Culture and Violence: Psycho-Cultural Variables Involved in Homicide Across Nations
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Culture and Violence: Psycho-cultural Variables Involved in Homicide across Nations Written by: Hamid Bashiriyeh Dipl. Psych. A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Psychology, Department of Psychology; University of Koblenz-Landau Under supervision of: Professor Dr. Manfred Schmitt Dean, Department of Psychology, Koblenz-Landau University Professor Dr. Ulrich Wagner Department of Psychology, Philipps-University Marburg 2010 To my brother and true friend Iraj, whose benevolence knows no bounds. Acknowledgments For the completion of this thesis, I owe my deepest gratitude and appreciation to: - Professor Dr. Manfred Schmitt, whose supervision, continuous attention, recommendations, encouragements, and supports, made the present dissertation possible in the way it is. I have learned much more than academic knowledge from him, who was always accessible and ready to help, even at times he was submerged in lots of his professional responsibilities. - Professor Dr. Ulrich Wagner, who not only gave many valuable advices, but also offered me an opportunity to stay with him and his research team (the Group Focused Enmity) at the Dept. of Psychology in Marburg for more than six months, in a very friendly and constructive atmosphere, during which he also offered me an opportunity to receive a six-month DFG scholarship, and to have a daily access to their research facilities. I am also grateful to the following people and institutions: - Friends and colleagues I used to meet and talk to for several months at the “Group Focused Enmity” in Marburg, for their friendliness as well as inspiring ideas. - Koblenz-Landau University, for providing me with the opportunity to study in Germany - Philipps University of Marburg, Dept. of Psychology for allowing me to use the library and other facilities during my stay in Marburg. - The German Research Foundation (DFG), for offering me a six-month scholarship - The Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law, for my access to their library and research facilities and also for five months scholarships. Thanks also to Ms. Marion Kleiber for helping me in finding some useful references, and for making me feel at home while staying in Schwarzwald. And last but not least, thanks to my family in Iran who encouraged me to continue my studies, and for being so affectionate, caring, and supportive to me. Table of contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………… v Introduction ...………………………………………………………………...................................... vi Chapter One: Theoretical Approaches to Human Aggressiveness ….………........1 1.1 Psychoanalysis and Aggression …..…………………………………….......................1 1.1.1 Sigmund Freud: Aggression as Instinct ...………………………………………......2 1.1.2 Erich Fromm and the Aggressive Characters……………………........................15 1.2 Evolutionary Approach to Aggression..………………………………...................21 1.2.1 Ethology ...……………………………………………………….........................................21 1.2.2 Sociobiology ...……………………………………………………………………………28 1.3 Drive Theory: Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis ..………………………….35 1.3.1 Cue-Arousal Theory …...……………………………………………………………….40 1.3.2 Relative Deprivation …................................................................................................... 42 1.4 Social Learning Theory ..………………………………………………………………44 1.4.1 Acquisition ….......................................................................................................................46 1.4.2 Instigation of Aggression...…………………………………………………………….47 1.4.2.1 Aversive conditions……………………………………………………………………...47 1.4.2.2 Modeling influences……………………………………………………………………..48 1.4.2.3 Incentive inducements…………………………………………………………………..49 1.4.2.4 Instructional control……………………………………………………………………..50 1.4.2.5 Delusional control………………………………………………………………………..50 1.4.3 Reinforcement...…………………………………………………………………………...51 Chapter Two: Culture, the Common Human Experience……………….................56 2.1 The Evolution of Culture…..……………………………………………………….....56 2.2 Memes, the building blocks of culture………...………………..….......................60 2.3 The Regulatory Role of Culture ………………………………………………….....68 2.4 Culture, Personality and Behavior……………………………………………….....75 2.5 Cultural Forms ………………………………………………………..............................86 2.5.1 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Value……………………………………………………87 2.5.1.1 Findings…………………………………………………………………………………….89 2.5.1.2 Criticism…………………………………………………………………………………....89 2.5.2 Harry Triandis: Cultural Syndromes………………………………………………94 2.5.2.1 Individualism-Collectivism…………………………………………………………..95 2.5.2.2 Tight vs. Loose Cultures……………………………………………………………...97 2.5.2.3 Complexity………………………………………………................................................98 2.5.3 Trompenaars and Hampden-Turners Cultural Dimensions………………100 2.5.3.1 Universalism vs. Particularism………………………….......................................101 2.5.3.2 Individualism vs. Communitarism……………………………………………….102 2.5.3.3 Affective vs. Neutral………………………………………………………………….102 2.5.3.4 Specific vs. Diffuse……………………………………....................................................102 i 2.5.3.5 Achievement vs. Ascription………………………………………………………..103 2.5.3.6 Sequential vs. Synchronic…………………………………………………………..104 2.5.3.7 Relation with Environment…………………………….........................................104 2.5.4 Schwartz’ Cultural Dimensions………………………………………………….106 Chapter Three: Culture and Violence ……………………………..................................112 3.1 General considerations in cultural sources of violence……………………112 3.1.1 Learning to be violent………………………………………………………………..113 3.1.2 Subculture of Violence………………………………………………………………125 3.1.3 Conflict resolution…………………………………………………………………….128 3.2 Cultural facilitators of violence…………………………………………………...134 3.2.1 Cognitive facilitators…………………………………………………………………135 3.2.1.1 Hyper religiosity……………………………………………………………………….137 3.2.1.1.1 Hinduism…………………………………………………………………………………138 3.2.1.1.2 Buddhism………………………………………………………………………………...140 3.2.1.1.3 Jainism…………………………………………………………………………………….143 3.2.1.1.4 Other Eastern ethical systems………………………………………………………144 3.2.1.1.5 Judaism……………………………………………………………………………………147 3.2.1.1.6 Christianity………………………………………………………………………………150 3.2.1.1.7 Islam………………………………………………………………………………………..151 3.2.1.2 Ideological extremism: ethno-nationalism…………………………………….157 3.2.1.3 Absolutist vs. relativist………………………………………………………………160 3.2.2 Prescriptive facilitators………………………………………………………………162 3.2.2.1 Power Distance…………………………………………………………………………163 3.2.2.2 Authoritarianism……………………………………………………………………….164 3.2.2.3 Fantasies of Omnipotence…………………………………………………………..166 3.2.2.4 Competitiveness………………………………………………………………………..166 3.2.2.5 Cultures of honor………………………………………………………………………168 3.2.3 Structural facilitators: socioeconomic development………………………..184 3.3 Homicide across nations…………………………………………………………….189 3.4 Hypotheses………………………………………………………………………………196 Chapter Four: Methodology and Results…………………………..................................203 4.1 Data gathering…………………………………………………………………………..204 4.2 Sample size and missing data………………………………………………………207 4.2.1 Missing value estimation by Multiple Imputation…………………………..210 4.3 Statistical analyses and results……………………………………………………..221 4.3.1 Regression Analysis…………………………………………………………………..223 4.3.2 Factor Analysis…………………………………………………………......................227 4.3.2.1 Regression analysis with factors………………………………………………….232 4.3.3 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis………………………………………………………233 Chapter Five: Discussion………………………………………………………………………..244 Concluding remarks……………………………………………………………………………….256 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………….258 ii List of figures Fig. 1.1 Intermediate factors between frustrating stimuli and final responses ……………. 40 Fig. 1.2 Psychological mechanisms involved in disengagement from detrimental behavior toward victims …………………………………………………………. 54 Fig. 2.1 Disharmony between established culture and the emerging modus vivendi …….. 72 Fig. 2.2 A simplified representation of components of the Personality system and their interrelations, according to Five Factor Theory …………………………... 80 Fig. 2.3 Biological constants and ecological variables shape culture and behavior ……... 86 Fig. 2.4 Two-dimensional structure of the Schwartz’s 10 values ………………………. 109 Fig. 2.5 Cultural dimensions in four models …………………………………………….. 110 Fig. 3.1 Stimuli are perceived and interpreted within a cultural field ……………………. 136 Fig. 3.2 Interplay among the four prescriptive orientations………………………………. 168 Fig. 3.3 Percent of people agreeing different propositions about killing ………………... 171 Fig. 3.4 Change in Cortisol and Testosterone level after insult in Southern and Northern subjects ……………………………………………….... 171 Fig. 3.5 Levels of expectation for honor and reverence ………………………………….. 182 Fig. 3.6 Classification of Violence ……………………………………………………….. 189 Fig. 3.7 Homicide and suicide rates per 100’000 population in world regions ………….. 194 Fig. 3.8 Nine variable which are supposed to be involved in high rates of homicide……. 195 Fig. 4.1 Dependent and independent variables …………………………………………… 204 Fig. 4.2 The 10 variables which were imported in NORM for multiple imputation …….. 211 Fig. 4.3 EM Convergence…………………………………………………………………. 212 Fig. 4.4 Data Augmentation settings……………………………………………………… 213 Fig. 4.5 The “series” checkbox and the plot of the worst linear function of parameters…………………………………………………………………….. 214 Fig. 4.6 An imputed data matrix, containing estimations for the missing data ………….. 214 Fig.