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The Texas Moment: Breakaway Republics and Contested Sovereignty in North America, 1836-1846

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The Texas Moment: Breakaway Republics and Contested Sovereignty in North America, 1836-1846 THE TEXAS MOMENT: BREAKAWAY REPUBLICS AND CONTESTED SOVEREIGNTY IN NORTH AMERICA, 1836-1846 A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Thomas W. Richards, Jr. December 2016 Examining Committee Members: Andrew Isenberg, Advisory Chair, Department of History Travis Glassson, Department of History Jessica Roney, Department of History David Waldstreicher, External Member, CUNY Graduate School Rachel St. John, External Member, University of California-Davis © Copyright 2016 by T hom as W. Richards, Jr. All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Between 1845 and 1848, the United States doubled the size of its land holdings in North America, as Texas, Oregon, California, New Mexico, and other western regions were placed under the umbrella of U.S. sovereignty. Echoing John L. O’Sullivan’s famous phrase, historians have deemed these acquisitions “Manifest Destiny,” and have assumed that U.S. expansion – whether for good or ill – was foreordained. Yet this understanding fundamentally fails to take into account the history of the decade prior to 1846, when Americans throughout the continent believed that it was more likely that the United States would not expand beyond its borders. Examining five groups of Americans operating at the nations geographic and/or social margins, this dissertation argues that these groups hoped to achieve sovereignty outside of the United States. Nurtured by Jacksonian rhetoric that celebrated local government and personal ambition, and wary of – and at times running from – a United States mired in depression and uncertainty, these Americans were, in effect, forming their own “breakaway republics.” To validate their goal of self-sovereignty, breakaway republicans looked to the independent Republic of Texas, often referring to Texas to explain their objectives, or looking to Texas as an ally in achieving them. Between 1836 and 1845 – what this dissertation defines as “the Texas Moment” – Texas’ independent existence presupposed a different map of North America, where peoples of the northern, southern, and western borderlands carved out polities for themselves. With Texas in mind, even Americans who did not share the goals of breakaway republicans believed that independent American-led polities on the continent were likely, acceptable, and perhaps even desired. iii However, to a cabal of Democratic expansionists and James K. Polk in particular, this future was unacceptable. After winning the presidency after an unlikely series of contingencies in 1844, Polk and his allies laid the groundwork for a dramatic expansion of the U.S. state – and thereby a dramatic expansion of U.S. territory. Their actions ended the Texas Moment, thereby subsuming the actions of breakaway republicans and hiding their collective existence from later historians. Ultimately, the events of the mid- 1840s were hardly the logical culmination of America’s expansionist destiny, but a profound rupture of the status quo. iv To Fran. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS While I am officially the sole author of this dissertation, this hides the reality of writing any work of some length. In truth, this dissertation is a collaborative work, as countless individuals dedicated an immense amount of time and gave significant me support to see the work to completion. Thanks must begin with my committee. Drew Isenberg was a dedicated advisor, and provided ceaseless encouragement of my work from its infancy. It is no coincidence that the germ of this dissertation began in his research class on the American West, where his assignments and provocations started me thinking about alternatives to the Manifest Destiny narrative. These provocations continued through the final days of writing, and have continued to strengthen my arguments. It was Drew who first argued that Western History is simply a different way of asking questions about American History, and this insight is at the heart of this work. This dissertation could not have been written without him. David Waldstreicher has been a stalwart guide and mentor, and has acted as an unofficial second advisor. If Drew provoked me to “face west,” then David was my inspiration to turn around and also “face east.” My intrigue with American politics and interest in American nationalism began in his class on the American Revolution, and he offered tremendous encouragement when I told him I was going to address all these issues in a place and time seemingly far different from the Revolutionary era (but perhaps not so different after all!). In all likelihood I made more intellectual progress towards completing this dissertation during our meetings at the City Line Deli than I did at any vi other time or place over the past five years. This dissertation could not have been written without him either. The rest of my committee both guided me and challenged me in so many different and helpful ways. Travis Glasson was a committed mentor during my five years at Temple, and he always was willing me listen to me and offer advice. I began investigating issues of empire in his class on 18th-century Britain, and during the dissertation-writing stage he always helped me see the bigger picture. Jessica Roney was adept at seeing the holes in my arguments, and her pointed questions made me a significantly better scholar. Jonathan Wells took the time to read and comment on every chapter before his departure for Michigan. Although Jon’s name does not appear as a committee-member, he was integral nonetheless, particularly in helping me tighten my writing, and helping me see how my work fits into the larger field. Finally, Rachel St. John was the ideal outside reader. She agreed to read my massive tome with eagerness, and her advice in regards to both substance and process has been invaluable. This dissertation is also a product of the classes and connections I made during my five years at Temple. In addition to the Temple professors named above in my committee, several more must be mentioned. Harvey Neptune asked more provocative questions than I thought could exist, some of which this dissertation has tried to answer. Gregory Urwin always offered significant support, and never allowed me to forget that military power is one crucial aspect of this work. Long before I returned to school fulltime, Joseph Foster provided my first introduction to American historiography in my first Temple class. Petra Goedde ran a wonderful colloquium that allowed me to share a chapter of my dissertation for the very first time in a public forum. David Thomas was vii my fellow muse in the Temple community, and so many of my thoughts about American history emerged through our daily conversations, car rides, and trips to local watering holes. Catherine Murray’s encouragement and feedback was unfailing. Despite investigating current events, the rest of my cohort of “historians” offered ceaseless support of my “ancient” historical inquiries, especially John Worsencroft, Jess Bird, Seth Tannenbaum, and Tom Reinstein. Grant Scribner, Steve Hausman, Sam Davis, Larry Kessler, Elliott Drago, and all members of the Temple dissertation colloquium all read portions of my work, and offered important insights. For the past year, the McNeil Center for Early American Studies provided a rigorous but welcoming atmosphere, and its collection of scholars helped my ideas come to fruition. The McNeil Center truly became my home away from home, and the place where I made the most strides in my scholarship. For this, I have many to thank. As a scholar, leader, teacher, and mentor, Dan Richter was a boon to my work. Fellow Temple graduate Brenna Holland provided my opening into the McNeil Center community; not only did she read and comment on my work, but was remarkably patient with my constant badgering about any and all Ph.D. questions. Sarah Rodriguez and Kevin Waite helped me place my work among western historians, and Max Dagenais helped me integrate Canada into the broader project. The cohort of 2015-2016 McNeil fellows were always there for me to test ideas, and daily discussions with them taught me how to become a historian – and thus it is appropriate to name them all: Jessica Blake, Daniel Couch, Lori Daggar, Elizabeth Eager, Rachel Engl, Alex Finley, Nick Gliserman, Andrew Inchiosa, Christopher Jones, Lauren Kimball, Alex Manevitz, Don James McLaughlin, Tony Perry, Gabriel Rocha, Laura Soderberg, and Rachel Walker. viii Over the past five years, historians of various interests and background have read portions of my work, and offered me comments and encouragement. Brent Rogers took the time to read and comment on Chapter Five, and also provided an introduction to the archives at the LDS Church History. Along with Brent, fellow Joseph Smith Paper colleagues Gerrit Dirkmaat and Matthew Grow were supportive of my integration of Mormon scholarship with U.S. history. At various SHEAR annual conferences, Michael Morrison, Jason Opal, Frank Towers, and Robert Richard read and commented on portions, and at the WHA conference Dael Norwood did the same. At the Western History Dissertators Workshop, held at SMU’s Taos campus and sponsored by SMU, I received valuable suggestions and critiques of the project from countless western historians, particularly from Andy Graybill, Josh Reid, Louis Warren, John Faragher, and Bill Deverell. This dissertation was based on information gathered at the collections of a great many research libraries across North America, all of which possessed dedicated archivists who assisted me on a daily basis: the Latter-Day Saints Church History Museum, the Bancroft Library, the Oregon Historical Society, the University of Puget Sound’s archives, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, the Detroit Public Library, the William P. Clements Library, the Bentley Historical Library, the Ontario Archives, and St. Lawrence University’s archives. The Charles Redd Center for Western History and the Bancroft Library also provided generous financial support for my research.
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