Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Network Architecture and Services Telegraph Networks & Message Switching Networks and Computer Networks & Future Network Architectures and Services Key Factors in Network Evolution Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Network Architecture and Services Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere. E-mail

E-mail server

Exchange of text messages via servers Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere. Web Browsing

Web server

Retrieval of information from web servers Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere. Instant Messaging

Direct exchange of text messages Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere. Telephone

Real-time bidirectional voice exchange Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere.

Cell phone

Real-time voice exchange with mobile users Communication Services & Applications z A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. z Communication services & applications are everywhere.

Short Message Service

Fast delivery of short text messages Many other examples! z Peer-to-peer applications z Napster, Gnutella, Kazaa file exchange z Searching for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence (SETI) z Audio & video streaming z Network games z On-line purchasing z Text messaging in PDAs, cell phones (SMS) z Voice-over- Services & Applications z Service: Basic information transfer capability z Internet transfer of individual block of information z Internet reliable transfer of a stream of bytes z Real-time transfer of a voice signal z Applications build on communication services z E-mail & web build on reliable stream service z and modems build on basic telephone service z New applications build on multiple networks z SMS builds on Internet reliable stream service and cellular telephone text messaging What is a communication network?

Communication Network

z The equipment (hardware & software) and facilities that provide the basic communication service z Virtually invisible to the user; Usually represented by a cloud

z Equipment z Facilities z Routers, servers, z Copper wires, coaxial , multiplexers, cables, hubs, modems, … z Ducts, conduits, telephone poles … How are communication networks designed and operated? Communication Network Architecture z Network architecture: the plan that specifies how the network is built and operated z Architecture is driven by the network services z Overall communication process is complex z Network architecture partitions overall communication process into separate functional areas called layers Next we will trace evolution of three network architectures: telegraph, telephone, and computer networks Network Architecture Evolution

1.0E+14 1.0E+12 ?

1.0E+10

1.0E+08

1.0E+06

per second 1.0E+04

Information transfer 1.0E+02

1.0E+00 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000

Next Telegraph Telephone Internet, Optical Generation networks networks & networks Internet Network Architecture Evolution z Telegraph Networks z Message switching & digital transmission z Telephone Networks z Circuit Switching z Analog transmission → digital transmission z Mobile communications z Internet z Packet switching & computer applications z Next-Generation Internet z Multiservice packet switching network Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Telegraph Networks & Message Switching Telegraphs & Long-Distance Communications

Approaches to long-distance communications z Courier: physical transport of the message z Messenger pigeons, pony express, FedEx z Telegraph: message is transmitted across a network using signals z Drums, , mirrors, smoke, flags, … z Electricity, light z Telegraph delivers message much sooner Optical (Visual) Telegraph z invented in the 1790’s z mimicked a person with outstretched arms with flags in each hand z Different angle combinations of arms & hands generated hundreds of possible signals z Code for enciphering messages kept secret z Signal could propagate 800 km in 3 minutes! Message Switching z Network nodes were created where several optical telegraph Network North lines met (Paris and other sites) line z Store-and-Forward Operation: West z Messages arriving on each line line were decoded East z Next-hop in route determined by line destination address of a message South z Each message was carried by hand line to next line, and stored until operator became available for next transmission Electric Telegraph

z William Sturgeon Electro-magnet (1825) z Electric current in a wire wrapped around a piece of iron generates a magnetic force z Joseph Henry (1830) z Current over 1 mile of wire to ring a bell z (1835) z Pulses of current deflect electromagnet to generate dots & dashes z Experimental telegraph line over 40 miles (1840) z Signal propagates at the speed of light!!! z Approximately 2 x 108 meters/second in cable Digital Communications z Morse code converts text message into sequence of dots and dashes z Use transmission system designed to convey dots and dashes

Morse Morse Morse Morse Code Code Code Code

A ·— J ·——— S ··· 2 ··——— B —··· K —·— T — 3 ···—— C —·—· L ·—·· U ··— 4 ····— D —·· M —— V ···— 5 ····· E · N —· W ·—— 6 —···· F ··—· O ——— X —··— 7 ——··· G ——· P ·——· Y —·—— 8 ———·· H ···· Q ——·— Z ——·· 9 ————· I ·· R ·—· 1 ·———— 0 ————— Electric Telegraph Networks z Electric telegraph networks exploded z Message switching & Store-and-Forward operation z Key elements: Addressing, Routing, Forwarding z Optical telegraph networks disappeared

Message Message Message Source Message

Switches Destination Baudot Telegraph Multiplexer z Operator 25-30 words/minute z but a wire can carry much more z Baudot multiplexer: Combine 4 signals in 1 wire z Binary block code (ancestor of ASCII code) z A character represented by 5 bits z Time division z Binary codes for characters are interleaved z Framing is required to recover characters from the binary sequence in the multiplexed signal z Keyboard converts characters to bits Baudot Telegraph Multiplexer

Keyboard

… Paper A Tape 3 A Baudot Printer 2 A Baudot 1 Multiplexer Demultiplexer …B Paper 2 B 1 Tape Printer C 1 C 2 … …A2D1C1B1A1 Paper Tape D 1 Printer D 2 3 D … 5 bits / character Paper Tape Printer Elements of Telegraph Network Architecture z Digital transmission z Text messages converted into symbols (dots/dashes, zeros/ones) z Transmission system designed to convey symbols z Multiplexing z Framing needed to recover text characters z Message Switching z Messages contain source & destination addresses z Store-and-Forward: Messages forwarded hop-by-hop across network z Routing according to destination address Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Telephone Networks and Circuit Switching Bell’s Telephone

z (1875) working on harmonic telegraph to multiplex telegraph signals z Discovered voice signals can be transmitted directly z Microphone converts voice pressure variation (sound) into analogous electrical signal z Loudspeaker converts electrical signal back into sound z Telephone patent granted in 1876 z Bell Telephone Company founded in 1877

Signal for “ae” as in cat

Microphone Loudspeaker analog electrical soundsignal sound Bell’s Sketch of Telephone Signaling z Signaling required to establish a call z Flashing light and ringing devices to alert the called party of incoming call z Called party information to operator to establish calls

Signaling + voice signal transfer The N2 Problem z For N users to be fully connected directly z Requires N(N – 1)/2 connections z Requires too much space for cables z Inefficient & costly since connections not always on

1 N = 1000 N(N – 1)/2 = 499500 N 2

. . .

4 3 Telephone Pole Congestion Circuit Switching

z Patchcord panel invented in 1877 z Operators connect users on demand z Establish circuit to allow electrical current to flow from inlet to outlet z Only N connections required to central office

1 N

N –1

2 3 Manual Switching Strowger Switch z Human operators intelligent & flexible z But expensive and not always discreet z Strowger invented automated switch in 1888 z Each current pulse advances wiper by 1 position z User dialing controls connection setup z Decimal telephone numbering system z Hierarchical network structure simplifies routing z Area code, exchange (CO), station number 1st digit 2nd digit . . . 0 0

0 . . 9 ...... 0 9 9 9 Strowger Switch Hierarchical Network Structure Toll CO = central office Tandem

Tandem CO CO CO CO CO

Telephone subscribers connected to local CO (central office) Tandem & Toll switches connect CO’s Three Phases of a Connection

1. Telephone Pick up phone network

Dial tone. 2. Telephone network Connection set up Dial number 3. Telephone network Network selects route; 4. Telephone Sets up connection; network Called party alerted

Information transfer 5. Telephone network Exchange voice signals

Connection 6. Telephone release network Hang up. Computer Connection Control z A computer controls connection in telephone switch z Computers exchange signaling messages to: z Coordinate set up of telephone connections z To implement new services such as caller ID, voice mail, . . . z To enable mobility and roaming in cellular networks z “Intelligence” inside the network z A separate signaling network is required

Computer Signaling

Switch connects Voice ...... Inlets to Outlets Digitization of Telephone Network z Pulse Code Modulation digital voice signal z Voice gives 8 bits/sample x 8000 samples/sec = 64x103 bps z Time Division Multiplexing for digital voice z T-1 multiplexing (1961): 24 voice signals = 1.544x106 bps z Digital Switching (1980s) z Switch TDM signals without conversion to analog form z Digital Cellular Telephony (1990s) z Optical Digital Transmission (1990s) z One OC-192 optical signal = 10x109 bps z One optical fiber carries 160 OC-192 signals = 1.6x1012 bps! All digital transmission, switching, and control Digital Transmission Evolution

Wavelength 1.0E+14 Division Multiplexing 1.0E+12 ?

1.0E+10

1.0E+08 SONET 1.0E+06 T-1 Carrier Optical

per second 1.0E+04 Carrier Baudot

Information transfer 1.0E+02

1.0E+00 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 Morse Elements of Telephone Network Architecture z Digital transmission & switching z Digital voice; Time Division Multiplexing z Circuit switching z User signals for call setup and tear-down z Route selected during connection setup z End-to-end connection across network z Signaling coordinates connection setup z Hierarchical Network z Decimal numbering system z Hierarchical structure; simplified routing; scalability z Signaling Network z Intelligence inside the network Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Computer Networks & Packet Switching Evolution Overview z 1950s: Telegraph technology adapted to computers z 1960s: Dumb terminals access shared host computer z SABRE airline reservation system z 1970s: Computers connect directly to each other z ARPANET packet switching network z TCP/IP internet protocols z z 1980s & 1990s: New applications and Internet growth z Commercialization of Internet z E-mail, file transfer, web, P2P, . . . z Internet traffic surpasses voice traffic What is a protocol? z Communications between computers requires very specific unambiguous rules z A protocol is a set of rules that governs how two or more communicating parties are to interact z Internet Protocol (IP) z Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) z HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) z Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) A familiar protocol Caller Dials 411 “What city”? System Caller replies replies “Springfield” “What name?” System Caller replies replies “Simpson” “Thank you, please hold” System replies Caller waits “Do you have a first name or Operator street?” replies Caller replies “Evergreen Terrace” “Thank you, please hold” Operator Caller replies waits System Caller replies with dials number Terminal-Oriented Networks z Early computer systems very expensive z Time-sharing methods allowed multiple terminals to share local computer z Remote access via telephone modems

Terminal . . . Terminal

Telephone Modem Network Modem Terminal Host computer Medium Access Control z Dedicated communication lines were expensive z Terminals generated messages sporadically z Frames carried messages to/from attached terminals z Address in frame header identified terminal z Medium Access Controls for sharing a line were developed z Example: Polling protocol on a multidrop line

Polling frames & output frames

input frames

Terminal Terminal . . . Terminal

Terminals at different locations in a city Host computer Must avoid collisions on inbound line Statistical Multiplexing

z Statistical multiplexer allows a line to carry frames that contain messages to/from multiple terminals z Frames are buffered at multiplexer until line becomes available, i.e. store-and-forward z Address in frame header identifies terminal z Header carries other control information

Frame

CRC Information Header Terminal

Terminal

Header Information CRC . . . Terminal

Host computer Multiplexer Error Control Protocol z Communication lines introduced errors z Error checking codes used on frames z “Cyclic Redundancy Check” (CRC) calculated based on frame header and information payload, and appended z Header also carries ACK/NAK control information z Retransmission requested when errors detected

CRC Information Header

Terminal Header Information CRC Tree Topology Networks z National & international terminal-oriented networks z Routing was very simple (to/from host)

z Each network typically handled a single application

.

. . . . . San T New York

. .

Francisco .

T . City

. . Chicago T Atlanta Computer-to-Computer Networks z As cost of computing dropped, terminal-oriented networks viewed as too inflexible and costly z Need to develop flexible computer networks z Interconnect computers as required z Support many applications z Application Examples z File transfer between arbitrary computers z Execution of a program on another computer z Multiprocess operation over multiple computers Packet Switching z Network should support multiple applications z Transfer arbitrary message size z Low delay for interactive applications z But in store-and-forward operation, long messages induce high delay on interactive messages z Packet switching introduced z Network transfers packets using store-and-forward z Packets have maximum length z Break long messages into multiple packets z ARPANET testbed led to many innovations ARPANET Packet Switching

Host generates message Source packet switch converts message to packet(s) Packets transferred independently across network Destination packet switch reasembles message Destination packet switch delivers message

Packet Switch Packet 2 Message Packet 2 Message

Packet Packet Switch Switch

Packet 1 Packet Packet 1 Packet Switch Packet 1 Switch ARPANET Routing Routing is highly nontrivial in mesh networks No connection setup prior to packet transmission Packets header includes source & destination addresses Packet switches have table with next hop per destination Routing tables calculated by packet switches using distributed algorithm

Packet Switch Hdr Packet

Packet Packet Switch Switch Dest: Next Hop: Packet Packet xyz abc Switch Switch wvr edf Other ARPANET Protocols Error control between adjacent packet switches

Congestion control between source & destination packet switches limit number of packets in transit

Flow control between host computers prevents buffer overflow Packet Switch Error Control

Packet Congestion Packet Switch Control Switch

Packet Packet Switch Switch Flow Control ARPANET Applications z ARPANET introduced many new applications z Email, remote login, file transfer, … z Intelligence at the edge

AMES McCLELLAN UTAH BOULDER GWC CASE

RADC ILL LINC CARN AMES USC MIT MITRE UCSB

STAN SCD ETAC

UCLA RAND TINKER BBN HARV NBS Ethernet Local Area Network z In 1980s, affordable workstations available z Need for low-cost, high-speed networks z To interconnect local workstations z To access local shared resources (printers, storage, servers) z Low cost, high-speed communications with low error rate possible using z Ethernet is the standard for high-speed wired access to computer networks Ethernet Medium Access Control z Network interface card (NIC) connects workstation to LAN z Each NIC has globally unique address z Frames are broadcast into coaxial cable z NICs listen to medium for frames with their address z Transmitting NICs listen for collisions with other stations, and abort and reschedule retransmissions

Transceivers The Internet z Different network types emerged for data transfer between computers z ARPA also explored packet switching using satellite and packet radio networks z Each network has its protocols and is possibly built on different technologies z Internetworking protocols required to enable communications between computers attached to different networks z Internet: a network of networks Internet Protocol (IP) z Routers (gateways) interconnect different networks z Host computers prepare IP packets and transmit them over their attached network z Routers forward IP packets across networks z Best-effort IP transfer service, no retransmission

Net 1 Net 2

Router Addressing & Routing z Hierarchical address: Net ID + Host ID z IP packets routed according to Net ID z Routers compute routing tables using distributed algorithm H

H Net 3 G Net 1 G G G Net 5 Net 4 H Net 2 G G H Transport Protocols z Host computers run two transport protocols on top of IP to enable process-to-process communications z User Datagram Protocol (UDP) enables best-effort transfer of individual block of information z Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) enables reliable transfer of a stream of bytes

Transport Protocol

Internet Names and IP Addresses z Routing is done based on 32-bit IP addresses z Dotted-decimal notation z 128.100.11.1 z Hosts are also identified by name z Easier to remember z Hierarchical name structure z tesla.comm.utoronto.edu z Domain Name System (DNS) provided conversion between names and addresses Internet Applications z All Internet applications run on TCP or UDP z TCP: HTTP (web); SMTP (e-mail); FTP (file transfer; telnet (remote terminal) z UDP: DNS, RTP (voice & multimedia) z TCP & UDP incorporated into computer operating systems z Any application designed to operate over TCP or UDP will run over the Internet!!! Elements of Computer Network Architecture z Digital transmission z Exchange of frames between adjacent equipment z Framing and error control z Medium access control regulates sharing of broadcast medium. z Addresses identify attachment to network or internet. z Transfer of packets across a packet network z Distributed calculation of routing tables Elements of Computer Network Architecture z Congestion control inside the network z Internetworking across multiple networks using routers z Segmentation and reassembly of messages into packets at the ingress to and egress from a network or internetwork z End-to-end transport protocols for process-to-process communications z Applications that build on the transfer of messages between computers. z Intelligence is at the edge of the network. Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Future Network Architectures and Services Trends in Network Evolution z It’s all about services z Building networks involves huge expenditures z Services that generate revenues drive the network architecture z Current trends z Packet switching vs. circuit switching z Multimedia applications z More versatile signaling z End of trust z Many service providers and overlay networks z Networking is a business Packet vs. Circuit Switching z Architectures appear and disappear over time z Telegraph (message switching) z Telephone (circuit switching) z Internet (packet switching) z Trend towards packet switching at the edge z IP enables rapid introduction of new applications z New cellular voice networks packet-based z Soon IP will support real-time voice and telephone network will gradually be replaced z However, large packet flows easier to manage by circuit-like methods Optical Circuit Switching z Optical signal transmission over fiber can carry huge volumes of information (Tbps) z Optical signal processing very limited z Optical logic circuits bulky and costly z Optical packet switching will not happen soon z Optical-to-Electronic conversion is expensive z Maximum electronic speeds << Tbps z Parallel electronic processing & high expense z Thus trend towards optical circuit switching in the core Multimedia Applications z Trend towards digitization of all media z Digital voice standard in cell phones z Music cassettes replaced by CDs and MP3’s z Digital cameras replacing photography z Video: digital storage and transmission z Analog VCR cassettes largely replaced by DVDs z Analog broadcast TV to be replaced by digital TV z VCR cameras/recorders to be replaced by digital video recorders and cameras z High-quality network-based multimedia applications now feasible More Versatile Signaling z Signaling inside the network z Connectionless packet switching keeps network simple & avoids large scale signaling complexity z Large packet flows easier to manage using circuit- like methods that require signaling z Optical paths also require signaling z Generalized signaling protocols being developed z End-to-End Signaling z Session-oriented applications require signaling between the endpoints (not inside the network) z Session Initiation Protocol taking off End of Trust z Security Attacks z Spam z Denial of Service attacks z Viruses z Impersonators z Firewalls & Filtering z Control flow of traffic/data from Internet z Protocols for privacy, integrity and authentication Servers & Services z Many Internet applications involve interaction between client and server computers z Client and servers are at the edge of the Internet z SMTP, HTTP, DNS, … z Enhanced services in telephone network also involve processing from servers z Caller ID, voice mail, mobility, roaming, . . . z These servers are inside the telephone network z Internet-based servers at the edge can provide same functionality z In future, multiple service providers can coexist and serve the same customers P2P and Overlay Networks z Client resources under-utilized in client-server z Peer-to-Peer applications enable sharing z Napster, Gnutella, Kazaa z Processing & storage (SETI@home) z Information & files (MP3s) z Creation of virtual distributed servers z P2P creates transient overlay networks z Users (computers) currently online connect directly to each other to allow sharing of their resources z Huge traffic volumes a challenge to network management z Huge opportunity for new businesses Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Billing z Communication like transportation networks z Traffic flows need to be monitored and controlled z Tolls have to be collected z Roads have to be maintained z Need to forecast traffic and plan network growth z Highly-developed in telephone network z Entire organizations address OAM & Billing z Becoming automated for flexibility & reduced cost z Under development for IP networks Chapter 1 Communication Networks and Services

Key Factors in Network Evolution Success Factors for New Services

z Technology not only factor in success of a new service z Three factors considered in new telecom services

Can there be Can it be demand for the Market New Technology implemented cost- service? Service effectively?

Is the service allowed? Regulation Transmission Technology z Relentless improvement in transmission z High-speed transmission in copper pairs z DSL Internet Access z Higher call capacity in cellular networks z Lower cost cellular phone service z Enormous capacity and reach in optical fiber z Plummeting cost for long distance telephone z Faster and more information intensive applications Processing Technology z Relentless improvement in processing & storage z Moore’s Law: doubling of transistors per integrated circuit every two years z RAM: larger tables, larger systems z Digital signal processing: transmission, multiplexing, framing, error control, encryption z Network processors: hardware for routing, switching, forwarding, and traffic management z Microprocessors: higher layer protocols and applications z Higher speeds and higher throughputs in network protocols and applications Moore’s Law

1.0E+08 P4 Pentium III 1.0E+07 Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium 486 DX 1.0E+06 Intel DX2

1.0E+05 80286 8086 Transistor count 1.0E+04 8080

1.0E+03 4004 19720 1982 102030 1992 2002 Software Technology z Greater functionality & more complex systems z TCP/IP in operating systems z Java and virtual machines z New application software z Middleware to connect multiple applications z Adaptive distributed systems Market z The network effect: usefulness of a service increases with size of community z Metcalfe's Law: usefulness is proportional to the square of the number of users z Phone, fax, email, ICQ, … z Economies of scale: per-user cost drops with increased volume z Cell phones, PDAs, PCs z Efficiencies from multiplexing z S-curve: growth of new service has S-shaped curve, challenge is to reach the critical mass The S Curve

Service Penetration & Network Effect z Telephone: T=30 years z city-wide & inter-city links z Automobile: T=30 years z roads z Others z Fax z Cellular & cordless phones z Internet & WWW z Napster and P2P T Regulation & Competition z Telegraph & Telephone originally monopolies z Extremely high cost of infrastructure z Profitable, predictable, slow to innovate z Competition feasible with technology advances z Long distance cost plummeted with optical tech z Alternative local access through cable, wireless z Radio spectrum: auctioned vs. unlicensed z Basic connectivity vs. application provider z Tussle for the revenue-generating parts Standards z New technologies very costly and risky z Standards allow players to share risk and benefits of a new market z Reduced cost of entry z Interoperability and network effect z Compete on innovation z Completing the value chain z Chips, systems, equipment vendors, service providers z Example z 802.11 wireless LAN products Standards Bodies z Internet Engineering Task Force z Internet standards development z Request for Comments (RFCs): www.ietf.org z International Union z International telecom standards z IEEE 802 Committee z Local area and metropolitan area network standards z Industry Organizations z MPLS Forum, WiFi Alliance, World Wide Web Consortium