of the Dalmatian Coast. Review survey currently being undertaken by the project team. of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2, 271–9. Beug, H. J. 1977. 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