Transcultural Education and Japanese-American Relations

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF SHOJI MITARAI for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in EDUCATION presented on MARCH 16, 1981 Title: TRANSCULTURAL EDUCATIONAND-9APANESE-AMERICAN RELATIONS Abstract approved: Redacted forPrivacy Dr. Carvel W.1 o , aj r Professor The goals of this study were to discover and compare the religious and philosophical traditions which have shaped Japanese and American cultures, and to make a case for interdisciplinary transcultural programs of study in higher education. Specifically, the purposes of this study were to: (1) describe and trace historically the underlying dominant religious and philosophic traditions of Japan and the United States; (2.) demonstrate the relationship of religious and philosophic traditions to Japanese and American modes of thinking, reasoning, and behavior and actions; (3) compare and contrast the two cultures in these regards; and (4) offer suggestions on programs and curricula intended to improve transcultural awareness and communication. The study began with a search for the Eastern and Western religious and philosophic traditions which emerged in five different areas of the world during the first millennium B.C. It attempted to trace in summary fashion the major evolutionary thrusts in religion and philosophy which are central to the contemporary Japanese and American national character. Basic assumptions about reality; how one knows and under- stands the world, and the meaning and purpose of action and behavior were explored in this context. It was found that religious and philosophic orientations which developed in the Indus Valley and ancient China shaped Japanese basic assumptions, modes of thinking and behavior. The early Hinduism, Samkhya philosophy, Jainism, Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were described and analyzed. The religious value orientation known as Judeo-Christianity, the early Western philosophical orientation, and the development of science were major factors in shaping American basic assumptions, modes of thinking, and behavioral patterns. Since all three had tap roots in Hebrew and. Hellenic traditions, the development of Isreali and Greek cultural traditions were described. The study described the distinctive features of the native Japanese religions and how Japanese handled the flow of new religious and philosophical traditions from the Asian continent prior to the Meiji period. It was found that from the Jomon period to the Tokugawa period, a span of 2000 years, conceptual styles and behavioral patterns congenial to the Japanese cultural environment developed through various religious and philosophic influences within Japan. The Western religious and philosophic influences after the Tokugawa period did not greatly change the deeply entrenched modes of thinking and behavioral patterns of Japanese. Some of the assumptions, modes of thinking, and behavioral patterns within the two cultures were compared and contrasted.The issues selected were: views about language and verbal communications; patterns of organization in speech and writing; the notion of negation; polar categories versus advaitistic thinking; basic assumptions about self and reality; personal success as a value; the idea of progress including progressive education; and the method of reaching agree- ment. It was found that they are all related and affect communication and the perceptual process.They are often the source of mis- understanding and cause problems when members from the two cultures come into contact. Finally, a discussion centers around some possibilities for incorporating interdisciplinary intercultural communication in higher education in Japan and the United States. The section first deals with Japanese higher education because it was learned that the problems of implementing change were best understood with knowledge of the structure and practice of higher education in Japan. C Copyright by SHOJI MITARAI March 16, 1981 All Rights Reserved TRANSCULTURAL EDUCATION AND JAPANESE-AMERICAN RELATIONS By Shoji Mitarai A DISSERTATION Submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 16, 1981 Commencement June 1981 Approved : Redacted for Privacy PraTessor of Education in charge of major Redacted for Privacy Division Coordinator of School bf Education Redacted for Privacy Dean of Graduate School Date dissertation is presented March 16, 1981 Typed by Mary Syhlman and the researcher ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is indebted and deeply grateful to many individuals for advice and assistance in completion of this dissertation. Special thanks are due to the following doctoral committee members: Dr. Carvel W. Wood, Dr. Lloyd E. Crisp, Dr. Michael Colbert, Dr. Frank R. Cross, and Dr. Brian Dodd. Their guidance with regard to transcultural education and cross-cultural communication gave much impetus to the research undertaken. The author wishes to .express his gratitude to Dr. Crisp who gave invaluable suggestions on interdisciplinary cross-cultural communication, and many of his suggestions were incorporated in this dissertation. The author is also indebted to the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures of Oregon State University which allowed him to devote his time to teaching and to the research for this study. The author also wants to take this opportunity to thank Professor LaRay M. Barna, who was the first to turn the author's attention to the study of intercultural communication at Portland State University a few years ago. Last but not least, the author's deep appreciation goes to his wife, Michiyo Mitarai, and his mother, Sadako Mitarai. Without their warm support and encouragement, this dissertation could not have been completed. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Justification of the Study 4 Definition of Terms 13 Statement of Goals and Purposes 19 Basic Assumptions 20 Thesis Statement 20 Delimitations of the Study 21 Research Method 22 References 24 II. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EASTERN AND WESTERN RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITIONS WHICH HAVE SHAPED JAPAIIESE AND AMERICAN MODES OF THINKING AND BEHAVIOR 26 The Indus Valley Cultural Heritage 26 The Vedic Hymns 29 Hinduism 31 Samkhya, Jainism, and Buddhism 37 Summary 46 Urban Culture in China 47 Taoism 50 Confucianism (Kung Fu Ise and his followers) 52 Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism in the later centuries 58 Summary 60 Western Religious and Rationalistic Traditions 61 Isreali Cultural Heritage 61 The Rise of Prophetic Movement 63 Summary 67 Hellenic Cultural Heritage 68 The Development of Systematic Philosophies 70 Summary of Historical Sketch 76 References 79 III. A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF JAPANESE RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHIC TRADITIONS WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED THE JAPANESE MODES OF THINKING AND BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS 83 Jomon Period 83 The Development of Native Folk Religion (Primitive Shinto) in the Yayoi Period 84 The Impact of the Continental Religions and Philoso- phical Traditions 89 The Schools of Buddhism durino the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 96 The Development of Zen Buddhisn IOI The Revival of Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism) and Independent Thinkers during the Tokugawa Period 105 Summary III References 112 IV. COMPARISON AND CMTRAST OF MODES OF THINKING AND BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS WITHIN JAPANESE AND AMERICAN CULTURES 115 Summary 148 References 149 V. SUGGESTIONS FOR INCORPORATING INTERDISCIPLINARY INTER- CULTURAL COMMUNICATION INTO HIGHER EDUCATION IN JAPAN AND AMERICA 152 Summary 160 References 162 A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 163 Transcultural Education and Japanese-American Relations I. INTRODUCTION It took approximately three million to 475,000 years for the people of the world to achieve the Agricultural Revolution.Then it required another 25,000 years before the Industrial Revolution. Less than one Hundred years later, man had reached the Space Age (9). Each new era brings changes in values and a new period of uncer- tainty. While the direction of change is unclear, the pace of change is quickening. The current reality is that diverse cultures around the world, whether they like it or not, are forced to interact with each other. And this will be even more true in the future. Commonly accepted notions between otherwise different people are that everyone must attempt to cope with the increased pace of change, to develop a global outlook, to increase genuine cooperation, and to achieve, event- ually, a global community. This is true of advanced industrializated nations and it is particularly true of Japan and the United States. Japan is the one non-Western industrialized nation with a culture vastly different from the other industrialized nations. The critical nature of the problem lies here; the fact that Japan has no cultural commonality with the United States and the other Western industrialized nations and vice versa. Japan's past experience has not allowed her to pre- pare well enough for foreign contacts because of a deeply ingrained sense of geographical separateness, linguistic isolation, and an extremely high degree of homogenity (23). In the case of the United States, there are great cultural similarities with the other Western nations and a long history of contacts and exchanges. 2 If Japan becomes separated from the Western industrialized nations because of the cultural differences, there will be several dangers to the development of a global community. This is especially true if Japan is separated from the United States. Many people suggest that formal education is an effective way

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