PREFACE 1 Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, the Civic Culture

Notes

PREFACE

1 Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitude and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton University Press, 1963) p. 5. 2 Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba (eds), Political Culture and Political Development (Princeton University Press, 1965) p. 7. 3 Barrington Moore Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (London: Allen Lane, 1966). 4 Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (Yale University Press, 1968). 5 S. M. Lipset, The First New Nation (New York: Basic Books, 1963). 6 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Alfred Knopf, English trans., 1883).

NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE: POLITICAL SOCIETY IN THE WEST

See in this connection my Democratic Process in A Developing Sociery, especially the chapter on 'An Emerging Political Society' (London: Macmillan, 1979) pp. 12~5. 2 See in this connection John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, a critical edition with an introduction and apparatus criticus by Peter Laslett (Cambridge University Press, 1960) p. 351. 3 De Tocq ueville, Democracy in America (N ew York: Alfred Knopf, 1883) vol. I passim, pp. 299-305. Such an approach is different from the 'macro sociological' approach of Edward W. Lehman's Political Sociery: A Macro sociology of Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977). 4 See in this connection Ernest Barker, The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 1969) p. Ii. 5 Ibid., Book IV, p. 155. 6 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, p. 351. 7 Ibid., p. 356. 8 Ibid., p. 365. 9 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America. Harold Laski said ofthis book, 'It is perhaps the greatest work ever on one country by the citizen of another.' Quoted in the introduction by Phillip Bradley, p. i. 10 Ibid., pp. 299-300. 11 Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, edited and with an

186 Notes 187

introduction by Talcott Parsons (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1944) p. 12. 12 Ibid., p. 80. 13 See in this connection R. H. Tawney's classic foreword to Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, translated by Talcott Parson~ (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958) p. 10. 14 See in this connection my The Political Theory of John Dewey (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1968). 15 John Rawls, The Theory of Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972) pp. vii-viii. 16 Ibid., p. 6. 17 'Consensus or Elite Domination: The Case of Business', by J. P. Nettl, in Studies in British Politics: A Reader in Political Sociology, edited by Richard Rose (London: Macmillan, 1969) pp. 291-316. 18 See in this connection a highly readable work by T. A. Critchley, The Conquest of Violence: Order and Liberty in Britain (London: Constable, 1970) pp. 1-2. 19 I'bid., pp. 5--6. 20 A. H. Birch, Representative and Responsible Government: Essays on the British Constitution (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1964) p. 21. 21 Ibid., pp. 91-2. 22 Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. I, p. 297. 23 Ibid., vol. II, p. 3. 24 Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation (New York: Basic Books, 1963) p. 208. Also see in this connection the controversy between Lipset, Riesman and Whyte on values as causal factors or as by-products of different kinds of economy and polity with reference to the United States, p. 106. 25 Ralph H. Gabriel, American Value: Community and Change (London: Green wood Press, 1974) pp. 4-5. 26 In 1837, in his address to Harvard College, Ralph Waldo Emerson said, 'We have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe' , and now 'we will walk on our own feet; we will work with our hands; we will speak our own minds'. Quoted by R. H. Gabriel, American Value: Community and Change, p.6. 27 S. M. Lipset, The First New Nation, pp. 19-21. 28 See in this connection W. C. Mitchell, The American Polity: A Social and Cultural Interpretation (New York: The Free Press, 1970) p. 115. 29 See in this connection Theodore Zeldin (ed.), Conflicts in French Society: Anticlericism, Education and Morals in the Nineteenth Century (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970) pp. 10-11. 30 Ibid., p. 229. 31 R. D. Anderson, France 1870-1914: Politics and Society (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977). 32 David Thompson, Democracy in France Since 1870 (Oxford University Press, 1964) p. 10. 33 Ibid. 34 Theodore Zeldin,France: 1848-1945, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977) p.793. 35 See Jack Hayward, 'Dissentient France: The Counter Political Culture' in 188 Notes

Conflict and Consensus in France, edited by Vincent Wright (London: Frank Cass, 1979). 36 Ibid., p. 65. 37 See 'Conclusion: The Impact of the Fifth Republic on France' by Stanley Hoffman in William G. Andrews and Stanley Hoffman (eds), The Fifth Republic at Twenty (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981) pp. 450-96.

NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO: POLITICAL SOCIETY IN INDIA

Gandhi had said, 'I feel that our progress towards the goal will be in exact proportion to the purity of means.' Quoted by Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973) p. 362. But once the use of proper means was established, Gandhi was very determined on the type of social and political consequences he wanted from the use of such means. 2 M. K. Gandhi, Satyagraha (Allahabad: All India Congress Committee, 1935) p. 37. 3 Erik Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Non- Violence (London: Faber & Faber, 1970). 4 Erik Erikson has called Gandhi 'a religious actualist' who was drawn to action by the highest normative considerations which often make people withdrawn. See in this connection his Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Non- Violence, p. 396. 5 Gandhi wrote in 1920, 'I have found Englishmen amenable to reason and persuasion, and as they always wish to appear just, it is easier to shame them than others in doing the right thing.' Quoted by B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (Boston: Beacon Press, 1958) p. 516. The technique which he developed against the British did not work against the Portuguese on the question of Goa where unarmed freedom fighters used to be mowed down by Portugese machineguns. In this connection Morarji Desai is reported to have said that it was Gandhi's genius to have discovered what would work against the British: non-violence and moral embarrassment. 6 Ibid., p. 211. 7 See in this connection, 'Mahatma Gandhi and Civil Disobedience' by Paul F. Power in Meaning of Gandhi, ed. Paul F. Power (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1971). 8 Jawaharial Nehru, The Discovery of India (London: Meridian Books, 1946) p. II. 9 Ibid., p. 44. 10 Ibid., pp. 433-4. II Michael Brecher, Nehru: A Political Biography (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962) p.233. 12 See in this connection M. N. Das, The Political Philosophy ofJawaharlal Nehru (New York: John Day, 1961). 13 Ibid., p. 21. 14 Ibid., p. 99. Notes 189

15 See for an extensive discussion of the peculiarities of the growth of political capacity, and factors inhibiting it in various countries, my Political Capacity in Developing Societies (London: Macmillan, 1981). 16 Quoted by M. N. Das, Political Philosophy ofJawaharlal Nehru, p. 167. 17 Geoffrey Tyson has put this appropriately: 'he knew that the vast amorphous mass which is India could only be governed and held together by a series of compromises; a concession here, a special exception there'. Nehru: The Years of Power (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966) p. 188. 18 One of the finest expressions of this view came from the Balwatray Mehta Committee Report on democratic decentralisation. In that Nehru was quoted as follows: 'to build the community and the individual and to make the latter the builder of his own village centres and ofIndia in a larger sense of the term'. Quoted by Balwatray Mehta Committee Report: Report of the Team for the Study of Community Projects and National Extension Service (New Delhi, 1957) p. 3. 19 See in this connection D. V. Tahmankar, Sardar Patel (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970). 20 A. R. H. Copley, The Political Career if C. Rajagopalachari: A Moralist in Politics (Delhi: Macmillan, 1978) p. 4. 21 Quoted by R. C. Gupta, Lalbahadur Shastri: The Man and His Ideas (Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1966) pp. 51-2. 22 See in this connection J ayaprakash Narayan, A Plea for Reconstruction of Indian Polity (Rajghat: Kashi, Akhil Bharat Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan) p. 3. 23 Ibid., p. 12. 24 Ibid., p. 23. 25 Socialism, Sarvodaya and Democracy: Selected Works ifJayaprakash Narayan, ed. Bimla Prasad (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1964) p. ix. 26 Ajit Bhattacharjea,jayaprakash Narayan: A Political Biography (Delhi: Vikas, 1975) p. vii.

NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE: NORMATIVE-PRAGMATIC CONSIDERA TIONS

In the 1960s, in a rural community ofGujarat, in western India, a number of definitions of what the lokshahi (democracy) was all about, emerged. Some of these were recorded by me. See in this connection my Democracy and Political Change in Village India (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1971). 2 In this respect India did not experience the threat of rival ethical notions implicit in political liberalism, which in turn are themselves rooted in the Judeo-Christian ethical system. Hinduism, being a belief system with emphasis on inclusion, synthesis and relativism, did not feel threatened by rival ethical imperatives. On the contrary, educated Hindus were deeply fascinated by the values implicit in political liberalism. They even welcomed its egalitarian and participatory emphasis which appeared to be a much-needed corrective to the hierarchical notions of their own social organisation. Political liberalism, therefore, was welcomed by them to fight the deeply institutionalised inequality in their social system. 190 Notes

3 F. G. Bailey, Politics and Social Change: Orissa in 1959 (California University Press, 1963) p. 220. 4 See in this connection Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India (Chicago University Press, 1967) pp. 24-8. 5 See for the details of this process my Democracy and Political Change in Village India. See also for the urban scene, Brian Howe's fascinating work, 'Intellectuals and Democratic Development: The Case of Modern India' (Simon Fraser University, unpublished MA Thesis, 1981). 6 For an extended study of this community, particularly how the democratic process induced changes in it, see my Democratic Process in A Developing Society. 7 Details of this are noted in my 'Social Mobility and Tensions Among the Patidars of Kaira' in Contributions to Asian Studies, vol. 12 (1979). 8 See in this connection my 'Social Cohesion and Political Clientilism in the Kshatriyas of Gujarat' in Asian Survey (August 1981). 9 In this connection see my 'Caste and the Decline of Political Homogeneity', American Political Science Review (1973). 10 See in this connection my 'Implications For Equality in Hinduism' in Nomos, vol. on Equality, vol. IX (1967). II For a detailed discussion of this process see my 'Party Linkages and Strife-Accommodation in Democratic India' in Kay Lawson (ed.), Political Parties and Linkage (Yale University Press, 1980). 12 Also see my 'Social Perspectives on Political Corruption in India', Political Science Review Oan.-Dec. 1974). 13 M. K. Gandhi, 'Last Will and Testament' in Pyrelal, Mahatma Gandhi, The Last Phase (Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press House, 1956) vol. II, pp. 819--20. This document was prepared by Gandhi a week before he was assassinated. In it he had expressed grave reservations over a national movement, like the Congress, converting itself into a party organisation. He was certain that men in it would abuse their position by using political office for personal gain. 14 M. K. Gandhi, Satyagraha (191O-1935) (Allahabad: All India Congress Committee, 1935) p. 2. 15 Ibid., p. 10. 16 Ibid., p. 3. 17 K. Santhanam, Satyagraha and the State (London: Asia Publishing House, 1960) with a preface by B. P. Sinha, the then ChiefJustice ofIndia. 18 Ibid., p. viii. I q Jayaprakash Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, edited and introduced by Brahmanand (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1978),JP's preface vol. I, p. x (my italics). 20 "'Nehru Socialism' in Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, vol. II, p. 189. 21 Ibid., vol. II, p. 193. 22 Ghanshyam Shah, Protest Movements in Two Indian States: A Study ofthe Gujarat and Bihar Movements (Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1977) p. viii. 23 Narayan, Towards Total Revolution, vol. IV, p. 36. 24 To JP political resistance to authority, together with punishment for the breach oflaw, is a dimension that Mahatma Gandhi added to democracy. To Mahatma Gandhi as well as toJP, 'the citizen has an inalienable right to Notes 191

civil disobedience'. See in this connectionJayprakash Narayan, 'Testament of Protest', Far Eastern Economic Review (20 Feb. 1976). 25 JP exhorted the police as follows: 'do your duty but do not act against your conscience'. Towards Total Revolution, vol. IV, p. 101. And his message to the army consisted of the following reminder: 'it is the duty of the army, to defend the Constitution of the country from authoritarian threats. If any party government or party leader intends to use the army as a means to further their party interests, it is the clear duty, to my mind, of the army, not to be so used.' Ibid., p. 146. 26 See in this connection Marcus Franda, Radical Politics in West Bengal (MIT Press, 1971).

NOTES TO CHAPTER FOUR: PROBLEMS OF POLITICAL SOCIETY

'The creation of an Islamic state in South Asia ... was not the work of clerics and religious divines but rather the determined effort by informed, westernized, materially conditioned elements .. .' Lawrence Ziring, Paki stan: The Enigma rif Political Development (Folkestone: Dawson Westview, 1980) p. 24. Also see Khaleed B. Sayeed, Pakistan, The Formative Phase (London: Oxford University Press, 1968, second edn) for a view on 'nationality based on religion', p. 12. 2 Ziring, Pakistan: The Enigma of Political Development, p. 19. 3 Quoted by RounaqJ ahan, Pakistan: Failure in National Integration (Columbia University Press, 1972) p. 109. Also see Lawrence Ziring, The Ayub Khan Era: Politics in Pakistan, 1958-1969 (Syracuse University Press, 1971); Karl von Vorys, Political Development in Pakistan (Princeton University Press, 1965); and Wayne A. Wilcox, Pakistan: The Consolidation rif a Nation (Columbia University Press, 1963). 4 Ziring, Pakistan: The Enigma of Political Development, p. 72. 5 'The secularization of state politics in western societies, although real and profound by comparative standards, has hardly eliminated religion.' See in this connection Elbaki Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed (California University Press, 1980) p. 106. 6 Parveen Feroze Hassan, The Political Philosophy ofIqbal (Lahore: Publishers United, 1970) p. 257. 7 Asaf Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State: The Case rif Pakistan (Folkestone: Dawson, 1979) pp. 113-14. 8 Ibid., p. 123. 9 'Bureaucracy in Authoritarian Political System' by C. P. Bhambhri and M. Bhaskaran Nair in S. P. Varma and Virendra N arain (eds), Pakistan Political System in Crisis Oaipur: Rajasthan University Press, 1972) p. 81. 10 'The increased power derived from these new functions supported by substantial American aid enables the bureaucracy not only to pressure itself but to proliferate its power and diffuse its own attitude and ideology.' Ralph Braibanti, Research on the Bureaucracy in Pakistan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1966) p. 342. II 'During its rule the BE [Bureaucratic elite] had capitalized on the 192 Notes

disorganization of other elite groups by using the colonial philosophy of divide and rule. It made no effort to develop political institutions but through its generalist role-expansion kept other elite groups (except military) dependent on itself.' Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State, p. 73. 12 Ibid., p. 126. 13 Ibid.,p.127. 14 E. Beeri maintained in his Army Officers in Arab Politics and Society that 'Islam endows army with prestige and authority of an institution meriting divine blessing and its heritage paves the way for military intervention which is to be regarded most fitting and proper in the eyes of God and man'. Quoted by Hussein, Elite Politics in an Ideological State, p. 127. 15 Jahan, Pakistan: Failure in National Integration, pp. 149--56. 16 'Bangladesh in 1977: Dilemmas of the Military Rulers', by M. Rashiduz zaman, Asian Survry (Feb. 1978) pp. 126-30. 17 Azizul Haque, 'Bangladesh 1979: Cry For a Sovereign Parliament', Asian Survry, vol. xx (1980). Also Mohammad Mohabat Khan and Habib Mohammad Zafarullah, '1979 Parliamentary Elections in Bangladesh', Asian Survry, vol. 19 (1978); Kamal Hossain, 'Political Development in Bangladesh: Promise and Reality' in A. H. Somjee (ed.), 'Rethinking in Political Development', Contributions to Asian Studies, vol. 14 (1979). 18 Tushar Kanti Baru, Political Elite in Bangladesh: A Socio-Anthropological and Historical Ana{ysis of the Processes of Their Formation (Bern: Peter Lang, 1978) pp. 22-4, 29 and 44. 19 Ibid.,pp.190-3. 20 See for a historical background of Muslim elite A. K. Nazmul Karim, The Dynamics of Bangladesh Society (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980). 21 A. J eyaratnam Wilson, Politics in Sri Lanka: 1947-1973 (London: Macmillan, 1973) p. 12. 22 Urmila Phadnis, Religion and Politics in Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Manohar, 1976) p. 5. 23 Ibid., p. 24. 24 Ibid., p. 119. 25 Ibid., p. 169. 26 Ibid., p. 244. 27 Janice Jiggins, Caste and Fami{y in the Politics of the Sinhalese (Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 147. 28 Ibid., p. 19. 29 Ibid., p. 27. 30 Ibid., p. 127. 31 Ibid., p. 96. 32 Ibid., p. 118. 33 Robert N. Kearney, 'Language and the Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka', Asian Survry, vol. XVIII (1978) p. 528. 34 Ibid., p. 529. 35 W. I. Siriweera, 'Recent Developments in Sinhala-Tamil Relations', Asian Survry, vol. xx (Sept. 1980) pp. 906-7. 36 W. A. Wiswa Warnapala, 'Sri Lanka's New Constitution', Asian Survry, vol. xx (Sept. 1980) p. 924. Notes 193

37 According to A. Jeyaratnam Wilson, the cardinal principles of Buddhism provide 'a foundation for the advocacy of peace and compromise and a middle-path solution to vexed problems', Politics in Sri Lanka: 1947-1973, p. 59. 38 W. Howard Wriggins, Ceylon: Dilemmas rif a New Nation (Princeton University Press, 1960) p. 460. Also see Norman D. Palmer, Elections and Political Development: The South Asian Experience (Durham: Duke University Press, 1975) pp. 190--8. 39 Muhammad Asad, The Principles rif State and Government in Islam (California University Press, 1961). 40 Majid Khadduri, Political Trends in the Arab World (London: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970) p. ix. 41 Ibid., p. 213. 42 Elbaki Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed (California University Press, 1980) p. 109. 43 Serif Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', Government and Opposi tion, vol. 3 (1966) pp. 380--1. 44 Hermassi, The Third World Reassessed, pp. 96-9. 45 Ibid., p. 107. Also see James A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle East (Toronto: Little, Brown and Co., 1979). Within 'Quran's truth [there] is a prescription for regulating the political and social affairs of man. Islam makes no distinction between the state and realm of believers. In theory at least there is nothing to render unto Caesar' (p. 41). 46 See in this connection Robert Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in the Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row, 1970) p. 153. My italics. Also P. J. Vatikiotis's remark that 'the Arabs have not yet experienced a political revolution under nationalism, i.e., a fundamental change that produced a new principle of authority, political organization and style of political life', Conflict in the Middle East (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971) p. 25. 47 Robert Bellah, Beyond Belief, p. 152. 48 C. H. Moore has maintained that 'Islam, unlike Christianity, was never effectively institutionalized. Islam has never provided a counterbalance to arbitrary rulers nor checked their ambition by imposing a clearly delin eated, theoretical guideline to circumscribe the exercise of secular power'. Quoted by George Lenczowski (ed.), Political Elite in the Middle East (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute For Public Policy Research, 1975) p. II. 49 Quoted in Hermassi, Third World Reassessed, p. 114. 50 J. A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle East, p. 135. 51 Manfred W. Wenner, 'Saudi Arabia: Survival of Traditional Elite' in Frank Tachau (ed.), Political Elite and Political Development in the Middle East (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975) p. 163. Also see in this connection Marlene R. Hancock, 'The Role of the Elite in Political Development: The Case of Saudi Arabia' (unpublished MA thesis: Simon Fraser University, 1982). 52 Manfred Wenner in Frank Tachau (ed.), Political Elite and Political Development in the Middle East, p. 168. 53 It is said that there are now (l980s) more American-trained PhDs in the 194 Notes

Saudi cabinet than in the cabinet of the President of the United States, Bill and Leiden, Politics in the Middle East. 54 Wenner, 'Saudi Arabia', p. 173. 55 Ibid., p. In 56 Frederick W. Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics in Turkey' in Political Elite in the Middle East, ed. George Lenczowski (Washington, DC, 1975) p. 4. 57 Joseph S. Szyliowiez, 'Elites and Modernization in Turkey' in Political Elites and Political Development in the Middle East, ed. Frank Tachau (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975) p. 25. 58 Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics', p. 50. 59 Serif Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', Government and Opposi- tion, vol. 3 (1966) p. 380. My italics. 60 Frey, 'Patterns of Elite Politics', p. 66. 61 Mardin, 'Opposition and Control in Turkey', p. 380. 62 See for the background of elections in Turkey, Michael Steed and Neriman Abadan, 'Four Elections of 1965', Government and Opposition (1965) and Dogu Ergil, 'Turkey', in Electoral Politics in the Middle East, ed. Jacob M. Landau, Erg-un Ozbudun and Frank Tachau (Stanford University Press, 1980). 63 Manfred Halpern, The Politics rif Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa (Princeton University Press, 1963) p. 130. 64 Ibid., p. 130. 65 James A. Bill and Carl Leiden, Politics in the Middle East, p. 4. 66 George Bennett, Kenya, A Political History. The Colonial Period (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). 67 Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The Tribal Life of the Kikuyu (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1953). 68 Ibid., pp. 13-4. 69 Carl G. Roseberg Jr. and John Nottingham, The Myth of 'Mau Mau' Nationalism in Kenya (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966) p. xvi. 70 Such a sentiment was effectively summarised by Jomo Kenyatta in the preface to his book: He said, 'I am well aware that I could not do justice to the subject [of Kikuyu social life and problems] without offending those "professional friends of the Africans" who are prepared to maintain their friendship for eternity as a sacred duty, provided only that the African will continue to play the part of an ignorant savage so that they can monopolise the office of interpreting his mind and speaking for him. To such people, who writes a study of this kind is encroaching on their preserve. He is a rabbit turned poacher.' Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, p. xviii. 71 See for a detailed account of this H. E. Lambert, Kikuyu Social and Political Institutions (London: Oxford University Press, 1956). 72 Donald Rothchild, Racial Bargaining in Independent Kenya (London: Oxford _ University Press, 1973) p. 62. 73 Ibid., p. III. 74 Colin Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya (London: Heinemann, 1975) p. 170. 75 Oginga Odinga, Not Yet Uhuru (freedom) with an introduction by Kwame Nkrumah (London: Heinemann, 1967). 76 Donald Rothchild, Racial Bargaining in Independent Kenya, p. 16l. 77 G. O. Olusanya, Second World War and Politics in Nigeria: 1939-1953 (Lagos: University of Lagos, Evans Brothers, 1973) p. Il. Notes 195

78 K. W. J. Post, The Nigerian Federal Election of 1959 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963) p. 13. 79 Ibid., p. 36. 80 See in this connection John N. Paden's 'Urban Pluralism, Integration, and Adaptation of Communal Identity of Kano' in From Tribe to Nation in Africa: Studies in Incorporation Process, ed. Ronald Cohen and John Middleton (Scranton, Pennsylvania: Chandler Publishing, 1970). 81 D. R. Smock and Swamenda and Bentsi-Enchill (eds), TheSearchfor National Integration in Africa (New York: Free Press, 1975) p. vii. 82 H. O. Davies, QC, Nigeria: Prospectsfor Democracy (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961) p. 24. 83 See James O'Connell, 'Authority and Community in Nigeria' in Robert Melson and Howard Walpole (eds), Nigeria: Modernization and Politics of Communication (Michigan State University Press, 1971). 84 See in this connection Claudio Veliz, The Centralist Tradition ofLatin America (Princeton University Press, 1980) p. 3. 85 Charles Anderson quoted by Robert F. Adie and Guy E. Poitras, Latin America: The Politics of Immobility (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1974). 86 Ibid., pp. 25CHI. 87 See in this connection a highly perceptive group of essays by Howard J. Wiarda, Corporatism and National Development in Latin America (Boulder, Colorado: West View Press, 1981) p. 353. 88 Ibid., p. 52. 89 Ibid., p. 69. There is a considerable divergence of views on corporatism among scholars; Anderson views it as a general pattern of Latin American polity; Wiard a as something which is influenced by other policy and ideological strands; Collier, Erikson, Glade, Kaufman, Malloy, Purcell, Stevens and Weinstein view it as a flexible structure; and O'Donnell and Schmitter as something of an authoritarian-bureaucratic pheno menon. 90 Ibid., p. 214. 91 Ibid., p. 215-16. 92 See in this connection Guillermo A. O'Donnell, 'Corporatism and the Question of the State' in Authoritarianism and Corporatism in Latin America, ed. James M. Malloy (University of Pittsburg Press, 1977) pp. 52-77. 93 See Chalmers, 'The Politicized State in Latin America', ibid., p. 25. 94 See in this connection Frank Bonilla, 'A National Ideology for Develop ment: Brazil' in K. H. Silvert (ed.), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development (New York: Random House, 1963) p. 232. 95 Ibid., p. 233. 96 Juan]. Linz, The Future of Authoritarian Situation on the Institutional ization of an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Brazil' in Alfred Stepan (ed.), Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, Future (Yale University Press, 1973) p. 235. 97 Stepan, 'The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion', ibid., p. 50. 98 See in this connection Riordan Roett, Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978) p. IOI. 196 Notes

99 Eul-Soo Pang, 'Abertura in Brazil: A Road to Chaos?', Current History (1981). 100 See in this connection Philippe C. Schmitter, Interest, Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford University Press, 1971) p. 366. 101 Peter G. Snow, Political Forces in Argentina (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979) p. I. 102 Carlos A. Astiz's foreword to Alberto Ciria's Parties and Power in Modern Argentina (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974) p. xi. 103 Ibid., p. 287. 104 Snow, Political Forces in Argentina, p. 60. Also see in this connection, Jeanne Kirkpatrick, Leader and Vanguard in Mass Society (MIT Press, 1971). 105 Snow, Political Forces in Argentina, p. 98. 106 Ibid., pp. 99-112. 107 Martin C. Needler, Politics and Society in Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1971) p. 5. 108 Robert E. Scott, 'Mexico: The Established Revolution' in Political Culture and Political Development, ed. Lucian Pye and Sidney Verba (Princeton University Press, 1965) p. 379. 109 See in this connection Susan Kaufman-Purcell, The Mexican Prrifit-Sharing Decisions: Politics in an Authoritarian Regime (California University Press, 1975). 110 Ibid., p. 4. III Ibid., p. 8. 112 See in this connection, Pablo Gonzales Casanova, Democracy in Mexico (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) pp. 71-84. 113 Ibid., p. 120. 114 See in this connection Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton University Press, 1963). 115 Ibid., pp. 20~16. 116 Ibid., p. 217. Index

Abadan, Neriman, 194n Bhikkus, 145-6 Abbasids, 153 Bhutto, 127, 132, 133, 136 Abertura, 174 Bill, James A., 158, 193n, 194n Adie, Robert F., 195n biradari, 38 Almohades, 153 Birch, A. H., 14, 187n Almond, Gabriel, viii, 179, 186n, Bolivia, 172 196n Bonilla, Frank, 195n Almoravids, 153 Brahminism, 143 AMUL,65 Braibanti, Ralph, 191n Anand Burgher, 144 ethnic group perspectives, 94-9 notions of fair and unfair, 103-5 cartesian arguments, 23 urban-rural community, 93-4 Casanova, Pablo Gonzales, 196n Anderson, Charles, 195n Chalmers, 195n Anderson, R. D., 187n Chola rulers, 143 Andrews, William G., 188n Christianity, 144, 145 Anglo-Saxon, 169, 180 Ciria, Alberto, 175, 196n Aristotle, 6 civic culture, viii ARMCO,154 Cohen, Ronald, 195n ashraf, 142 Cold War, 55 ashrams, 49 Columbia, 169 Asoka, 145 Communist and Marxist Parties, 123 Assad, Muhammad, 150, 193n Congress Party; Lahore, 55; Karachi, Astiz, Carlos A., 196n 55,66 Congress Socialist Party, 55 Bailey, F. G., 87, 190n Copley, A. R. H., 189n Baluchistan, 131 Corea, 147 Bandaranayake, S. W. R., 145 Costa Rica, 169 bandh, 122 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 15 Batgan, 146, 147 Critchley, T. A., 14, 187n Baru, Tushar Kanti, 192n Crozier, Michel, 25 Beeri, E., 192n Cuba, 172 Bellah, Robert, 193n Cunliffe, Marcus, 21 Bennett, George, 194n Bentsi-Enchill, 195n Daridranarayan, 59 bhadralok, 142 Das, M. N., 188n, 189n Bhambhri, C. P., 191n Davies, H. 0., 195n Bhattacharjea, Ajit, 189n Desai, Morarji, 62, 65, 188n Bhave, Vinoba, 70, 73 Dewey,John, 10,21

197 198 Index dharma, 45 Goyigama, 146, 147 democratic dharma, 70 Gujarat accountability movement, situational dharma, 45 120-1 social dharma, 45 Gupta, R. C., 189n duragraha, 50 Durava, 146, 147 Halpern, Manfred, 194n Diishman, 157 Hancock, Marlene R., 193n Haq ue, Azizul, 192n Egypt, 148; 151 Hassan, Parveen F eroze, 191 n Emergency, 75 Hausa/Fulani, 165, 166 Emerson, R. W., 21 Hayward, Jack, 25, 187n Ergil, Dogu, 194n Hena, 146 Erikson, Erik, 42, 188n Hermassi, Elbaki, 191n, 193n Hinduism, 144, 145 Fabian Socialism, 58 Hoffman, Stanley, 25, 188n Franda, Marcus, 191n Hossain, Kemal, 192n Frey, Frederick W., 194n Howe, Brian, 190n Huna, 146 Gabriel, Ralph H., 20, 178n Huntington, Samuel, ix, 173, 186n Gandhi, Indira Hussein, Asaf, 191n hounding of critics, 105 legacy in the making, 74-5 Iberic-Latin tradition, 169, 177, 180 pursuit of political power, 75 lbo, 165, 166 Gandhi, Mahatma India authority as an aberration, 48 democratic direction in cities and choice of means, 41 rural communities, 82-93 concern for social and political normative-pragmatic consequences, 43-4 guidance, 79-81; agents of democratic process, 57-8 change, 105-10; grass-roots legacy, 47-51 perspectives, 82-93; non-violence and suffering for obligations and constraints, moral cause, 41 93-9; political mobilisation, normative direction, 81 99-105; social reformers, 81 normative-pragmatic seven political legacies, 41-75; continuum, 41-2 range of normative-pragmatic racialism, 42 mix, 36-7, 75-7; traditional respect for human dignity, 42-3 emphasis on duty, 38-40 satyagraha, 48-51 theory and practice of political social dimension of moral obliga resistance, 110-13; Gandhi on tion,40 political resistance, 113-15; social problems raised to ethical Gandhians and Jurists, level,43-4 116-17; JP on political socially concerned saint, 44-7 resistance, 117-22; South Africa, 42 satyagrahic resistance, tapas, 41 111-16; violent political untouchability, 42-3 resistance, 122-4 Gandhi, M. K., 188n, 190n Iq bal, notions of genuine democracy, Geertz, Clifford, 153 134-5 gha;:i, 138 Iran, 158 Index 199

Islam, 126, 127, 128, 129, 145 Malinowski, B., 160 Islamic fundamentalism, 150 Malloy, James M., 195n Iyer, Raghavan N., 188n Mardin, Serif, 193n, 194n Marx, K., 171 Jahan, Rounaq, 191n, 192n Mau Mau, 160 Jainism, 143 Mboya, Lou, 162 Janata,66 Mehta, Balwantray, 189n jihad, 138 Melson, Robert, 195n Jiggins, Janice, 192n Mestizos, 178 Jinnah, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 137 meUa, 148 Judeo-Christian values, 127, 134 Mexico, 172 Kaira District, 64 Middleton, John, 195n KANU,163 Mitchell, W. C., 22, 187n Karamsad, 64 Moghul army, 138 Karava, 146, 147 Moor, 144 Karim, A. K. Nazmul, 192n Moore, Barrington, ix, 186n karuna, 148 Mujib, 140-2 Kaufman-Purcell, Susan, 196n Kearney, Robert N., 192n Nair, Bhaskaran M., 191n Kemal, Mustafa, 156, 157 Nanda, B. R., 188n Kenyatta,Jomo, 160, 162, 163, 194n N aoroji, Dadabhai, 39 Kerala, 123 Narain, Virendra, 191n Khadduri, Majid, 151, 193n Narayan, Jayaprakash, 40, 189n, Khan, Ayub, 129, 132, 136, 137 190n Khan, Liaquat Ali, 127, 129, 131, concept of freedom, 70-1 133,136,137 critic of liberal democracy, 68-70 Khan, Mohmmad Mohabat, 192n explorations into means, 71-3 Khan, Yahya, 129, 137 high normative expectations of Kikuyu, 160, 161, 162 public life, 68 Kirkpatrick,J.,196n importance ofpane hay at, 69-70 influence of Gandhi, 68-70 Ladinos, 178 JP and Indira, 71 Lambert, H. E., 194n legacy, 73-4 Landau, Jacob M., 194n problems of representative Laski, H., 15 democracy, 120-2 Lawson, Kay, 190n sarvodaya, bhoodan andjeevandan, Leiden, Karl, 158, 193n, 194 71-3 Lenczowski, George, 193n, 194n with Bhave, 70 Lerner, 158 Nasser, A. K., 55 Leys, Colin, 194n Naxalbari District, 123 liberalism, 58 NCNC,165 Linz,JuanJ.,195n Needler, Martin C., 196n Lipset, S. M., ix, 21, 158, 181, 186n, Nehru, Jawaharlal, 40, 188n 187n classical Indian civilisation and Locke, John, 3-4,7-8,58, 186n modernisation, 56 toksaMa, 58 commitment to democratic process, 57-9 Mackenzie, W.J. M., 16 on democracy, 57-9 Mahavasma, 145 differences with Gandhi, 52-5 200 Index

Nehru, Jawaharlal- continued Poitras, Guy E., 195n dilemma over Kashmir plebiscite, political culture, viii 54-5 political society legacy, 5~63 Argentina: army, labour and proteges, 62 church, 175-6; problems of pragmatic adaptability, 5~60 political society, 174-5 persuasion and accommodation, Bangladesh: problems of political 61-2 society, 13~42 political ideals and political Brazil: peculiarities of practice, 5&-7 authoritarianism, 173-4 normative-pragmatic balance, Britain: consensual limits of 51-5 politics, 12-14; conquest of non-alignment, 55 violence, 14; political parties, socialism, 58-9 15-16; representative and Western ideologies in Indian accountable government, conditions, 55-6 14-15 modernisation, science and France: anomic politics, 25-6; technology, 60-3 democracy in practice, 24-5; Nehru andJP, 117-19 recurring problems, 23-4 Nettl, J. P., 187n Kenya: multiracial society, 161-2; Nixon, Richard, 105 problems of political society, North West Frontier Province, 131 15~63 Nottingham, John, 194n Latin America: corporative system, 170-1; problems of O'Connell, James, 195n political society, 16~72 Odinga, 0., 162, 194n Mexico: problems of political O'Donnell, Guillermo A., 195n society, 177-8; political Olusanya, G. 0., 194n values, 178-9 operational imperatives, x-xi The Middle East: informal Ottaman, 157 political process, 153; Ozbudun, Ergun, 194n problems of political society, 14~53; role of religion, 150-2 Paden, John, 195n Nigeria: Biafran cessationist Palmer, Norman D., 193n movement, 164; legacies, panchayat, 57: learning ofdos and 164-6; problems of political don'ts in panchayats, 88-93 society, 163-4, 16&-9 Pang, Eul-Soo, 196n Pakistan: distortion of political Parsons, T., 171, 187n process, 12~33; intellectuals, Patel, Sardar Vallabhbhai, 40 bureaucrats and army, 135-9; goals as target, 65 Islam as a source of norms integrations of princely states, 63 and ideals, 12&-7, 139; normative-pragmatic realism, Islamic notions of state, 63-4 12&-9; legacy of Islam, 133-5; political realism, 64-5 problems of political society, Patel, T. K., 65 12&-9 Patidars, 64 Saudi Arabia: consultative pelantiya, 147 decision-making process, Peron, 175, 176 154-5 Phadnis, U rmila, 192n Sri Lanka: Buddhism, 145-6; Index 201

political society satyagraha, 46, 49,114-17,121 Sri Lanka: Buddhism - continued satyagrahis, 49 language and separatism, Sayeed, Khaleed B., 191n 147-9; problems of political Schmitter, Phillipe C., 196n society, 143-4; religion, Scott, Robert E., 196n ethnicity, family and politics, Senanayake, 145, 147 144-7 Shah, Ghanshyam, 190n Turkey: problems of political shaheed, 138 opposition, 156--7; role of Shaivism, 143 Young Turks, 156 sharia, 134, 158 United States: democracy as an Shastri, Lalbahadur, 40 article offaith, 20-1; party effective combination of formation, 21-2; perfectability normative-pragmatic mix, of man, 17-18; political 66--8 access, 19-20; public and humble social origin and realistic private 'fit', I B-19 approach, 68 Post, K. W.j., 195n Indo-Pakistan conflict, 68 Power, Paul F., 188n primary emphasis on agriculture, Prasad, Bimla, 189n 67 PRI, 177, 178 Silvert, K. H., 195n Punjab,131 Sind, 131 Pye, Lucian, viii, 186n Singh, Charan, 62 Singhalese, 144 Quran, 150 Sinha, B. P., 190n Siriweera, W. I., 192n Radical Party, 175 SLFP, 144, 147 Rajagopalachari, C., 40 Smock, D. R., 195n ascetic life-style, 65 Snow, Peter G., 196n demanding intellect, 65 social and secular obligations, 3B-40 personal morality and flexible Socialism, 58, 59 public policy, 6.'r6 Somjee, A. H., 177n, 186n, 189n, pragmatic philosophy, 66 190n, 192n Swatantra Party, 66 Steed, Michael, 194n Ram, J agjivan, 62 Stepan, Alfred, 173, 195n Ranade,39 Sudanese, Mahdiyya, 153 Rashiduzzaman, M., 192n Sukarno,55 Rawls,John, 10-11, 187n Sunnah, 150 Rodiya, 146 Swamenda, 195n Roet, Riordan, 195n Szyliowicz, Joseph S., 194n Roseberg, Carl G., 194n Rothchild, Donald, 194n Tachau,Frank,193n Roy, Raja Rammohun, 39, 81 Tahmankar, D. V., 189n Rudolph, Lloyd and Susanne, 88, Tamil, 144, 147, 148 190n TAMIL EELAM, 148 Tashkent, 68 sadhus,46 Tawney, R. H., 187n Salagama, 146--7 Telangana, 123 Santhanam, K., 190n Thompson, David, 187n sarvodaya,44 Tilak,39 202 Index

Tito,55 Warnapala, W. A. Wishwa, 192n de Tocqueville, ix, 4, ~9, 186n, 187n Washington, George, 21 TULF,148 Webb, S. and B., 15 Tunisia, 149 Weber, Max, 9-10,171, 186n, 187n Wenner, Manfred, 193n ulema, 128, 151, 154 West Bengal, 123 UNP, 144, 147 Wiarda, Howard]., 195n upeka,148 Wickremsinghe, 147 Vahumpara, 146, 147 Wijewardhene, 147 Vargas Revolution, 173 Wilcox, Wayne A., 191n, 193n Varma, S. P., 191n Wilson, A. ]eyaratnam, 192n Varnaashram dharma, 104 Wriggins, Howard, 193n Veliz, Claudio, 195n Wright, Vincent, 188n Venezuela, 169 Verba, Sidney, viii, 179, 186n, 196n Yoruba, 165, 166 Vitikiotis, P.]., 193n Vorys, Karl von, 191 n Zafarullah, Habbib Mohmmad, 192n Zeldin, Theodore, 187n Wahhabis, 153 zero-sum game, 105, 168 Wahhabism, 154 Ziaur Rahman, 141 Walpole, Howard, 195n Ziring, Lawrence, 191n