Surviving Nirvana Death of the Buddha in Chinese Visual Culture Sonya S. Lee Surviving Nirvana is published with the assistance of the Office of the Provost at the University of Southern California. The book also received generous support from the Metropolitan Center for Far Eastern Art Studies and from the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation. Hong Kong University Press 14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong © Hong Kong University Press 2010 First Published 2010 Reprinted 2010 ISBN 978-962-209-125-2 All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Secure On-line Ordering http://www.hkupress.org British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Printed and bound by United League Graphic & Printing Co. Ltd., Hong Kong, China Contents List of Maps and Tables ix Acknowledgements xi Conventions xv INTRODUctiON 3 CHaptER 1 Doubles: Stone Implements 25 CHaptER 2 Transformation: Pictorial Narratives 83 CHaptER 3 Family Matters: Nirvana Caves 139 CHaptER 4 Impermanent Burials: Relic Deposits 203 EPILOGUE 265 APPENDICES Chinese Texts of Inscriptional Materials 271 1 The Chicago Stele 273 2 The Shanxi Stele 275 3 The Shengli Stele from Mogao Cave 332 278 4 The Dali Stele from Mogao Cave 148 282 5 From the Jingzhi Monastery Pagoda Crypt 284 6 From the Jingzhong Cloister Pagoda Crypt 288 Abbreviations 291 Notes 293 Character List 321 Bibliography 325 Index 347 vii Acknowledgements Maps and Tables Map 1 Geographic distribution of nirvana images in medieval 20 China and other parts of Asia. Map 2 Sites related to the development of the nirvana image 29 before the sixth century. Map 3 Location of Li family caves and other related caves at Mogao. 139 Map 4 Northeastern China in the tenth century. 204 Table 1 Nirvana-related texts in medieval Chinese Buddhist canon. 89 Table 2 Major episodes in textual narratives on the Buddha’s nirvana. 91 Table 3 Comparison of narrative structure between textual and 98 pictorial nirvana narratives. Table 4 The five relic deposits at Jingzhi Monastery. 211 ix Introduction Introduction he word “survival” conjures ordeal, suffering, and endurance. In the twenty- first century as in earlier times, it is common to make these associations basedT on experience from everyday life. From news headlines around the world, we read about nuclear weapons, terrorist attacks, global warming, flu pandemics, earthquakes, or civil wars. Closer to home, we learn first-hand of a friend’s illness, a co-worker’s skiing accident, a drive-by shooting incident at a local school, or the loss of a loved one. It is difficult to know how well we would respond to any of these life-defining challenges ourselves. But the element of uncertainty often spawns action, and in so doing brings about the will to continue and live on. This unlikely combination of despair and hope, calamity and resolution, no doubt underlines the resilience of the human spirit. It is also what defines the theme of survival in world history. This book in many ways is about a series of remarkable cases of survival from medieval China roughly of the sixth to twelfth centuries. Despite the vast span of time and the great physical distance that separate them, the examples at hand all share one common bond: a pictorial image that depicts the Buddha Śākyamuni at the moment of his nirvana. This is one of the quintessential motifs in Buddhism, commonly known as the nirvana image in short. As seen on a stone stele dated 691 in the Shanxi Museum, the composition consists of two basic components: a reclining Buddha with head pointing to the left and feet to the right, and an accompanying group of mourners observing his passage in the background (fig. I.1). The emotional outpour of the mourners strikes an uncanny balance with the motionless tranquility of the deity in recline. The interweaving of two extreme emotions fuels a kind of quiet dynamism in the visual layout, which pivots around a horizontal field enveloped within a circle of contrasting elements. Yet it is the one-on-one encounter with the nirvana Buddha that compels the beholders to connect what they see with their own worlds. The full exposure of the figure’s body for uninhibited viewing clashes with the shunning effects of his closed eyes, thus underscoring a deep-seeded ambiguity in representation that prompts one to wonder: Is the Buddha alive or dead? As a follower, why am I praying to a deity who is shown passing into nothingness? Although I know from scriptures and lectures by the monks that the Buddha is all powerful, will I still 3 Surviving Nirvana be able to continue on without his illuminating presence? And will the world at large? The curious spectacle of the Buddha’s “death” so vividly presented through the nirvana image was held by many in medieval China as a powerful allegory of survival, something of a utopian vision that could empower its beholders to look beyond the presentness of their existence and imagine other possibilities out 1 there. Over the centuries, Buddhist devotees in different parts of the country had repeatedly returned to this motif in search of new ways to make their faith relevant. The perennial appeal of the nirvana image in part lies in its capability to help adepts and beginners alike to come to terms with the fundamental message in Buddhism. As the professed founder of Buddhism, Śākyamuni’s attainment of ultimate release at the end of his life had fully demonstrated the promise of nirvana, which was at the heart of Buddhist doctrine and practice. His subsequent absence from the human realm, however, became a cause of great confusion and anxiety among his followers. The nirvana image, more than any subject in Buddhist iconography, proved to be especially apt to lay bare the seeming paradox by compelling its beholders to reflect and question on the one hand, and to confront and believe on the other hand. Its affective power was often seized upon to recast a moment of loss and despair as a harbinger of hope and confidence. In so doing, not only did the motif warrant memories of the Buddha to last over time, it also helped generate new knowledge of what he ought to be so as to better resonate with ever-shifting religious, social, or personal agendas. Any attempt at assessing the legacy of the nirvana image from the perspective of the period beholder is an exercise in critical analysis as much as 2 in historical imagination. At the more elemental level, this book offers close readings on a range of representative specimens from medieval China, with the aim to reconstruct the original context in which each became meaningful through its visuality and functionality. My license to interpret rests in the fact that many of these examples, unlike their counterparts from South or Central Asia, do come with reliable provenance, date, and internal documentations left by patrons, makers, and viewers. The extensive archive of evidence thus makes it possible to explain the nirvana image within a network of human relationships and a matrix of historical conditions that had informed its creation and initial reception. The objective to reconstitute the subject’s historicity is part and parcel of an underlying analytical imperative to treat the nirvana image as a cultural artifact that is at 4 Introduction once a product of and an active agent in shaping a range of social interactions, 3 institutions, and practices. While this conceptualization does not engage any discussion of aesthetics, it does take the formal properties of each specimen as the key to understanding aspects of change and continuity that the motif embodied through the course of its development in China. Likewise, in positing the nirvana image within a web of complex relations, the present study does not intend to construe the whole as a semiological circuit in which our subject is a “sign-vehicle” of constant meaning. Rather, the significance of the motif lies precisely in its ability to remain fluid in meaning, as it traverses from one context to another. When read together, the many close readings that form this book amount to a broader project to rethink the continued engagement of Buddhism in 4 Chinese society through the lens of visual culture. A full assessment from this perspective is of great importance for both historical and historiographical reasons. From the fifth to tenth centuries, the Buddhist faith reached the greatest extent of its popularity in the middle kingdom. Its permeation into nearly every aspect of life precipitated fundamental changes in the outlook and value system of the Chinese populace that would pave the way for the country’s momentous transition into the early modern world. While the importance of Buddhism in defining China’s medieval period is beyond doubt, there have been marked differences in approach to explicate the religion’s unique character and the modes of cultural exchange that the long, complex processes of its adaptation exemplify. In recent years historians of Chinese religion have fiercely contested the master narratives handed down from previous generations, in particular the “encounter paradigm” that conceives Chinese Buddhism as the product of two monolithic religious traditions (i.e., Indian and Chinese) that came into 5 contact and mutually influenced one another. In light of new insights into Indian Buddhism on the one hand and other native Chinese practices—notably Daoism—on the other hand, scholars are now more inclined to sidestep simplistic assumptions implied by terms like “sinicization” or “indianization,” and opt for 6 assessing what we call “Chinese Buddhism” on its own terms.