Radicalization Among Muslim Minorities and State Response to Terrorism: Comparative Analysis of Britain and Russia
RADICALIZATION AMONG MUSLIM MINORITIES AND STATE RESPONSE TO TERRORISM: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
Utkur Yakhshiboev
ECMI WORKING PAPER #101
November 2017
ECMI- Working Paper # 101
The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) is a non-partisan institution founded in 1996 by the Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German State of Schleswig-Holstein. ECMI was established in Flensburg, at the heart of the Danish-German border region, in order to draw from the encouraging example of peaceful coexistence between minorities and majorities achieved here. ECMI’s aim is to promote interdisciplinary research on issues related to minorities and majorities in a European perspective and to contribute to the improvement of interethnic relations in those parts of Western and Eastern Europe where ethno- political tension and conflict prevail. ECMI Working Papers are written either by the staff of ECMI or by outside authors commissioned by the Centre. As ECMI does not propagate opinions of its own, the views expressed in any of its publications are the sole responsibility of the author concerned.
ECMI Working Paper # 101 European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) Director: Prof. Dr. Tove H. Malloy © ECMI 2017
ISSN 1435-9812; ISSN-Internet 2196-4890
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101
RADICALIZATION AMONG MUSLIM MINORITIES AND STATE RESPONSE TO TERRORISM: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
This working paper is a comparative analysis of Muslim communities in the UK and Russia. Radicalization as a process and the factors for radicalization among Muslim communities in both countries are analyzed to detect the similarities and differences. Both states’ engagement in hard-line policies to tackle Islamic terrorism increases the use of undemocratic measures enhanced by the legal system of each state. Those measures are counter-productive; the social movement theory and the rational choice theory are used to emphasize that the radicalization leading to violence is a political movement intertwined with Islam.
Utkur Yakhshiboev November 2017 ECMI Working Paper # 101
I. INTRODUCTION engage in tough measures which are Islamophobia has risen in the last decades in supported by the legal systems of each the UK and Russia due to a threat posed by country. Unfortunately, these measures radical Islam. Muslim minorities have been trigger dissatisfaction in the marginalized targeted as a responsible community for the Muslim communities in both states. atrocities committed by small radical groups. Ultimately, measures taken to eradicate the In attempting to solve the problem of terrorist violence lead more people to radicalization acts inside the country, state authorities which shows an increase in homegrown
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 terrorism. II. APPLICABILITY OF SOCIAL Although both countries have different MOVEMENT THEORY historical paths for minority existence, the Social movement theory approaches the challenges of radical Islam that they face terrorist phenomena from a different have common roots. A Comparative analysis perspective: a movement that justifies its of these two countries shows how both actions not only with irrational motives, but countries try to manage radical Islam, also with rational reasoning; a movement ‘Islamic terrorism’, and to what extent the rising from within society that opposes strategies they use are efficient. The societal problems such as exclusion; a following two questions will be at the core of movement that searches political recognition this working paper: or political action, inclusion. What are the similarities and In Diani Mario’s "The Concept of Social differences for radicalization of Movement" social movement theory is based Muslims in Russia and in the UK? on the idea of individuals forming Which state’s counter-terrorism networks, and focuses on the reasons for the strategies are more efficient? creation of these networks as well as on the means of mobilization of previously While facing continuous terrorist acts on its uninvolved individuals.1 Freeman & Johnson soil Russia claims that its religious minorities (1999) define a social movement as live in comfort, and peace. However, Galina somewhere in between a political party Yemelianova, looks at the issue as ‘a time (interest group), and an unorganized mass fad bomb’ waiting to explode. Muslims living (trend without goals).2 under the Russian rule face discrimination Steven Buechler says that French and Islamophobia prevails among the ethnic Sociologist Alain Touraine sees Russians. This phenomenon brings the hatred contemporary social movements as evidence towards Muslim immigrants from Central of a displacement of protest from the Asia. economic to the cultural realm, accompanied Likewise, the whole Muslim community by the privatization of social problems which in the UK has been targeted after the 7/7 results in an anxious search for an identity attacks. Little is being done to find a common (appeals to identity are purely defensive).3 ground for Muslims in the UK to feel secure, Collin J. Beck in his article analyzing the and practice their religion openly, while pre- correlation of social movements with charge detention law is increasing terrorism notes that cultural perspectives dissatisfaction, and perceived as (forming collective identity), study of discriminatory towards religious minorities. networks (especially when relatives or family members join the movements), state
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 repression, or oppression justifying terrorists’ leadership engages in framing work as a actions tremendously influence to understand primary activity, with bin Laden and Al terrorism from a novel theoretical Zawahiri issuing new statements regularly; framework. like social movements, these statements are Terrorism is a form of contentious politics, then diffused, and modified by media analyzable with the basic social movement attention.9 approach of mobilizing resources, political opportunity structure (originally coined by Eisenger, 1973), and framing.4 First, for III. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY sustained collective action, movements IN TERRORISM depend on material resources, and a base of supporters: for example, Hamas, the Tamil Rational choice theory derives from math and Tigers, or Hezbollah have all organized economics. It helps to understand the motives themselves into quasi-governments in the of terrorists in terrorism studies. Lance territories they control, while still Lindauer from the University of Pittsburgh, undertaking militant actions.5 Terrorist states that two common themes emerge when groups that sustain action for a long period of assessing terrorism within the two time are thus formal organizations, and are frameworks: Rational Choice Theory (RCT’s likely constrained and enabled by the same strict method-based approach such empowers dynamics of resources and organization as theorists to comprehend the rationality social movements.6 Second, movements behind terrorism, and edge closer to arise not only because they are able to uncovering what incentives may be offered successfully mobilize resources, but because as legitimate alternatives) is most appropriate overall political or social conditions are ripe in short run scenarios, while Grounded for successful and sustained contention: for Theory (particularly the Glaserian school; example, Al Qaeda in Iraq and other militant Glaser and Strauss explain that the best way organizations arose not just from grievances, to formulate a hypothesis is to go directly to or the mobilization of resources, but because the source)10 is more insightful with a long the American invasion demolished term focus. However, there are problems in centralized authority, creating the both theories. RCT can fail in predicting opportunity for new mobilization, and a (deception may be used by the terrorist threat to establish power arrangements7. organizations) terrorist acts which can lead to Third, the term framing (based on Goffman’s terrorist acts; while GT usually bases its research, 1974) is employed to describe the observations, data collection for the research justifications, and appeals movements use to after the violence happens, and people are mobilize support:8 for instance, Al-Qaeda already killed. When there is little or no
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 access to a terrorist organization, it is hard to consider themselves true believers have the make assumptions which might fail value-systems different from those who view eventually. For example, the organizational themselves as atheists. “Even if many suicide structure of Al Qaeda has changed attackers are irrational or fanatical, the considerably over the years, and its secretive leadership groups that recruit and direct them nature makes it hard to analyze.11 are not”.15 “Some economists argue that Both theories have a dilemma in their core terrorist organizations would not want to which can lead to confusion and deceit. Dr. recruit irrational members because they Robert Nalbandov in his “Irrational would be too unpredictable. They do not do Rationality of Terrorism” article says that so because terrorist groups pursue rational while ‘old’ terrorism (existing prior to the goals that would be subverted or nullified by end of the Cold War, such as ETA, IRA, unpredictable behavior.16 PKK) can be explained by the rational choice, It is important to notice that many its ‘new’ version (appeared after the collapse individuals become rationally involved in of the bipolar system in early terrorism as a by-product of their personal 1990s,transnational in reach and limited in and social conditions; social motivations for their long-lasting effects) represents a terrorism are best demonstrated in substantial departure from rationality, and the immigration neighborhoods in places like more rational, or predictable, the terrorists’ Western Europe.17 behavior is, the easier it would be to find their true motivators. Firstly, the concept of rationality should be understood. In this vein, IV. RADICALIZATION AMONG as the truth may differ from person to person, MUSLIM MINORITIES IN THE UK rationality does too. Rationality is a relative outcome which An emergency in domestic security of the UK can be based on irrationality. Rational actors began after the 7/7 London attacks. may choose irrational options that may Radicalization as a threat existed even before eventually maximize their expected utility London bombings, and actually traces back and vice versa.12 For instance, suicide acts are to the times when British political clout was usually accepted as irrational. However, to active in different Muslim lands. Since the die for the common good may be a noble fit13 publication of Satanic Verses of Salman or if you genuinely believe that death in jihad Rushdie in 1989, Muslim minorities have brings infinite reward then it makes ‘new’ been portrayed and represented as terrorism rational.14 As Robert Nalbandov individuals, groups and institutions that do says separate consideration should be given not reflect the virtues of a liberal and to the religion-based rationality; those who apparently tolerant multicultural society,
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 however ongoing project it might be in Liberal financial regulations let terrorist cells reality; furthermore, there have been British to carry out successful recruitment political activity within the Muslim World in campaigns on British soil. Muslim majority Egypt, Pakistan, Palestine for hundreds of countries from the Gulf region and the years not including the ones that took place Middle East penetrated their charity in 1990s.18 organizations in the UK on religious, cultural The historical context is vital, and and traditional grounds to take the unavoidable in multiculturalism debate, responsibility to raise funds or make when the West, including the UK, continues speeches as a form of propaganda. The main its aggressively interventionist and imperial sources of the Islamic terror funding structure foreign policy, which undoubtedly receives are charities, wealthy individuals and state backlash in a form of terrorism. Hence, funding; Saudi Arabia has been one of the diversity, multiculturalism, and equality are biggest financers of Islamic institutions and just unrealized ideals, particularly when there Muslim causes in the UK and is a major is a will to create identities such as ‘British source of financing for Islamic terrorist Muslim’.19 Such identity seems to face organizations says Anna Wojtowicz.22 intense fission and need time and generations Additionally, a lot of terrorist organizations to be recognized. For example, in 2011 are involved in drug trafficking and other British Prime Minister David Cameron criminal activities that bring huge amount of publicly admitted that multiculturalism has money to fulfil their violent atrocities. failed: “Under the doctrine of state Over the years following the 7/7 attacks, multiculturalism we have encouraged there have been several domestic and different cultures to live separate lives, apart international events that may have from each other and apart from the contributed to the growing radicalization of mainstream. We have failed to provide a British Muslims: the reaction to the 1988 vision of society to which they feel they want publication of the The Satanic Verses to belong. We have even tolerated these (Salman Rushdie affair), the 1991 Gulf War, segregated communities behaving in ways 1992-1995 Bosnian War, conflicts in Algeria, that run completely counter to our values”.20 Kashmir, and Chechnya, the 7 July 2001 The contemporary radicalization wave in northern riots (Bradford, Oldham, Burnley), the UK has its roots in 1980s and 1990s when British contribution in Afghanistan and Iraq, foreign radicals such as Abu Hamza al Masri, 9/11 and “the war on terror” or the Danish Omar Bakri Mohammad and Abu Qataba Jylland-Posten Muhammad cartoons immigrated to the UK in search of political controversy, from 30 September 2005.23 asylum says Mitchell D. Silber, “The Al In 2006, the head of MI5 has said that the Qaeda Factor. Plots against the West”.21 security service is monitoring 1,600 terror
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 suspects across 200 networks in the UK.24 usually are seen as perpetrators, not always However alarming it may seem, the causes the victims of social injustice and are really hard to identify as they may vary violence.29However, the British assume that from case to case. it is still possible to integrate Muslims into While mentioning Oliver Roy and his British society by decreasing the religiosity three waves of Islamism, Tahir Abbas fuses of the Muslims, by making them moderate. If all three phases to make one distinctive so, who is to decide what ‘moderate Muslim’ reason for the radicalization of Muslims in should include? According to Carolin the UK:25 Goerzig and Khaled Al-Hashimi, a moderate Muslim might be a pious believer but will not Islamism was a response to adopt extreme Islamist beliefs to the extent colonialism and imperialism that his or her other roles in society are in Islamism was a reaction to the disagreement; a moderate Muslim is aftermath of the First World War and understood as an individual that has identity the end of caliphate along with other multiple identities…but the Islamism that is inspired by Qutb26 British government acknowledges and Maududi27, but is dissimilar incompatibility of Islam with the British way because of the forces of globalization of life which entails “us and them” and eroding the powers of individual misrecognition30 which eventually could lead states and with new media some to radicalization. Oliver Roy says that technologies disseminating ideas at violent radicalization has little to do with high speed. religious practice, while radical theology as Rik Coolsaet, a leading Belgian scholar on Salafism, does not necessarily lead to Muslim radicalization states that religious violence.31 orthodoxy and political radicalization are It is believed that a lot of terrorist very different things and respond to different organizations are based on one fundamental mechanisms: the former starts from quest for factor which is the organization’s ideology identity in highly demanding times by and the individual’s belief that violence is a developing into challenge for social cohesion legitimate tool to solve the problems. Islamic like cultural ghettos while the latter starts ideologies create security risks and cause from opposition to injustice and eventually tensions among communities. Radical Islam ends up in using violence as preferred tool of is widely considered to be in conflict with political action.28 democratic principles and has largely There is another public issue called ‘self- overtaken British traditional values by styled segregation’ that Muslims do not wish imposing its own.32 Islam is portrayed as an to integrate with their British ‘hosts’, and ideology that poses a grave threat to Britain.
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After the 7/7 attacks, the police force, the class families, who were mostly married, judiciary and the parliament33 all began were not isolated and had friends.39 suspecting Muslim communities which led to Leadership of Al Qaeda or other terrorist institutionalized discrimination of religious organizations show some highly educated minorities in the UK. Half of the white members who come from middle or even British population lives in neighborhoods upper class. Rational choice theory of containing no ethnic-minority residents.34 terrorism is usually applicable for such This political discourse on one hand terrorist profiles. Terrorist may come from perceives that Muslims are discriminated in different social, economic and political different spheres of British life, on the other backgrounds. MI5 reported that individuals hand in Elizabeth Poole’s narrative ―the who became suicide bombers were often increasing visibility of Muslims to non- highly educated.40 Those individuals who Muslims in the UK in a global mediated choose to become terrorists are harder to world, in which Muslims are homogenised, detect because it ‘shows that terrorists are has resulted in their construction as a threat normal within the general population and are to non-Muslim and this ideological threat hard to define’.41 allows Muslims to be suppressed.35 According to Abdul Taher neither Including all the foreign policy flaws as domestic, nor foreign policy reasons play an the reasons for the Muslim youth to get important role, as vital as personal problems radicalized, there have been some of the in individual’s life, because it all piles up domestic reasons causing radicalization too. from personal level which later shifts to The long-term domestic factors are poverty violence. The 200-page document titled and alienation, failure of multiculturalism ‘Radicalization of Muslims in the United and integration.36 Most young Muslims are Kingdom’, which was produced after underemployed. According to Gallup studying 90 terror suspects investigated by integration index only 10% of British the security service, proposes four reasons Muslims are “integrated.”37 why radicalization happens in British case:42 Interestingly, it has been proved that Trauma, such as the death of a deprived Muslims are not the only ones who loved one: Ten percent of terror get radicalized and are more prone to suspects became radicalized after terrorism. For instance, the suspects of the a life trauma 2007 London and Glasgow international Migration: a third of all extremists airport plots were physicians, medical migrated to Britain alone without research scientists and an engineer.38 The relatives Majority of Muslims who committed terrorist Criminal activity: two-thirds of attacks are reported to be from the middle the sample had criminal records
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Prison: Muslim prisoners who are unfortunately contradict one another on a not religious are often radicalized societal level, in our case ‘British’ with in prison. The report identified 60 ‘Muslim’. Hence, in contemporary Britain known Islamist extremists the second and third generations are more operating in British jails. conservative which increases their susceptibility to radicalization. For example, Unsurprisingly, political debate about in 2005, 30 students (14-17 year old) at an ‘British Muslims’ and their association with Islamic school in London were asked if they Islam and violence created a ‘bubble’ in the feel British or European to which the students media where Muslims and Native British are unanimously answered that they feel neither, involved in an everlasting societal including the fact that almost all of them were antagonism to blame one another. One of the born and raised in Britain.47 The same surveys done by FOSIS shows that in 2005, 1 students were asked to choose if England in 5 Muslim students in Britain (18%) would were to play football with Palestine or France not report if a fellow Muslim wants to plot a or Spain, which football team they would terror attack and 52% did not think support, the answers were to support organizations blamed in extremism should be Palestine, France or Spain but England. (a closed and in 2006, 12% of young Muslims few months later the school was reported in in Britain (and 12% overall) believed that British and international media as an Islamist suicide attacks against civilians in Britain breeding ground, British authorities began were justified.43 In 2009, one third of Muslim investigations).48 students in the UK supported killing for Islam and 40% were encouraging to implement 4. 1 UK’s Strategy to Deal with Islamic Sharia law in some parts of Britain.44 BBC Radicalization and Terrorism made a report informing that the estimate of those jihadists who left the UK as foreign The first generation of Muslim immigrants fighters to Syria is 850 people, while almost (primarily from Bangladesh and Pakistan) in half of them already returned to the UK.45 the UK were trying to adapt to the British Considering the small minority of Muslims way of life by respecting British values. living in the UK, these numbers are However, the second and third generations disturbing. have been facing a totally different situation. Oliver Roy and Farhad Khosrokhavar Islam and Islamic way of living (Islam comes explain the dual identity theory46 that shows to replace other or lost identities)49 are that a lot of second and third Muslim prevalent in the current generation’s generations while having two identities keep everyday life. Tahir Abbas states that the on searching for justifications because second- and third- Muslim generations who identities they have do not complement,
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 typically have Pakistani, Indian and days.52 During Tony Blair’s government, The Bangladeshi origins have more connection to Anti-terrorism Crime and Security Act of Islam. They question and examine the nature 2001 was introduced to amend the Terrorism of Islam which usually leads to forming more Act of 2000 to make further provisions about religious identities.50 terrorism and security: As Islam becomes an ever more important to provide for the freezing of part of the Muslim community living in the assets UK, a sufficient degree of attention should be to make provision about paid by the states to control a type of Islam immigration and asylum that emerges. Currently, Islam in the UK is to amend or extend the criminal manifested in both peaceful and violent law and powers for preventing forms. Radical Islam could save those who crime and enforcing that law are full of personal resentment and other to make provision about the forms of grievances. In this vein, counter- control of pathogens and toxins terrorism measures do matter to prevent to provide for the retention of violent acts. communications data.53 In the UK, the counter-terrorism strategy is comprised of four steps:51 The Terrorism Act of 2005 was introduced after the 7/7 attacks, to provide for the making Prevent terrorism by reducing the of 'control orders' imposing obligations on number of individuals inspired to individuals suspected of being involved in support Islamist terrorism or terrorism-related activity.54 This terrorism act become terrorists provided the state to derogate from the Pursue terrorists and those who Article 5 of the European convention on assist them in order to disrupt human rights and restrict individuals to house potential attacks. arrest.55 Protect potential targets The Terrorism Act of 2006 appeared to (buildings, for example) in the have serious restrictions and brought minor UK tension between the authorities and Muslims. Prepare for the consequences of This Act authorized the holding of terrorist an attack through resilience and suspects from 14 to 28 days without charge contingency planning. and seven years imprisonment in case anyone The main terrorist act in the UK occurred in encourages terrorism directly or indirectly (it 56 2000, which was aimed to make temporary is broad). Counter-Terrorism Act of 2008, provisions for Northern Ireland and it for example enabled the taking of allowed the search and detention for seven fingerprints and DNA samples from
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 individuals subject to control orders57 and re- minorities. It would not be stretching the engaged with the issue of detention without truth to state that young Muslims have been charge for 42 days.58 talked at, talked for and talked around. They Since 2000, many Western nations have have not been talked to. 62 strengthened their anti-terror laws, giving The potential for British Muslims to policing and intelligence services become engaged in terrorism will likely to unprecedented powers, says Tahir Abbas.59 remain because the UK needs to move ahead, There has been some casualties due to such authorities need to understand that the polices, for example Jean Charles Menezes problems of violent extremism are not about was shot dead by officers in London after the religion of Islam, or global political being mistaken for a suicide bomber, which ideology only, it is about social cohesion and eventually happened to have no connections detrimental economic conditions of the local with terrorists at all; however, police leaders area; for example in Bradford Muslims are say they will not abandon their ‘shoot-to-kill’ trapped into economic decline and the policy and warn that more innocent people economic performance of Birmingham has could be killed in the fight against been rather favorable.63 The Office for terrorism.60 National Statistics reports that of those in All of these Anti-terrorism Acts were employment, men from the Pakistani (57%), introduced to prevent the rising number of Black African (54%) and Bangladeshi (53%) terrorist attacks in the UK. It is hard to ethnic groups were most likely to work in low believe that these regulations are always skilled jobs.64 The neighborhoods where helpful and decreasing the number of violent Muslims reside are usually excluded from the acts. Prevention is not a solution and only initiatives of change and development addresses the surface while chief culprit because of structural subordination, say L. remains untouched. For example, twenty six Back and J. Solomos (1992) “Black Politics (52%) of those who responded to the line of and Social Change in Birmingham, UK: An questioning over the power of stop and search Analysis of Recent Trends”.65 and the British Government’s Counter-Terror This societal tension between Muslims Strategy (CONTEST), responded that these and the Native British is a lack of trust from policies were having a negative effect on both sides which is reflected in inequalities of community relations, with many responses different kinds. R. Edwards, J. Franklin and specifically mentioning that these policies J. Holland (2003) in “Families and Social were either ‘racist’ or alienating.61 Capital: Exploring the Issues” propose that Undemocratic counter-terrorism measures bonding social capital operates as a resource have tangibly impacted on the everyday for poorer ethnically homogenous movement and practices of Black and Asian communities, protecting them from market
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 inequalities, while providing richer and more that Muslims are being spied on by the exclusive communities the means to authorities that makes them very distrustful consolidate their advantage; bridging social of any engagement in civil/public life.69 capital could bring trust between Human Rights Watch informs that the communities by decreasing inequality to powers of arrest within the different anti- facilitate social mobility.66 Tahir Abbas Terrorism Acts experienced disproportionate suggests that state support for Muslim treatment of British Muslims that led to race schools can become one of the best strategies and community relations problems. This in to fight discriminatory forces in the education turn decreased the willingness of British system since the previous multiculturalist and Muslims to cooperate with the authorities.70 anti-racist initiatives failed to achieve the Amnesty International informs that UK’s desired effects. It can be also beneficial to de- anti-terrorism laws violated six fundamental radicalize young Muslims based on closer rights: respect for private and family life, working relations between communities, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, organizations and government departments, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly many Muslims may even feel the need to and association, freedom of movement and explore precisely these concerns on their own right to a fair trial.71 without feeling the actual need to take up S. Brighton in “British Muslims, ‘radical jihadi missions’ of any kind.67 Multiculturalism and UK Foreign Policy: Charles Kurzman states that Western Integration and Cohesion in and Beyond the countries have seen Islam as primitive and State” says that after the 7/7 attacks, the have thought that Islamic religion is Home Office founded seven working groups equivalent to fanaticism, Islamic political on issues such as: Muslim youth; education; authority with despotism, Islamic military women’s issues; regional, local and practices with terror, and Islamic tradition community projects; the training of imams with backwardness for quite a long period, and the role of mosques; community security this is how Islam and Muslims have been and police relations and, finally, tackling portrayed in the mainstream media and extremism and radicalization.72 This Edward Said justifies it as how ‘Muslims approach is impressive, however the learnt to see themselves through Western authorities should pay attention to the foreign eyes’. 68 policy and be alert of mass media demagogy Open Society Institute reports that there is which may exacerbate the current a perception that the criminal-justice system radicalization process of Muslims. Tariq Ali is concerned more with the political control blames George W. Bush and Tony Blair that of Muslim communities than with their safety their international politics assisted to and protection which brings about anxiety radicalize the majority of Muslims in the UK,
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 however these radicalization factors are (KBR), Karachaevo-Cherkessiya (KCHR) officially denied.73 and Adygeya which could soon spread to Katy Sian, Ian Law and S. Sayyid Tatarstan and Boshkortostan and beyond.75 analysed four papers: the Sun, Daily Mail, Gordon M. Hahn states that present The Guardian and The Independent and their Muslim dilemma is shaped by economic, data collection results indicated that 70 demographic, and military factors. Moscow’s percent of all the news items gathered were Muslim challenge has already produced a hostile; 15 percent were inclusive; and 15 Muslim revolutionary movement- the percent neutral. When examining the strength emerging Islamist movement and the of minority news actors’ voices, they found Chechen-led Islamist terrorist network- that 80 percent of the items represented no which is already demonstrating a capacity voice, 10 percent represented a medium that could ultimately threaten the integrity of voice, 5 percent a weak voice and 5 percent the Russian state.76 Dmitry Gorenburg states represented a strong voice.74 Unfortunately, that ‘corruption’ and ‘poverty’ contributes to media distortion and foreign interventions the popularity of radical Islam, especially make counter-terrorism efforts counter- when clans control the main part of the productive. wealth in the areas with the ‘repression of anyone who tries to change the situation 4.2 Radicalization Among Russia’s through political or legal channels’. Akhmet Muslims Yarlykapov while agreeing on the points
above, additionally stresses that at present, Islamic radicalization is not a new the social structure of radical Muslims has phenomenon among Russian Muslims. It has changed significantly, they are now not poor a long history since the Russian Empire and uneducated people or deprived of work began its conquests and invasions. In and other social benefits, these young people, different centuries motives and factors organized in these jamaats (Arabic word behind the radicalization was different by jamaa means society or community) seek to nature. In contemporary Russia such factors resolve a broad range of problems that are or motivations may overlap throughout the present in the region, for example these historical timeline. Russia can benefit from feelings of disillusionment usually get its historical experience and needs to intensified by the sense of being ‘second rate’ reorganize its approach towards the Muslim while compared to the non-Muslim majority minorities as Islamic threat seems to shape of Russia as a whole.77 global character. Russia is experiencing the Some recent research shows that poverty beginning of an Islamist jihad in its Muslim is not one of the factors as to why Russia’s republics: Dagestan, Kabardina-Balkaria Muslims join terrorist organizations and,
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 primarily, radical Islam is said to be the North Caucasus, Azerbaijan, and Central penetrated by the foreign influence which is Asia which means that the Muslim space an official position of the Kremlin. Gordon in Russia is continuously expanding.80 M. Hahn rejects both of the reasons as they George F. Kennan expert Denis Sokolov lack credibility, instead he mentions that highlights that dislocation of Muslims was Russia’s poorest regions are most often those not only economic in nature, but also political heavily populated by Muslims and high (interethnic conflicts in the Northern levels of joblessness among the youth, Caucasus). especially in the North Caucasus where it Pro-Kremlin analyst Roman Silantyev reaches nearly 50% and in some villages says that radical Islamists comprise up to 5 90%. This type of socio-economic situation percent of all Muslims in Russia, or 700,000 is creating an army of young males with no out of 14 million and there are more radicals outlet for their energies and it is no surprise if in such areas of Russia as Saratov oblast as some of these idle energies are sooner or later the Far East than in Chechnya (Pravoslavie.ru, expended in armies of Allah.78 September 9, 2014).81 The current number Giada Tardivo, a research assistant in can indicate the level of danger to set the International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, counter-terrorism strategies towards the encompasses the whole nature of the problem maximum risk situations. Sociologist Andrey as deep-rooted in Russian society because Ignatyev criticizes and opposes Orthodox historical and cultural factors represent one activist Roman Silantyev who has written of the underlying causes of the relatively high alarmist tracts about the threat Muslims in levels of radicalization of Russia’s Muslim Russia supposedly represent to Russia’s community these days. In the Russian future.82 Empire, and particularly during the Soviet Entire districts of the Ural region and Era, Russian Muslims were subject to often- especially Tatarstan have reportedly come brutal treatment by the state, and propensities under the control of the Salafists (Rusrep.ru, to violence are common not only in the October 31, 2013) and a similar trend is also Northern Caucasus, but also in the Russian notable in Astrakhan where, according to society as a whole.79 some sources, there are up to 1,000 Russian Russia is facing a demographic challenge Salafists (Riss.ru, January 26, 2014).83 where Muslim families have higher fertility According to Ashley Kirk about 2000 rates than Russian families. In addition, the foreign fighters joined ISIS from Russia.84 It situation in the Ural, Volga, and Western is even reported that Russian is the second Siberian regions is changing in part because most spoken language after the Arabic both internal and external migrations are among ISIS foreign fighters.85 Denis Sokolov on the rise, with migrants coming from claims that a large number of these fighters
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 are Muslims originating from the Northern legal school of thought ‘mazhab’) and Caucasus, the region that has been rent by “nontraditional” (encompasses the forms war, terror, and brutal state crackdowns for of Islamic views that began entering Russia over two decades and Russian state policies after the breakup of the Soviet Union) over the past two decades have done much to branches.90 Volga-Ural Muslims follow build today’s pipeline of radicalized Hanafi School91 while the North Caucasus extremists.86 Russian President Vladimir follows different strains of Sufism (such as Putin’s North Caucasus policy has, if tariqatism, Naqshbandia92 strain for anything, hastened the spread of Islamic example). Non-traditional may include all the radicalism in the region says Dmitry other forms such as Wahhabism, Salafism Gorenburg.87 etc. which are predominantly common For example, Youth who studied Islam in among North Caucasian youth who distrusted the Middle East and practice their religion local Muslim leaders because of their lack of peacefully, but in ways different from local Islamic education and possible ties with traditions, are treated with suspicion and Russian security services.93 sometimes arrested and beaten. And these Seemingly, there is another problem actions mainly serve to further radicalize concerning economic migrants coming from pious Muslims, some of whom then turn to Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Most violence.88 Since 2003 social activists who of the migrants settle and start practicing their speak out against corruption and land rights religion which usually exacerbates pre- abuses and advocate the right to practice existing Muslims’ situation. As Alexei Islam according to one’s beliefs have Malashenko, one of Russia’s leading experts frequently found themselves on lists of on political Islam notes the ‘great majority of “untrustworthy” citizens. Some have found Russians judge Islam by the actions of themselves on criminal “wanted” lists and religious extremists; by conflicts with the under investigation for alleged violations of involvement of Muslims; by radical the same criminal code articles as radical statements by Muslim politicians and Islamist fighters. Being on one of these lists spiritual leaders; and by an influx of means detentions, interrogations involving immigrants’.94 Such an environment triggers torture, and abductions by law enforcement Islamophobia while Islamophobia creates the officers, including abductions for ransom.89 ground for Muslims to consolidate their Russian politicians and the academic positions in the regions they settle. community came to divide Islam into Galina Yemelianova asserts that the pro- “traditional” (religious tradition that government mass media have played a intertwines with ethnic culture and adherence central role in reinforcing anti-Islamist to “one’s own” centuries-old theological and sentiments among the public and promoting
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Islamophobia in Russian society.95 A earn money and do not participate in jihad for substantial demographic increase of Muslims example: Muslim migrants themselves are may have contributed to the rising under constant pressure not only by the Islamophobia too. Krasnodar Krai has 20 Russian militia but also by Russian percent Muslims while Astrakhan Oblast nationalists. (It is known that in the last two accounts for 30 percent and Rostov Oblast years attacks on and even killings of over 10 percent.96 immigrants from Central Asia have become a Demographic ‘Islamization’ or routine, and their number has grown so much ‘Muslimization’ of Russia will impact both that the federal authorities have been Russia’s domestic situation and its foreign compelled to pay attention to this, reports policy options in the medium and long-term; MICROCON Policy working paper 9.99 by around 2050 Muslims will represent The first Chechen War (1994-1996) has between one third (according to the most never been accepted as a religious conflict, conservative estimates) or one half but it had the features of religious tension. (according to the most ‘alarmist’ assessment) The main point behind the war was of the Russian population.97 Yuri Krupnov, a independence but it was nourished with scholar at the Institute for Demography, radical Islam from different Muslim majority Migration and Regional Development who countries. This phenomenon was the participated in writing Russia’s demographic repetition of Afghan jihad. The resistance doctrine and is known for his nationalist movement for independence shifted to views has advocated the notion of “national Islamic Jihad, namely terrorism. Herewith, preservation” (sberezhenie natsii), which the nature of the conflict is important to stress became popular in the mid-2000s in because it is exactly when compromise to or discussions around the need to “preserve” the from the Jihadists’ side is unacceptable and “ethnic gene pool” (genofond) of Russians intolerable. Jihad (holy war) or any other against migrants and this view was widely trend of Islamic fundamentalism, be it adopted by politicians such as Dmitry Wahhabism or Salafism (both of them give Rogozin.98 In a globalized world a concept of priority to jihad, understood as an armed identity is vague especially when people are struggle by the faithful against the enemies of in a position to reject or accept certain Islam)100 does not accept a defeat during identities be it religious, ethnic or some other warfare. The Jihadists were ready to go type of belongingness. further in their violence by challenging Some researchers conclude that violence, Russian rule. Violence brought even more or susceptibility to terrorism is less violence. Russia’s war with radical Islam had successful among Central Asian Muslim devastating results for both sides. The immigrants because most of them come to Kremlin fought a war against radical Islam,
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 not considering periodical terrorist attacks War in Chechnya triggered a wave of that were happening after the fall of the instabilities across the neighboring regions. Soviet Union. It seemed that there were only Dagestan became another hub for Islamic two ways for Jihadists during the first radicalism. Islamist ‘guerrilla warfare’ and Chechen War, either they could win and ‘Sharia campaign’ mobilized the part of the build their empire on oppressing people, or population that had little to gain from the they had to be defeated by the means of failed socio-economic atmosphere in the violence that they used. country. The isolation, unpopularity and Akhmet Yarlykapov says that the youth corruption of clan-based elites could lead to jamaats were transformed into a base for the emergence of a macro-regional, socio- separatist movements and they were political and economic crisis which is likely instrumental in shifting the ideology of the to bring the radicalism fast.104 North Caucasus from ethnic separatism, such The North Caucasian Republics, namely, as the war for Chechen independence, to a Chechnya, Dagestan, Ingushetia and religious separatist movement, with radicals Buddhist Kalmykia are largely rural areas declaring the formation of a North Caucasian where a significant percentage of the emirate as part of a global Islamic State.101 population resides in mountainous regions Furthermore, Yarlykapov shows the and economic development and law seriousness of these jamaats as they are enforcement are usually absent.105 international in composition because it has According to reported statistics, representatives from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, unemployment can reach 90% in these Pakistan and the countries of the Middle East; mountainous regions which can feed any type official Russian statements typically describe of violence be it crime or terrorism.106 these foreigners as mercenaries, as many of Kabardino-Balkaria (KBR) includes KBR them arrive for ideological reason to itself, Adygeya and Karachaevo-Cherkessiya participate in jihad against non-Muslims, (KChR) where Muslims constitute the namely Jews and Crusaders.102 majority.107 For example, the Karachay- Balkar nationalist agenda in Kabardino- Gordon M. Hahn says that ‘jihadization’ in Balkaria and Karachaevo-Cherkessia have Chechnya produced a level of terror been increasingly Islamicized and in Adygea unknown in Russia since the Stalin era. He the major conflict has developed along ethno- also states that the North Caucasus’s jihad is religious lines: the Orthodox Russian and likely to continue …because Russia’s Cossack majority against the Muslim emerging jihad is now undergoing an Adygeas and the weakness of Sufism among ominous expansion of the Islamist terrorist the Muslim population has accounted for the network deeper into the North Caucasus and predominantly Wahhabi form of Islam perhaps elsewhere in Russia.103
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 there.108 8, there was evidence of greater national Tatarstan unlike the North Caucasus has stability and a reduction of major internal been experiencing its Islamic revival on threats to state security, linked to the Nationalism. Gordon M. Hahn states that the improved economic situation and the popular North Caucasus’s radical Islamists have the support for Putin’s policies.112 Undoubtedly, presence in Tatarstan and in other Tatar some of the strategies used to fight terrorism communities and Islam is being used as a seemed to give positive results, however the strong political tool. Azat Khurmatullin in his point is to see if this containment period is “Islam Entwined with Nationalism” explains long-lasting or short-term. Sometimes it is that Islam in Tatarstan is undergoing an quite natural for the resistance movements to important stage in its revival, with its role in step back due to financial reasons which may the Tatar public, political and spiritual life delude the situation with a short period of becoming ever more evident and despite this peace. array of quasi- radical groups, the overall Some of the scholars state that radical situation in Tatarstan remains stable, and Islam has more of an audience among there is little evidence of a radical threat Muslims of Russia and in order to deal with except at the political margins.109 it there has to be a charismatic leader who Akhmet Yarlykapov in his will unite Muslims in Russia around peaceful “Radicalization of North Caucasian Islam. However, charismatic leadership may Muslims” mentions that in Russia, differing lead to more radicalization too. Osama bin constellations of individuals, organizations, Laden was also a charismatic leader, and his groupings and mosques have been attractiveness has recruited and still does responsible for the spread of radicalism and recruit great number of people from all over specifically in the Northern Caucasus, the the world. basic structure of radicalism is the jamaat.110
The youth jamaat played a role in 4.3 Russia’s Strategy to Fight Islamic radicalization of many young generations as Radicalization and Terrorism the Islam they inspired was derived from different Middle East and Gulf countries. The Throughout the historical timeline, Russia activities and form of organization of youth has treated its Muslim minorities differently. jamaats have been patterned after the forms These Muslims having the same faith have and experience of Muslim organizations in different ethnic roots, and according to that the Middle East which represents a totally they have distinctive Islam in each Muslim different Islam from traditional ones in minority region. Tatar-Bashkir Muslims have Russia.111 too much in common with Central Asian Generally, by the electoral period in 2007-
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Muslims. These are Turkic tribes dispersed with Islam. all around Central Asia. Even linguistically Russia’s responsibility and ability to adapt all the languages spoken in these areas are itself to a changing world can be seen in the very close to one another. Theoretically, evolution of laws and regulations or in these languages can be different dialects of attitude towards the Muslim minorities over the Old Turkic language. As an example, a time. There have been several state policies very prominent moderator of the 20th century aimed at integrating Muslims into Russian among Turkic Muslims Gaspirinskii stood society for the last two decades. Any word for the implementation of common Turki which is going to be used in here, be it language to all Tukic peoples living in the integration or assimilation, possibly has a territory of Russian Empire.113 different contextual meaning compared to Islam in Central Asia and Tatarstan and integration or assimilation of Muslims in the Bashkirtostan is Turkic Islam or Islam of the UK. In the UK Muslims are immigrants or Turkic World. This particular Islam had close have immigrant backgrounds with the ties with Turkish and Persian Islam (cultural exception of those white British who convert similarities are meant here, not sectarian Shia to Islam. These Muslims in the territorial and Sunny divisions) because of historical sovereignty of Russian Federation are not reasons. When Muslims of Caucasus and settlers; they have been living in their own Central Asia were isolated under the Russian lands for centuries. rule, Islam in these regions had to survive Ekatirina Braginskaia in her comparison oppression. Oppression faded out the between State approaches to Muslim religiosity in some communities (during the integration says that Tatar Muslims represent Soviet Union’s Godless and classless state the most culturally assimilated Muslim policies) while revived it strongly in other community due to long Christianization and communities. Generally, more or less Sovietization policies while the North peaceful and, specifically, ‘Russian Islam’ Caucasus and Volga region Muslims have emerged in the Turkic world. However, the striking differences from Tatars.114 Northern Caucasian minorities were always According to her, Putin’s administration has problematic from the time they had been been preoccupied with forging Russia’s colonized by the Russian empire until the unique, synthesized identity by creating a present. Their Islam is more militarized stronger sense of national belonging to resembling the Islam in Afghanistan. That is position Russia as a strong multi-ethnic, how Islam emerges and consolidates itself multi-religious and multi-cultural country among the peoples living in mountainous which may promote multinational unity and regions. Their norms and conditions in spiritual revival through which it may protect everyday life get intertwined in all senses the peaceful coexistence of different peoples
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 and confessions, as the idea behind a spiritual grievances or sympathy towards resistant revival is an attractive fusion of religious and fighters. Such incidents frequently target secular values. 115 whole communities which lead to a failure in Current counter-terrorism strategies of dialogue between the authorities and the Russia on federal and local level take a rigid communities. Some representatives of position in respect to ‘Islamic dissidents’. Muslim communities usually ask for a The Russian government adopted the Federal change of the repressive approach into a more Law "On Combating Terrorism" in 1998, ‘balanced approach’, as repressive approach which became the main legal pillar of may deal with the problem by force for a Russian anti-terrorist efforts which attempted short-term, however is most likely to fail in a to define terrorist activity omitting political long-term solution of the issue.119 motivation as one of the defining On the international level, Putin and some characteristics of the crime.116 Russia's other responsible politicians portray that Federal Security Service (FSB), and the Russia is a part of an Islamic World and the Ministry of Interior (MVD) became the main justification for this stance will be Russia’s responsible units to respond terrorism. In claims and solid statements in different 2006, another law on combatting terrorism international geopolitical events. For legalized the use of armed forces against example, in 2003 Putin during his speech in terrorism be it inside or outside of the Malaysia confirmed that Russia considers country, and the 2006 counterterrorism law itself to be a ‘Muslim Power’ which in allows for suspension of certain individual recognition of this joined the Organization of liberties and media freedoms in the zone of Islamic Conference with observer status. counterterrorist operations, and authorizes Russian foreign policy happens to shift from counterterrorism units to carry out searches a West oriented approach towards a pro- and demolition of suspicious airplanes and Islamic direction: opposition to invasion in ships.117 For instance, an exceptionally Iraq and Libya and a huge support to Iran and repressive policy has led to radicalization of Hamas in Palestine.120 the Kabardino-Balkarian jamaat and from the Aleksei Malashenko and Akhmed middle of 2004, militarized extremist cells Yarlykapov admit that the struggle against began to step up their activities in the extremism serves the Russian authorities as a Northern Caucasus, including in the pretext for tightening the screws for imposing Kabardino-Balkarian Republic.118 harsher control on mass media and for The societal structure in the North persecution of the opposition which in itself Caucasus reminds typical Muslim brings violations of basic human rights in communities where people may take terms of privacy and freedom of fundamental dissidents’ side due to different reasons, be it rights. Russia struggles to overcome
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 terrorism by increasing its influence as long life of the region for quite a long period of as it is not in a position to build a proper time which is driving some people to infrastructure which may better the lives of alienation and ultimately frustration. those deprived peoples living in rural In the second myth, too much attention is mountainous areas. Very often these given to the influence of foreign communities become the victims of indoctrination of Muslims in Russia, which is corrupted politicians, who have been said to cause damage and instabilities to replaced by other responsible politicians, but peaceful existence of Muslims in Russia. such ‘cosmetic measures’ are not sufficient This reason is often portrayed as the main according to Akhmed Yarlykapov.121 challenge to traditional Islam (which is Dennis Sokolov emphasizes that Russian controlled by the Russian authorities), state claims that it is fighting international perhaps to change public perception by not terrorism when in reality it is engaging in questioning the vital reasons behind something totally different.122 According to radicalization. Sokolov also criticizes the him there are three myths that Russian adoption of a law in Dagestan on September authorities pretend to fight the international 22, 1999, “On the Prohibition of Wahhabi terrorism:123 and Other Extremist Activities in the Territory of Dagestan,” which opened the Russian security agencies in the way to the persecution of groups of citizens North Caucasus exclusively on ideological and religious grounds and a lot combat terrorists. of legal experts assert that the law is contrary Fundamentalist Islamists from to the Russian constitution.124 He argues that abroad are the principle factor such laws and regulations entail ‘a regime of behind the radicalization of terror’ that may increase the degree of Muslims in the North Caucasus radicalization. Additionally, the current and elsewhere in Russia. situation in the Northern Caucasus is built by All Muslims who have left Russia the early 2000s, the post-Soviet elites in the and other post-Soviet countries North Caucasus eliminated much of their are extremists and terrorists who competition for authority through charges of support ISIS ideology and are extremism and terrorism against their ready to fight for it. political rivals which led to a system of three The first myth shows how Russia’s war on pillars: (1) regional authorities, (2) the the region’s Islamic awakening demonstrates administration of the Russian president, and that the issue is mainly about maintaining (3) the FSB (inheritor to KGB) and other political control and not about solving the special services, which forced out those who problems that piled up in the socioeconomic resisted.125
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In the third myth, many Muslims are the consolidation of common surprised to find their names on the lists of moral and spiritual foundations. wanted Islamic State fighters while spending In 2014 Putin approved a policy for a vacation in Turkey or studying at Al-Azhar countering terrorism in Russia until 2025 University in Egypt or some Islamic activists which focuses in particular on intelligence are warned not to come back and are gathering (especially social networks), threatened with arrest.126 Intentional or interethnic relations, and illegal migration. unintentional pressure seems to trigger and Putin’s strategy involves a combination of attract more dissatisfaction from the Muslim the efforts of the state, society and public minorities. Such pressure and hesitation organizations. One of the most important based prosecutions are typical to the aims is to establish a climate of public non- authorities where the majority of key acceptance, and strengthen civil immunity positions are occupied by people who grew against the spread of extremist and radical up and gained their education in the USSR. ideas. Unfortunately, such counter-terrorism It is important to understand that Russia’s measures are short-lived because they are strategy to fight terrorism emerged during based on fear and irrationality. Terrorists are two Chechen wars. Strict measures were portrayed as freedom fighters against the true aimed at bringing peace and eliminate the oppressor or aggressor in such situations. terrorist cells in Chechnya, but it was not The second Chechen War (1999-2009) planned to touch Muslims living in Volga- ended while Dmitriy Medvedov was a Ural areas as their Islam was distinctively president. Putin and Medvedov both have had different. Hence, it has encompassed all the a ‘hardline policy’ in fighting terrorism by Muslims as jihadist networks were active to supporting prevention of terrorism and reach different corners of Russia. Russia relying on intelligence with five ‘pillars’ of demonstrated the violation of all norms counter-terrorism approaches:127 during the Chechen Wars. Later, the Russian strengthening of law enforcement state admitted that repressive measures to agencies; prevent terrorism have failed and the focus use of preventive strikes; has now been put on actions aimed at assistance to those citizens willing diverting the recruitment of terrorists; in to “reintegrate” in the society after 2006 Putin created a commission to improve a period of membership in radical the socio-economic situation in the Southern groups; Federal District through job creation, and the development of socio- educational reform, but it was only after economic spheres; Medvedev put an end to the antiterrorist operations in Chechnya in 2009 that this soft
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 approach to fighting terror was further Professor A. Campana in “Beyond Norms” developed and implemented.128 One of the indicates that currently, Russia’s most useful counter-terrorism strategies was counterterrorism framework includes three to tackle the problem with a few mentions of approaches: terrorism as a result of internal security considerations by targeting only troubles; counter-terrorism as a “positive terrorists instead of the whole population.129 process”; and Islam not being stigmatized. In Putin’s aggressive, hardline stance on addition, she asserts that there may appear terrorism which includes collecting DNA some hindrances on the way to implement the data, using racial categories for high-risk new counter-terrorism regulation:134 police registries, surveilling mosques, and The first one is the lack of conducting raids cannot be accepted as coherence between the definition effective policy.130 The Russian Federal of the threats and the Security Service (FSB) reported no “terrorist identification of the causes attacks” within the Russian Federation in leading to violence. 2015 but in the North Caucasus, authorities The second one is an incomplete detained more than 770 suspected terrorists attempt to de-securitizing the and killed 156, and prevented 30 out of 84 counter-terrorism discourses, “terrorism crimes,” according to FSB Head which paradoxically leads to the Alexander Bortnikov.131 Interestingly, re-securitization of socio- Gordon M. Hahn presents another argument economic, religious, and saying that a drop in the number of terrorist interethnic issues. attacks in Russia may be connected to the The third one is the use of old ongoing decrease of funding and internal discourses (paternalism, strong structure crisis of the global jihad interventionism) to persuade campaign.132 public opinion. The 2006 “Yarovaya Law” empowered The last one is the stress on FSB with more inspection of data; the law strategic silences. also introduces criminal liability for failure to report a crime that someone has been Some of the counter-terrorism approaches planning, is perpetrating, or has perpetrated; taken by Putin and Medvedev encounter under the new law, children as young as intellectual criticism. For example Gordon 14 can face up to a year in prison for such a M. Hahn states that despite Putin’s efforts to “failure” and for other reasons related to recentralize power, Russia remains a weak extremism, terrorism and participation in state, is becoming a failing state, and risks massive riots (all of which can be virtually becoming a failed one; a confluence of anything in Russia, since the law is vague).133 several immediate causes – the ongoing
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Chechen War, the growing influence of other in Chechnya; he also accentuates that radicals tied to the international Islamist Ramzan has managed to achieve what no revolutionary network, and Russian President Chechen leader before him has managed: the Vladimir Putin’s de-democratizing anti- effective end of Russian control of the federalist counter revolution – and numerous country which may yet turn out to be a short- other background and structural causes are term fix.138 leading to a radical re-islamization of some Besides all these negative and positive of Russia’s Muslims and the formation of a approaches during Putin’s rule, Roland geographically expanding, ethnically Dannreuther and Luke March say that diverse, and flexibly organized terrorist recentralization of power and the creation of Islamist network across Russia.135 a power ‘vertical’, has actually contributed to Gordon M. Hahn assesses the threat of processes of de-radicalization and the militant Islam in Russia as the result of absence of radicalization is also due to the Putin’s policies, because brutal prosecution more proactive engagement of the state with of the festering low-intensity war in its Muslim communities through initiatives Chechnya has led to the Chechens’ such as imam training, the building of radicalization under the influence of foreign, mosques, the publication of scholarly jihadist terrorist ideologies and movements materials on Islam and the provision of more funded, inspired, and perhaps still professional and academically rigorous coordinated by Al Qaeda.136 Furthermore, he Islamic education.139 admits that Russian authorities have had some successes in decreasing the number of terrorist attacks which were happening quite V. CONCLUSIONS frequently in the last decades, because more During the investigations carried out after the and more terrorists are being arrested or terrorist attacks or during the counter- killed by Russian state. Galina Yemelianova terrorism campaign, both Russia and the UK partially agrees that ultimate success in have violated human rights of their Muslim Chechnya has been reached as a result of the minorities. Harsh regulations targeting strengthening of the authoritarian rule of Muslim minorities were the status quo to gain President Ramzan Kadyrov, backed by the political control over the situation. Both Kremlin.137 John Russel says that Chechnya states in desire to do so relied on severe today is still ranked at the bottom of the scale undemocratic measures. Russia succeeded for civil liberties, and that is the consequence with harsh measures to somehow decrease of the Putin-Kadyrov deal which essentially the level of threat, although it required remains a private understanding between two wiping out the City of Grozny. The UK powerful individuals: one in Moscow and the hasn’t had an emergency where it had to
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 engage in warfare. this we are clearly still generating Obviously, Russia had a longer history of jihadists.”141 engagement with Muslims or has been Russian authorities claim that they have present in the affairs of Muslims in its their own traditional Islam which is set and territory. Russia’s Muslims may have the can develop within the Russian norms and historical confidence to act differently, conditions. Any other type of Islam coming because it is their historical territories where from different parts of the world is perceived they have been residing for centuries. British as violent. Anyone rejecting traditional Islam Muslims are comparatively younger settlers is seen as a radical and subject to pre-charge from this perspective; it may take them detention or some other type of investigation. several more generations to gain such In the UK, targeted minorities experienced confidence. more radicalization by the thrust of state There have been a lot of unjust authorities, while in Russia limitations to persecutions with the help of fabricated facts understand the radical versions of Islam led from the state authorities. Under the banner some people to radicalization. of ‘war on terror‘ Russia justifies its The UK seemed to have more problems authoritative and imperial nature while the with mutual trust that adversely affected UK seems to fall into this category too. social cohesion between the majority and Russia has made an attempt to narrow down minority while Russia has not been an the persecutions towards the suspected exception either. Both states initiated terrorists only, while in the UK the same different programs to engage in Muslim approach needed some time as mass media communities to gain mutual trust and build indoctrination was able to transform people’s up new relations in order to understand what attitudes. In Putin’s Russia, media was is really going on in Muslim majority particularly cautious when it touched Muslim neighborhoods or regions. This approach as radicalization and terrorism, as much of it was mentioned above has been put into now state controlled.140 practice to gain control over the situation. The overall atmosphere in the UK remains Certainly, the cooperation teemed with tensed as British authorities have been hostility due to already existing social reacting on emotion. Anthony Glees, tensions. professor of security and intelligence at Efforts to reduce home-grown terrorism Buckingham University, said: “The UK has are significantly dependent on the foreign more highly-developed anti-terror laws than policies of the states too. Mutual almost any other country in the free world; understanding and cooperation are difficult- we have tried to make extremism something to-impossible to build when states engage in that is just not worth the risk, but despite all de-radicalization on one hand and in
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 interventionist invasions on the other. It is while other regions seem to be peaceful; impossible to hide such policies in the 21st Akhmet Yarlykapov says that given the depth century. The UK under Tony Blair and his of the crisis in the Northern Caucasus, party could not mourn its imperial ghosts, nor cosmetic measures as demonstrative actions embrace a democratic and truly multicultural against the corrupt officials, the development future142 by engaging in War on Terror. of tourism and other economic projects are Russia is in a more privileged position in clearly insufficient.146 The UK hasn’t had foreign policy as it condemned the invasions such a deep crisis in comparison to Russia, and different military activities in Muslim the British case is still on a manageable level, lands however has closely participated in which does not require military action as it Syrian conflict recently. required in the Russian case. A terrorist act in St. Petersburg metro The international community criticized which left 11 dead and 51 injured and the Russia for using force in its territory towards assassination of the Russian Ambassador to its citizens; however, was there any other Ankara, Andrey Karlov can be added to the choice to deal with the terrorism which line of backlashes received.143 Recent turned into cruel warfare? Had Russia terrorist attacks aimed against Russian state approached the Chechnya problem with less and its involvement in Syrian conflict show brutality, tried political outreach or offered that success achieved by the Russian greater autonomy, the opposition to its rule authorities through smashing the terrorists might have turned out to be vigorous but still undermines effective counter-terrorism manageable says Fareed Zakaria.147 measures. Julia Ioffe in her report to The Unfortunately, as Mariya Y. Omelicheva Atlantic says that Russia got used to its says Russia's counterterrorism policy can be terrorist attacks because there have been too explained from the position of Russia's much of it that has stopped being terrifying imperial tradition, measures adopted by the over time.144 Tsarist and Soviet regimes.148 Both states have tried to improve the As Russia was expected to have more social and economic situation of their efficient counter-terrorism strategies based Muslim minorities as socio-economic on fact that it has been engaged in Muslims’ deprivation: poverty, unemployment, small political and socioeconomic lives for a long economic investments are the main factors period, it has failed to understand the core for radicalization. Reducing socio-economic values of the new emerging world, where inequalities and building cohesion to demographics of a country will speak louder. eliminate violent extremism are closely Throughout its imperial history, Russian related.145Russia’s main problem with elites haven’t had a proper policy towards Muslims comes from the North Caucasus, Muslims. It was a master-slave relation
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ECMI- Working Paper # 101 which continues until now. The imposition between the native majority and the Muslim force is the reason for North Caucasus to minority in the UK seems to continue as submit and cooperate. Russian counter- counter-terrorism laws of Britain do not terrorism laws are aimed to cut off the roots support mutual understanding; it of terrorism in general, it does not aim at marginalizes one group from another. decreasing it in the first place. Such an To conclude, in both cases the laws and approach draws a line between ‘us and them’, actions still reflect the imperial mindset of the but at least Russia has its traditional Islam, countries. In this particular comparison it while it violently suppresses non-traditional would be useless to argue that there is a types of Islam by considering it hazardous. universal or one size fits all solution to this The UK as one of the representatives of problem. The reason is that both sides rely on the free world and a promoter, and defender coercion without realizing that it only of democratic principles, and human values increases the dissatisfaction among the seems to have a better situation for its Muslim Muslims. By saying that every citizen is minorities. Comparatively, British Muslims equal, the majority stresses their superiority have enjoyed more freedom to practice their by marginalizing Muslims in case a Muslim religion and traditions in the pre 7/7 period. terrorist commits a terrorist act. However, Radical Islam as an ideology and All these, be it minor or major reasons religion in general targets the whole contribute to radicalization among Muslim population of Muslims, and the minorities are communities. As a social movement, under suspicion. Russia does not accept Islam terrorism will be still on the top of security as a dangerous religion it overtly claims that agenda because more and more perpetrators Muslims can be violent due to religious will be committing violence by taking misinterpretations. On the contrary, The UK rational choices. Hopefully, all these views Islam as dangerous and violent while it violations of human freedom and loss of says Muslims can be peaceful or violent. All human lives due to terrorist atrocities will these attempts to make Islam a religion of make both sides to listen to each other. peace failed greatly. The antagonism
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Notes
1 Tobias Metzger, "Social Movement Theory and Terrorism: Explaining the Development of Al-Qaeda", 6(9) Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, (2014), at < http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=916 > 2 Jonathan Christiansen, “Four stages of Social Movements” EBSCO Research Starters, 2009 EBSCO Publishing Inc. (2009), at: < https://www.ebscohost.com/uploads/imported/thisTopic-dbTopic-1248.pdf > 3 Steven M. Buechler, “New Social Movement Theories”, Vol. 36 No.3 The Sociological Quarterly, (1995), 441-464, at
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26 Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966) was an Egyptian writer, educator, and religious leader. His writings about Islam, and especially his call for a revolution to establish an Islamic state and society, greatly influenced the Islamic resurgence movements of the 20th century. See more at
31 Oliver Roy “Al Qaeda in the West as a Youth Movement: The Power of Narrative”, Center for European Policy Studies, Policy Brief No.168, (2008), 1. 32 Doug Saunders, The Myth of the Muslim Tide. Do Immigrants Threaten the West? (New York: Vintage Books, 2012), 61-81. 33 Mythen and Khan, “Futurity, Governance and the Terrorist Risk: Exploring the Impacts of Pre-emptive Modes of Regulation on Young Muslims in the UK”, Beijing Conference final paper, 2009, 5-6, available at
47 Ibid., 45. 48 Ibid., 45, 68. 49 Ibid., 66-67. 50 Abbas, 107-127. 51 Paul Murphy, “Intelligence and Security Committee. Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005”, May 2006 , 5, at < http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/11_05_06_isc_london_attacks_report.pdf> 30 | P a g e
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52 The Guardian, Terrorism Act 2000, (19 January 2009), at
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81 Mairbek Vatchagaev, “Growing Number of Russian Converts to Islam Joining Insurgents at home and Abroad”, Eurasia Daily Monitor 12 (226), 17 December 2015, at
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117 Ibid. 118 Malashenko and Yarlykapov, 25. 119 Ibid. 120 Dannreuther and March, 16-17. 121 Ibid., 152. 122 Sokolov, ibid. 123 Ibid. 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 Ibid. 127 Tardivo, 57. 128 Ibid., 58. 129 Ibid. 130 Nicole Mazurova, “Russia’s Response to Terrorism. History and Implications for US Policy”, American Security Project, October 2016, at:
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Utkur Yakshiboev MA in European Studies, University of Flensburg Contact: [email protected]
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