Cn a) N tti a.) 4-1 a) ter CD Co Cn a) CO ci 0 0 O C cd Co Cn O 5 -6 o. a) ci a) Co O Fa Cn O

la O Co a) Co Cd U o a) a) O 0 7-4 5 Co Co

der Cn O H cu O O O o cd ci a <-4-1 b O cd Cn 5 Cd ci n Cd Cn .- 1co3' Co cd ti 0 0) b,0 -5 -o U 5 tw O co ;-1 O O 0 0 a.) a) 5 .4 0 a) Cd -o 0 Co Cn O C te .0 0 0 a) Cd Cn 5, Cn TJ 0 a) to o w -o o lexa 0 a) a) ll for co 5- a) -o C) -ct ci a) .4 nono .--0 Cd 5 k Cd a) a) Q.) 0.5 A O O O O a) CU 0 b0 U a) O 0 0 da s-I C.) "2" Cd Cn 0 -o cc 5 -50 7,5.cn__, Cn O wr co ci a) O Co c.) Co en , 0 0) 0.) Cn 0 0 at .444Cd a) -0 Co a)

5-4 t Cn lso Tow 44, a) a) i CU Co a) 5 TJ a) "TZ a) ca., 0 Cd Cd 0 45' CS Co O CO cd a) 0) .74 a a) Cn 1.4 ...... CY) Co 5 5-1 Cd :727 C/D O C ci a) a) O \.0 o 011, 54. 5.4 ci 5-4 CY\ -0 0 5-1 cd He -o 8 O 0 0 5 a. § 0) Cd a) _g 4-44 C.) a) U Q) C d Cra Cd 5, 7) cu b50 5 Cd -ct

n Cd Cd E "ECU rU a.) cd a. cct 4-1 4-4 a) ci O 5-I 5 5 O "Et Co a) 0 8 a) O Cd a CQ 0, 0 CI) ID 5-1 ci) O •...I Cd 0 0 a) t 0 cn Cn co cd Cd Cd 0 5 o Q) -8 O O a) 5 .0 5 a) 0 0co Cd a) ”05 2, -s40 a)u) ir 5.-I a, 1.4 4-1 CA O 0 0 U a 5 O 0 5 B Co a) 5 EES (3.)' a) -co ca 4-41 cu cr) 0 Cd a) Co cd .40 g (-) u 5-I ci Cn 5-4 0 C./D 5, a) a. C -•< a) 0 0 U a) cro az) 0 .g 4&34 U ter ' 4-1 8

D oc -05 O 5 0 Cd a, a) o Co 4(1) Ti:; 0 CU , Cn 5 ..41)■•■•••• a) -g 4-, 0 5 a) Cd (1) P, R' no Co a) a) ,•0 0 Cn -0 ER 8 c./D O O Co a) 0 a) 5 0 .2 5 cd P Cd 0 O -co 71 Co 5-4 0 O -w0ct C/D Ts 1-1 4-, .-S4 5 b0 5, a) a) a) Et') To kr 8 Cd -at ccs I Cd 0 a) a, 5 44-1 a) a) a.) 0 Cd O To 0 Cd a) r=4 cd cd Co a) O CL bA no- a, Ca Cn Cd 5-4 8 O bo 0 rd O <4 0:15 cd 0 a)``' ON • r, O 5 0 , .- 4.e1 -co 0 ■•44 a) 5, 0 Cd O 4-4 (2 ,-4 73 ■■ I 0 Co `+0' cd Cd Cn 5 O 0. 0 cd a) Cn 0 cC a) H co a) a) a) Cd

0 O 5 ibc a) a) b10 5 co Cd d (; cA) CU 5 ,L4 ci n ES OF UP a) co (1), a) O Cow ai Cn co TJ I . CU C1/ Cn O a) °-) a) a) a) > a) -c) Co 0 a ,c) ci Cn 73 k O -5 s 5-4 Cd C/] 0 CO O O Cn o Cn 4ad go 4-1 4. 0 a) er 5 a) cd 0 04 -0 CO -I 0 Co a) 7) -5Q) O O N 0 4-1 -5, 7) co U cd -5 -- 0 0 iv CT 0 a) a) E-NAM O Cn 440 c.; cll r O 701 0 a) -8 a -co con a) Co C54 0 Cd 5, Eu) co no a) CT 0 er; a) 0 a) co -= O N cll •S4 4-1 Cd AC bA O ;-1 Cl) Cn a) Cn cd a0 co > 5 co O Cn O c/S'w -5 ° cd U O Cd a) 0 ,2 PL CQ C_D 5 • ci ti 5-4 -0 ci 5, "CI 0 0 Co Cn Co a) co O Cd C44' Co 0 5.4 a) Cf) a. a) a) cn a) 0 a) ccl -o 0 Cd C 0 5 a; 0 5a) 0) 0 ■-■1 Co -o "0 O 0 CU 11)4 O -co i-i cu Cd Cd •.= a„, "0 0 0 a, 0 cf) cd bn O Ca O 0 o C. Co 5-4 wno O 5 a) 5-4 <4-. o a) cd r.•••1 a) go Co En Co co -o 15) 5 05-, 0 a) cn 8 a) cd ci CL 0 Cd Cd 5-1 -o a) cn O 2 -0 5, -5 rcr -0 0 cn Cn Co O5 4-1 a, C/] -I Cd CU o a)- Cd 8 O 121 a) O O O 0 73 Cd cE c75 5 121:1 U a) 0 cd cn ci CL ..c (1) 0 ir a) 5, O O -8 O a) (1) CU '16-1 i CO 1" B k O 0.) 4-4 7=1 .0 1-1 141 0 a, c/o C7 CU 0) o o )..4 O 5-, a)

h T To Co 5 a) 5-4 0 O Co o Co a) O O a) 7'4 C...) <4-4 cro a) d or a) 4-1 0 Cd id a) Co bo 0 .0Q) Cd O Co 0 5, 0 ci a) 7En a) a) la ke 0 co 5 4 r-1 0 5 -o CU O a) O CL Cd O k 5 0) a) -5 0.) cd 5 CH Cd 0 kl -o a, O a.) -E O ci 5-4 k CU o 0 a) a) 0 a) g loo 5 0 12) t+-1 3 cti 8 Bea 41 4-4 C..7 -CI 0 0 ca ci) 96444tioaaaa44000aapoo[1:0DOODDEIDDI)

a) Cn

der a) a) O

a) n Cd C o cu a) -0a) 48. a) -o a) a) GL -8 a) 0 -5 C a) 7aI

lexa 5 5 Cd bo Cd

Co :7E1-4 A C Co CrT a) C O -o 0 a) ate., 10 Cd a) g Cn _s4 -05 a) Co Co cq • a) O CU "0 a) (-1 0 Cd Cn co. Cn a.) orD4 O Co Co Co 5-I -71 cr, 2, a)

E 5 (I) O a ° xci O C a) 0 U -0 0 'CI 4-) rn CL a Cn O0 a) .0 14-,•• a) 0 4:1 4--' a Co CL cn 0 4-1 a) Co Cn Co a) fr:), Q.) 0 a) 4-1 Cn cd H a) Cd -5 EESID O al5 t 0 > cd bo ci ° O 7.6 O 2 u 4-) ci as 0 -s4 .0 "Ci Co tU 0 5 co D 0 I cr) 5 8 4?., a) C Cd a) a) 0 Li) .0 k C a) Cn E Co 0 Cd CU <1.5 O ER OCo a) O -ca Cd -8 -05 4-■ Co ci ,L1 5 00 cu Co co PP CL 0 -6 cd 0 cd -80 O 0 -o 0 a) cd co -Q O ci a) C7) 0 .0 IL) ci a) 5, cd a) * a) U -ro Co 0 Co ok (3)U 0 0 a) COo- Cn 5-1 Cd cro ciD 8' !: a) a) ccl ci 5O "0 O OF (i) CL CL a) 0 8 O 0 O C a) a) cll 0 ci C 0 Cd cri S 5 (1) 0bi) 5 C a) O a) <+-1 a) 5 o acri Cd -o Cd

E 0 0 a) a) -o 3 x0 N0 Co 0 a. -0 0 44J a) cn CL b0 O I Qa.,) co 5 a) -O C cd ci a) O 5 7:1 Cd 5 a) Cd O 0 0 H Co 0. O Co NAM CO a) 0 05 .S a) 0 a) co a) C cd - Co Co Ci) CL 01 0 (i) Co 0 co 0 C H cu C C E a, 2, C0 o a) <4-1 co 4-, Cd Cd O O cd 0 CI) O 5,

ETH Cn AC co 0 rrt co bi0 cC "C)c) .5 5 5.0 CL C 0 ■.74 CO E 75(1) 0°4 5 C cd 5 0 -0 OC O a) AB cd a 5 PL C Cd 0 a) CL 'L;f■ O Cr) C Co C ;-■ 5 E IZ O U) 0 ,t, Cll. C E CL a "0 Cd -a -o 0 -0 0.) Cn a) bbO Co * U a) O 1:5 H a) 4-7 Co EL S-I C0 ,(1) CO) -g 0 C T a'te 0 •CP-. 5-1 0 a) a. -5, a) r--I no CI] C.) Q.) .4 C O Co 0 0 .2, 5 ) a) 5-4 4.0 5-, 04 al 5-4 a.) 0 cn N, cn 4-7 2.-r 4-1 -o 0 0 04 a) 5 5 C Cd .0 .5 0 04 a. Cn O 0 0 a) o 0 Cn SO k Co 2 °- Co a) as 0 cd o u CU C 5 0 5 .6, CN1 wno Co O et1 Q) a.) a) bo a) 0 5-4 -1-4 0 AT coo $.4 _c N Co O \.0 C 8 CL ON C4 .-° C:i■ - b0 5 v-.1 (1,2. W -5 Cn CN1 •••.-1 r4 0 Co a) ra) a ,-, "0 c3 Cd •-■ .11 1•••-, e. k 0 rn 4., CO 0 0 P, C 8 O 5 8 1-1 O 45 k ,.= a) a) RI 4 0 cij $.4 cd Co im CL co. (-) O 03 48' C O ECU 5 °..o (1)-at a AM 4-) 5 cr. 5 O .0 _g Cn

Cd t

5 C C'-' t O ci 0-g-"' 5 n COCO a) -,0„ :s4 a) s 4-1 rn C ,,n) E0 ktzi a co ,ci AD k -51) 5-4 Cn ies -tt U U3 >C ° io 8 7,1 0 a) a) cr. cd rit Q ir

t .-. d 4.0 a.) a) .0 0 45:,, 8 a, Co -g 1_1 Cd C 4-, c..) .

C2) at a, f cd Co a) -o tu C O H cd 0 Q) H .40 (21 cn H 0 (1) 4-41 .' g

duc co a) O ----, 8 he s cuw Co $.4 0 0-)

o a)-4-0 a) t o " t T'oci walk 4- 0.) 0 .--. 0 .5 Ill a. <4 s 5 5 o a) tr a) 0 a) 0 4.-' Cll cu 04 0 Cd a) a ,5 -4 .E, 40' Pa In .`.12 H CO 4-1 c'1?i 0 for ,.+C) C o C7 ....

PLACE-NAMES OF UPPER DEES[DE 9 8 WATSON, ALLAN, AND FRASER

whatever language, so it will be possible to assess the numbers of Gaelic, Scots and in archive collections. As we had no experience of place-name study, we sought the English names in different parts of the area now and in the future. help of professional workers from the beginning. We had a few advantages, particularly our familiarity with the area, the people, Language and their speech. Both of us are native speakers of Scots and one (EA) The place-names reflect the area's unusual linguistic history. Gaelic gave way was brought up in the study area. This made it easy to approach people informally not to English, as elsewhere in the Highlands, but to Scots from lowland - and use tape recorders freely for noting pronunciations. Our close links with the shire. This has been the main speech of the entire area in recent decades, and of people and our use of Scots speech for interviews were often important for getting the eastern end of it for centuries. Although most names are of Gaelic origin, and a authentic vernacular pronunciations. A few informants at first gave genteel versions few show clear evidence of Pictish influence, many are lowland Scots. Lowland Scots of names, resembling the forms printed on maps and road signs, but when we names are commonest on farmland at the east end of the area and fewest in the questioned this, using Scots speech, they would admit that the vernacular forms were mountainous west end. The names of fishing pools illustrate this change well. In the what they and their forebears had used. eastern part of the area, most pool names in Dee are Scots, such as The Lang Puil, However, as most place-names were obviously of Gaelic origin, a disadvantage The Holly Buss Puil and The Brig Puil, whereas in the far west most are Gaelic such was that we did not know Gaelic. We both learned Gaelic grammar to get a better as Am Poll Buidhe, Poll nan Clachan Garbha and Poll na Drochaide. Some names are basis for deriving Gaelic names. Scots or English translations from Gaelic names, and we commonly heard the Gaelic version from older people and the translation from younger ones. An example is We identified the exact locations of all but a few place-names, giving map Preas nam Meirleach in Glen Luibeg, now usually given locally as The Robbers' Copse. references, and also visited every known location to check its position and possible We also came across deliberate anglicisation of Gaelic names. In one such case, an derivation. Local people were asked for the name of every former habitation, field, English deer-stalking tenant found it hard to remember a corrie as Coire Bhearn- pool, hillock, stream, and other major features. Periodically we looked for gaps where we had had few or no names, and then went to informants in these gap areas. uisge, so he decided to call it The Big Corrie and expected local stalkers and ghillies to do likewise. We spoke with 260 local informants, and visited some of them repeatedly. In the course of the work we came across Mrs Jean Bain, the last speaker of Their statements were checked with other local people, and we often took them out on Aberdeenshire Gaelic, and this led to a study of her Gaelic (Watson & Clement 1983). to the ground in question. The study was wound up when the number of new names Unpublished Gaelic poems from Deeside, dating from the late 1700s, were discovered dropped below about one per two new informants. One of the most rewarding things (Watson 1983a), and also the Earl of Fife's unpublished journal which gave useful in the study was meeting so many interesting people. Without them it would have been information on social history and land use (Watson 1983b) as well as place-names. a mere desk job, sifting evidence of doubtful validity from extinct cultures. With An Appendix to our book presents some more unpublished poems and rhymes which their help, it was an exploration of a living culture, albeit one experiencing emphasise place-names and which are still known locally. considerable change. Nevertheless, spellings of names found in old documents were often important Social history pointers to their derivation. We noted some early forms from published sources, but Many of the names illustrate the major changes that have occurred in the area's many more from unpublished papers and maps in estate offices and in other known archive collections on the area. Very few of these pre-date 1600, and most are from social history and land use. Communities far up the glens were at one time largely self-sufficient, with a great variety of trades such as turner, shoemaker, fuller, the late 1700s and the 1800s. Where we found unfamiliar place names in unpublished weaver, etc. which are illustrated by the place-names. Many names refer to the old papers, we went back to our informants to ask if they knew these names. Some- mosses where people formerly dug peat for fuel; virtually all are unused today. We times they did recollect hearing them, and occasionally even remembered locations. found many names of shielings, where people once summered with their cattle in the These methods produced a fairly reliable base of map references, phonetic higher glens; none are in use now. There has been a great decline in the number of pronunciations and old spellings. Derivation of Celtic names was more subjective, inhabited farms and crofts, due to the massive voluntary depopulation of the more and here we were greatly helped by comments on the manuscript by professional remote glens. This still continues, so that some glens are now completely empty of workers. If local informants pronounced a name as /alt 'beg/ and told us that this people, and only the ruins of former homes remain. The visitor coming across some meant 'little stream', there was not much doubt that it came from the Gaelic name interesting old ruin would have difficulty finding out its name from our long alphabet- Allt Beag. With many names apparently Gaelic, however, local people did not know ical list. We therefore list separately the former habitations in each individual glen, any meaning, and there were several possible derivations from Gaelic dictionaries; since many people are more interested in these human aspects than in the names of in such cases our suggested derivations are obviously more doubtful. In a few cases hillocks or other natural features. we could find no derivation from dictionaries, so that these were still more obscure. Along with this depopulation, and with farm amalgamations, many field names We ranked the reliability of Gaelic derivations on a scale from 1-6. This was useful have disappeared. Some have been replaced by the field numbers on large-scale, in providing a standard, and also avoided the repeated use of such vague teims as 'probably', 'possibly', etc. modern OS maps. Names in the hills are also vanishing. Many of today's game- keepers and deer-stalkers were not brought up in the area, and are less inclined than Unlike earlier authors in the area, we recorded all names that we found in

10 WATSON, ALLAN, AND FRASER 6=0 PLACE -NAMES OF UPPER DEESIDE 11 rot their predecessors to stay in one place for long. Also, the number of men employed aspect of agricultural life, so it is natural that we find a large number of terms has greatly declined, so that each man (with a Land Rover) now has a very big area 4=0 relating to these. The usual eastern Gaelic word ruighe is found widely, some 50 to look after and cannot know the ground as intimately as the old-style stalker who examples being recorded, together with a substantial number of the Scots equivalent walked his smaller beat every day. shiel, like Shiel of Back Coire Buidhe, and Shiels of Allt na Meadhonaidh. Finally, we may note a number of Scots habitative names, like thosein Mains INSTITUTE OF TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY (from demesne), about 10 examples, usually in the form 'Mains of . . .1 . Names BANCHORY including -ton (Scots toun) are confined to examples like Newton (which are often referred to as 'The Newton'), Milton and Kirkton of Crathie.

Field-Names PART II Field-names in the area display the expected pattern, i.e. they contain both Gaelic and Scots terms. Some of the Gaelic field-names, however, are unusual, and One of the useful aspects of this collection from the point of view of the it is surprising to find a few terms which are normally encountered in Argyll and the professional onomastician, is the way in which all names have been investigated. Southern Hebrides. The basic field-names, such as those containing achadh and 'Jail, Although one comes to expect settlement names to be the subject of more intense are of course found in some numbers, although it is difficult to be precise about the scrutiny in a survey such as this, topographic names, especially in mountainous original extent of either, since there must have been a good deal of replacement in areas, are often allocated less attention. In this study, however, there has been a the eastern part of the area, if not throughout its entire length, by Scots terms. In particular effort devoted to the topographic element, in addition to settlement names, addition, the word roinn 'portion' is found in at least 30 examples, and loinn 'enclosure' and in an area like Deeside which displays a wide variety of landscapes, from valley is also common (20+ examples) in such names as Loinn a' Choirce, which becomes to high mountain zones, this has proved of inestimable importance. Loinchork in Glen Girnock, and also occurs in simplex as The Loin. Other terms are ailean 'green, meadow' (Allanaquoich, Allanmore); cluan 'meadow' in Settlement Names Clunie; innis 'meadow, haugh', which becomes Scots inch; and the unusual claigionn 'hillock, in- It is in the nature of mountainous areas that farms which are located in higher field' in Claigionn na Caithriseachd near Abergeldie. This is a term found in Argyll ground where conditions are marginal will be often poor and therefore more liable to and Lochaber, but in few other places, to my knowledge. abandonment at times of economic depression, social change or climatic deterioration. Some terms which are common further west in the Gaelic-speaking area are This has been a prominent feature of the settlement pattern of Upper Deeside, and is relatively rare here, such as ion 'grassy meadow', although this does occasionally reflected in the large number of names which are either obsolete or which have reverted occur as a specific, like and to being applied to topographic features. This situation can be repeated in other, Rinloan Baile an Loin, and there are a few examples of bard 'park'. The term similar, parts of Scotland, like upper Speyside, the Borders, and the Galloway hill eilean 'island' is also found here as a field-name, usually beside major rivers, and sometimes applied to islands cut off during changes in country. stream-beds. There are some 20 examples of these in generic forms, including 7 in The two most common Gaelic habitative elements which are found in the area are simplex, a few hybrids such as The Eilean Park, and occasional farm-names like baile 'farmstead' and achadh 'field'. There are some 50 examples of baile, such as Baile an Eilein. It was interesting to find an example of losaid 'kneading-trough' (hence Balintober, Balmenach, and Balintuim. Achadh is less common in Aberdeenshire, a very fertile field) at Invercauld. Normally this term is confined to Argyll. being a later settlement term. As its derivation implies, it is usually a smaller unit Scots terms in this category are fairly predictable. They include of land, and tends to be located in less favourable agricultural conditions. Most of haugh (and its diminutive haughie), howe 'flat ground' and frequent examples of the achadh names in Deeside apply to farm fields as such, although Auchnerran in park. Two examples of field-names containing the term waird, from Scots Cromar, Auchallater and Auchtavan were farm names in their own right. Many farms ward 'land enclosed by a dyke', were also recorded. with names containing baile and achadh are now deserted, such as Baile a' Mhuillin near and in Glen Gairn. We may also note dail 'meadow' as Ach an t-Sabhail Hydronyms being a common term. Many places so named are fields or water-meadows in existing farms, but a substantial number have acquired the status of farms, such as Dalnabo, Most water-names are Gaelic, but there has been a lot of anglicisation, and a Dallyfour (1599 Dalfour), Dalvorar and others. These are usually near major streams, few Scots hydronyms occur also. The standard Gaelic term abhainn 'river' occurs in relatively good land. only as a specific in such names as Loinn na h-Aibhne (old form Loinahaun). Uisge 'water' is standard for the large streams such as the Dee, as Cill, the term for 'church', is virtually absent in the study area, although a few Uisge D6. The most common stream element is the term alit, with its diminutive old church sites are referred to as such. Indeed, with the exception of more recent alltan. For small streams, the term caochan names containing kirk and chapel, few place-names relating to church activity exist. is frequently used, and f6ith 'bog-stream' is very common. Gaelic eaglais 'church' occurs in a few instances. Other river or stream features include linne 'rocky pool', found mainly on the major streams and often Scotticised to linn, in the form 'Linn of . . .'. The term camas The area was one noted for its shielings, transhumance being once an important 'bend' or 'meander', found only on the larger rivers, becomes cambus in Scotticised

12 WATSON, ALLAN, AND FRASER PLACE-NAMES OF UPPER DEESIDE 13 forms, like Cambus o' May. Wells are mostly denoted by fuaran, although tobar is smaller valleys, gulleys and ravines having a variety of terms like dials, glac and also found, while there are springs in hill country named from Gaelic sail or Scots lag. Hill-slopes of various kinds are found as bruach, leathad and leitir, and hill- swail 'eye', i.e. an eye-shaped green spot in otherwise dark or barren land. promontarles as srein 'nose'. Scots items in this category mostly involve the common stream term burn. There are, in addition, numerous examples of coire 'corrie', or 'cwm', as is It is clear that this element has expanded into parts of the west of the area, although to be expected in a mountainous area, and the ravine-term, dais, is very common, it is naturally more common in the east. Again, 'Burn of . . .' is a usual formation. often applied to former glacial melt-water channels. One other Scots element, grain, is fairly common, applied to a series of small The names of passes which were used as routeways include several interesting rivulets which merge to form a larger stream. It produces occasional hybrids like terms, such as bealach, a way between two peaks, and lairig, the term for a longer Grains o Allt Deas in Glen Tanar, but most grain- names are in the south-east of the pass, as in La irig Ghru. Cadha, referring to a way up a steep hill, is found in a area, nearest lowland influence. number of names, such as Cadha an Fhir Bhogha 'the way of the archer' and Cadha Mention should also be made of the Gaelic inbhir 'confluence', and its Scotticised Shios Feith Laoigh. form inver, of which over 20 occur in the area. Again, we find formations like The Scots terms are in general less common than Gaelic, and are either comparatively Inver of Bynack and The Inver of the Burn of Altdourie. recent or confined to the east of the area. Moss and Muir are obvious examples, with formations like Muir of Tullich to denote moorland grazings pertaining to particular Other Toponyms farm holdings. There are 12 examples of the term shank 'descending spur' or 'broad In an area where there is a great deal of topographic variety, mountain- and ridge', and a notch in the hills is often referred to as sneck, again a Scots term. hill-names form a very high percentage of the total. Although the were not subjected to such a prolonged period of glaciation as the mountains in the west, Conclusion where there is much more obvious evidence of severe dissection and formation of This survey of elements has, of necessity, been short. There is much variety, corries at much lower altitudes, they still present us with a large number of mountain particularly of topographic names. On first sight, there is a relative lack of purely terms. habitative names, but this is because a very large number of settlement names, For the highest summits, beinn, the standard term for 'mountain', and its usually of small farms, have toponymic origins. This may reflect the way in which Scotticised equivalent ben, are fairly numerous. The term monadh 'hill-range' also man has exploited the area, often attempting to cultivate land at considerable altitudes occurs. In neighbouring Speyside, the Cairngorms were referred to as Am Monadh in unpromising situations, and paying the penalties when marginal climatic change or Ruadh 'the red hill-range' to distinguish this from Am Monadh Liath 'the grey hill- a shift in economic conditions rendered occupation unprofitable. range' to the west, more familiar in its anglicised form as 'The Monadhliath The onomastic record of this collection, then, should not be viewed solely in a Mountains'. linguistic light. It is as much a record of economic and social change, and it is to be By far the most common mountain term is calm, with its Scotticised equivalent hoped that it will be regarded as a tool not only for onomasticians but for other cairn. This could be said to be the standard mountain term for the Grampians — scholars seeking further insights into the history of this fascinating and beautiful conical and round-topped rather than sharp-peaked. Sgor, of which more than 20 part of Scotland. examples are found, indicates a stony or rocky surface, and is therefore a more specialiased term than either calm or beinn. St-tic 'projecting hill' is scarce, as one SCHOOL OF SCOTTISH STUDIES might expect in this area, but there are 7 hill names containing stob 'peak'. EDINBURGH Lower summits are sometimes also labelled cam, as well as those in the high- summit category, but the term meall 'lump, hill' and its diminutive meallan occur most numerously in the names of lower summits. Sidhean 'rounded hill' or 'fairy hill', though extremely common in Inverness-shire and the north-west is less so here, with only 4 examples with the generic, and occasional occurrences where the term appears as a specific, like Tom an t-Sidhein. Torr(an) is also common, while tulach and tom are frequent for hillocks. Cnoc is also found, becoming Scots knock in forms like The Knock of Lawsie, while tulach becomes Tullich or Tulloch and is the generic for innumerable faim-names throughout North-East Scotland. Druim 'ridge', 'back' is another common topographic element, which is anglicised to drum. Creag 'rock' becomes craig in Scots and is extremely common, as is clach 'stone'. Valley features of larger size are denoted by Gaelic gleann and srath, the latter being usually the term for 'major river valley'. Both are common in the area, with DOREEN WAUGH 15 14 PLACE-NAMES OF UPPER DEESIDE

CAITHNESS PLACE -NAMES * REFERENCES

Alexander, W. M. (1952). The Place-Names of Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen. In describing the sources and methods which I have used in my study of Caithness place-names, I shall only be referring to those six parishes which I have Anonymous (1980 edn). Fisherman's Map of Salmon Pools on the Aberdeenshire Dee. studied in detail, using the place-names on the 6" Ordnance Survey maps as a Waverley Press, Aberdeen. starting point. The six parishes are Reay, Thurso, Olrig, Dunnet and Canisbay, all Diack, F. C. (1944). The Inscriptions of Pictland. Aberdeen. of which border the Pentland Firth in the north, plus Wick Parish on the east coast. Dwelly, E. (1901-11). The Illustrated Gaelic-English Dictionary. Reprinted 1971, The reason for selecting these parishes in particular is that the most Gairm Publications, Glasgow. significant feature in the place-nomenclature of Caithness is the division between the Gaelic-influenced area to the west of the county and the Norse-influenced area to the Johnston, J. B. (1934). Place-names of Scotland. London. east, and any study of Caithness place-names must obviously incorporate this Joyce, P. W. (1869). Irish Names of Places. Dublin. linguistic orientation. The dividing line between Norse east and Gaelic west is surprisingly clearly defined, although it has been blurred to a certain extent by the MacBain, A. (1922). Place Names: Highlands & Islands of Scotland. Stirling. gradual adoption of Scots or English as the language of all the people in Caithness. Macdonald, J. (1899). Place Names of West Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen. Before examining the place-names themselves, one's first source has to be the MacKinnon, D. (1887). 'Place names and personal names in Argyll', The Scotsman. work of the historian and the archaeologist who provide the historical backdrop against Edinburgh. which the names can be evaluated. Precise dating of the various phases of settlement is impossible from place-name evidence alone due to the regrettable scarcity of Milne, J. (1908). 'Kirkmichael (Banffshire) place names', Cairngorm Club Journal 5, 93-114. early documentary references to place-names. The earliest date which has been suggested for the Norse settlement of Orkney, Shetland and Caithness is c. 800 AD. Milne, J. (1912). Celtic Place-Names in Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen. The Scandinavians who came to the Northern Isles were of Norwegian origin Nicolaisen, W. F. H. (1979). 'Field-collecting in onomastics', Names 27, 162-178. and they possibly chose the area because of its proximity to Norway and because in Parker, M. (1931). Fisherman's Map of Salmon Pools on the River Dee. many respects it was similar to their home territory. The Treaty of Perth (1266) marks the end of direct Norse control in Caithness but Norse influence in all aspects Scott, I. (1959). Fishermans Map of Salmon Pools on the River Dee. of everyday life persisted for some centuries after this date and Norn may have been Stewart, T. F. (1974). Hill Names of Perthshire. Perth. spoken until the beginning of the 16th century, and some would suggest an even later date towards the end of the 16th century. It has to be remembered that Orkney and Watson, A. (1983a). 'Old Gaelic poems from Aberdeenshire', Scottish Gaelic Studies Shetland were under Scandinavian control until 1468, and there would have been 14, 25-58. contact between Orkney and Caithness during this time which would encourage retention of the Norn. Watson, A. (1983b). 'Eighteenth century deer numbers and pine regeneration near , Scotland', Biological Conservation 25, 289-305. The gradual encroachment of Gaelic-speaking people from the west and south Watson, A. & Clement, R.D. (1983). 'Aberdeenshire Gaelic', Transactions of the probably began in either the 12th or the 13th century once the authority of the Scottish Gaelic Society of Inverness 52, 373-404. crown had been established in the north. Professor Nicolaisen suggests this dating, commenting that: 'the boundary line between Gaelic and Norse Caithness must have Watson, W. J. (1904). Place-Names of Ross and Cromarty. Inverness. been established before the end of the 9th century . . . and there seems to have been Watson, W. J. (1904-5). 'The study of Highland place-names', Celtic Review 1, 22-31. very little change in that situation before the 12th or even 13th century.' (Nicolaisen 1982, p. 80). Watson, W. J. (1916). 'Some place-names in the Cairngorm region', Cairngorm Club Journal 8, 133-136. The movement of Gaelic-speaking people into Caithness increased in strength and spatial extent until the early 1700s, but by the later years of the 18th century Watson, W. J. (1926). The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh. Gaelic was slowly beginning to give way to English, even in the extreme west of the county, in Reay Parish, where Gaelic continued in use until the early 20th century. The Old Statistical Account (OSA) has the following to say regarding Reay Parish: 'The Gaelic or Erse language is chiefly spoken through this parish. Many indeed now speak both Gaelic and English' (OSA, vol. XVIII, Caithness, p. 158). This latter comment invariably indicates that Gaelic is in a threatened position, having been ousted as the language of communication with trading partners. There is a small cluster of Gaelic names in Wick Parish but they have the appearance of being much later than the Gaelic names in Reay Parish. The Old