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Evaluating Juniper Canopy Cover Change

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Evaluating Juniper Canopy Cover Change EVALUATING JUNIPER CANOPY COVER CHANGE FROM 1936-1997 AROUND WUPATKI USING REPEAT AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY By Cynthia L. Parker A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Rural Geography Northern Arizona University December 2009 Approved: Graydon Lennis Berlin, Ph.D., Chair Christina B. Kennedy, Ph.D. Margaret M. Moore, Ph.D. Paul Whitefield, National Park Service ABSTRACT EVALUATING JUNIPER COVER CHANGE FROM 1936-1997 IN THE WUPATKI AREA USING REPEAT AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY CYNTHIA L. PARKER There is general consensus among scientists that there has been an increase in the range and density of pinyon/juniper (PJ) woodlands across the west over the last 150 years. In many locations, the pinyon and juniper trees have been recorded as moving into areas that were historically open grasslands. As trees move into open grassland areas, important ecological changes begin to occur. For example, while elk and mule deer are commonly found in wooded areas, pronghorn show a distinct preference for open grassland areas. In Wupatki National Monument (NM), a unit of the National Park Service (NPS) located in north central Arizona, pronghorn are considered a species of concern. Recent studies in Wupatki NM, and the adjacent areas of the Coconino National Forest (NF), generally agree that there has been an increase in the range and density of regional PJ woodlands. Quantifying the change that has occurred would be useful to the National Park Service natural resource managers. Continuous quadrats with a one hectare grid size, and a classification system that defined six levels of canopy cover, were applied to two sets of aerial photographs to quantify the change. The first set of air photos was taken in 1936 by the Soil ii Conservation Survey (SCS); the second was taken in 1997 by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). This effort was designed to be a landscape-scale study, and examined 13,490 hectares. Approximately half of this area is within Wupatki NM, while the other half is within the Coconino NF. The results of this study show that approximately 27% of the 1936 landscape (3,695 ha) was open, treeless grassland. By 1997, this area had been reduced to 9.5% of the landscape (1,290 ha). A full two-thirds of the previously treeless grasslands in 1936 had obtained some number of trees by 1997. The rest of the landscape showed various amounts of canopy cover increase. The greatest increase occurred in the closed woodland designation, which revealed an increase in area of just under 7%. This study suggests there is marked instability at the grassland end of the ecological spectrum in the study area, while there is considerable stability at the wooded end. Information of such historical trends are useful to land managers charged with ecological preservation. Decisions on issues such as grazing and fire management may be informed by the results of this study. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the members of my committee, Graydon Lennis Berlin (Geography), Chair, Margaret M. Moore (Forestry), Christina B. Kennedy (Geography), and Paul Whitefield (National Park Service), for their encouragement, guidance, and support. The process of producing my thesis was not always smooth, but they stuck with me through all the difficult times. I would also like to thank the National Park Service for providing me with my aerial photographic data set, Mike Hanneman (United States Forest Service) for providing me with repeat terrestrial photographs and other information concerning the Coconino National Forest, and Phil Mlsna (NAU Department of Engineering) for his help in producing my repeat terrestrial photographs, and Debbie Martin (Administrative Assistant, NAU Department of Geography, Planning and Recreation) for her patient and consistent help in all the small details. Finally, I owe the debt of deepest gratitude to my family, friends and co-workers for their patience, and faith in me; and most especially to my friend and partner, Mike Bencic, for generously providing help in the field, for endless support and encouragement, and for keeping me laughing, even in the stressful times. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 - Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 2 - Literature Review ............................................................................................... 9 Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands ........................................................................................ 11 Climate and Elevation ....................................................................................... 14 Soils................................................................................................................... 17 Understory Vegetation ...................................................................................... 18 Changes in Woodland Cover ..................................................................................... 20 Descriptions and Theories................................................................................. 21 Fire .................................................................................................................... 29 Aerial Photography .................................................................................................... 33 Historical Aerial Photography .......................................................................... 33 Modern Aerial Photography ............................................................................. 39 Repeat Aerial Photography ............................................................................... 40 Repeat Terrestrial Photography ........................................................................ 40 Contiguous Quadrats .................................................................................................. 41 Chapter 3 - Study Area ....................................................................................................... 44 Topography and Geology .......................................................................................... 44 Soils............................................................................................................................ 48 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 49 Vegetation .................................................................................................................. 52 Fire History ................................................................................................................ 56 Cultural History ......................................................................................................... 58 Grazing History .......................................................................................................... 59 Chapter 4 - Methodology .................................................................................................... 61 v Research Objective .................................................................................................... 61 Methods...................................................................................................................... 61 Image Descriptions ........................................................................................... 62 Image Processing .............................................................................................. 70 Extraction of Tree Data From The Images .............................................. 73 Continuous Quadrat Grid ......................................................................... 74 Classification System ............................................................................... 74 Manual Classification .............................................................................. 78 Accuracy Assessment ....................................................................................... 82 Field Data Collection Site Selection ........................................................ 82 Field Data Collection ............................................................................... 85 Ancillary Data .......................................................................................... 93 Chapter 5 - Results and Analysis ........................................................................................ 96 Image-to-Image Registration Results ........................................................................ 96 Classification Results ............................................................................................... 100 Change Analysis ............................................................................................. 103 Accuracy Assessment .............................................................................................
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