Notes

The abbreviation CHC refers to The Cambridge History of , ed. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. For full details, see 'Further Reading', pp. 309-10.

Notes to the Introduction 1. John W. Dardess, A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996). 2. Jun, Chinese Civilization in the Making, 1766-221 Be (: Macmillan, 1996). 3. Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Press, 1984) pp. 9-55.

Notes to Chapter 1 The Prehistory and Early 1. D.C. Lau (trans. and ed.), Mencius (Harmondsworth: , 1970) p. 128. 2. Quoted in Derk Bodde, 'Feudalism in China', in Rushton Coulborn (ed.), Feudalism in History (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1965) p. 58. 3. Herrlee G. Creel, The Origins of Statecraft in China: The Western Chou Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970) p. 320. 4. Xueqin Li, Eastern Zhou and Civilizations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985) p. 477. 5. Raymond Dawson, (Oxford: , 1981) p. 76. 6. D. C. Lau (trans. and ed.), Confucius: The Analects (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1979) pp. 74, l31. 7. W. T. de Bary et al. (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) vol. I, p. 40. 8. D. C. Lau (trans. and ed.), Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975) p. 57. 9. Ibid., p. 59. 10. De Bary et al. (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. I, p. 73. 11. Lau (trans. and ed.), Confucius, p. 143. 12. Lau (trans. and ed.), Mencius, p. 160. 13. De Bary et al. (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. I, p. 104. 14. Hans Bielenstein, 'The institutions of Later ', CHe, I, pp. 491- 519.

Notes to Chapter 2 From the Period of Division to the Tang 1. Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Aristocratic Families of Early Imperial

301 302 NOTES

China: A Case Study of the Po-ling Ts'ui Family (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978) p. 18. 2. W. J. F. Jenner, Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the Lost Capital (493-534) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981) p. 28. 3. Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973) p. 55. 4. W. E. Soothill, A History of China, rev. edn (London: Ernest Benn, 1950) p. 40. 5. Arthur F. Wright, 'T'ang T'ai-tsung and Buddhism', in Arthur F. Wright and Denis Twitchett (eds), Perspectives on the T'ang (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973) pp. 239-63. 6. G. W. Robinson (trans. and ed.), Poems of (Harmonds• worth: Penguin Books, 1973) p. 30. 7. Elling O. Eide, 'On Li Po', in Arthur F. Wright and Denis Twitchett (eds), Perspectives on the T'ang (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973) pp. 367-403. 8. Arthur Cooper (trans. and ed.), Li Po and Tu Fu (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973) p. 184. 9. Michael Sullivan, 'The heritage of Chinese art', in Raymond Dawson (ed.), The Legacy of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964) pp. 165-233. 10. Denis Twitchett, 'Introduction', CHC, 3, pp. 37-8. 11. Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, and Trade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese Interaction through Two Millennia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989) pp. 1-23. 12. Arthur F. Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History (Stanford: Press, 1959) pp. 82-3. 13. E. Zurcher, 'Perspectives in the study of Chinese Buddhism', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1982) part 2, pp. 161-76. 14. W. T. de Bary et al. (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960) vol. I, pp. 372-4. 15. Reigned 846-59, to be distinguished from his famous predecessor who reigned 712-56.

Notes to Chapter 3 The Song and Yuan Dynasties 1. Denis Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, 'The Liao', CHC, 6, p. 110. 2. Gungwu Wang, 'The rhetoric of a lesser empire: Early Sung relations with its neighbors', in Morris Rossabi (ed.), China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1983) pp. 47-65. 3. E. A. Kracke, Civil Service in Early Sung China, 960-1067 (Cambridge, : Press, 1953, 1968) pp. 68-70. 4. John W. Chaffee, The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China: A of Examinations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) pp. 182-3. 5. Winston W. Lo, An Introduction to the Civil Service of Sung China: With an Emphasis on Its Personnel Administration (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987) pp. 92-3. NOTES 303

6. Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973) pp. 113-99. 7. Charles O. Hucker, China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (London: Duckworth, 1975) p. 342. 8. Etienne Balazs, 'The birth of capitalism in China', in Etienne Balazs (ed. A. F. Wright), Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1964) pp. 34-54. 9. , 'Chinese in comparative per• spective', in Paul S. Ropp (ed.), Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990) pp. 224-41. 10. John Meskill (ed.), Wang An-shih: Practical Reformer? (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1963). 11. James T. C. Liu, China Turning Inward: Intellectual-Political Changes in the Early Twelfth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988) pp. 81-104. 12. Richard L. Davis, Court and Family in Sung China, 960-1279: Bureaucratic Success and Kinship Fortunes for the Shih of Ming• chou (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1986). 13. Peter J. Golas, 'Rural China in the Song', Journal of Asian Studies, 39.2 (1980) pp. 291-325. 14. Robert P. Hymes, Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-chou, Chiang-si, in Northern and Southern Sung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986) pp. 210-18. 15. Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Chinese Women in the Sung Period (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993) pp. 4-6, 37-43, 199. 16. Frances Wood, Did Go to China? (London: Secker & Warburg, 1995); and Morris Rossabi, 'The reign of Khubilai khan', CHC, 6, pp. 414-89, at p. 463 n. 83. 17. Frederick W. Mote, 'Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215-1368', CHC, 6, pp. 616--64, at p. 620. 18. Rossabi, 'The reign of Khubilai khan', p. 489. 19. Bayan of the Merkid, to be distinguished from Bayan of the Barin, the general who conquered the south. 20. Quoted in Hucker, China's Imperial Past, p. 400. 21. Ch'i-ch'ing Hsiao, 'Mid-Yiian politics', CHC, 6, pp. 490-560.

Notes to Chapter 4 The Early Modern Period: The Ming and the Early Qing 1. Frederick W. Mote, The rise of the , 1330-1367', CHC, 7, pp. II-57, at p. 48. 2. Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China: A Political History 1355-/435 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982) p. 87. 3. F. W. Mote, 'The growth of Chinese despotism: A critique of Wittfogel's theory of Oriental Despotism as applied to China', Oriens Extremus, 8 (1961) pp. 1-41. 4. Dreyer, Early Ming China, p. 182. 304 NOTES

5. The official salary of a was about 5.2 per month. 6. Ray , Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth• Century Ming China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974) p. 60. A standard mou was approximately 6000 square feet, or one• seventh of an acre. 7. John W. Dardess, A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996) p. 82. 8. Huang, Taxation and Governmental Finance, p. 82. 9. Fang-chung Liang, The Single-Whip Method of Taxation in China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970) p. 1. 10. Dardess, A Ming Society, p. 48. 11. Hilary J. Beattie, Land and Lineage in China: A Study of T'ung• ch'eng County, Anhwei, in the Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). 12. Ping-ti Ho, The Ladder of Success in Imperial China: Aspects of Social Mobility, 1368-191/ (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967) pp. 92-105. 13. , : Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993) pp. 311-21. 14. James W. Tong, Disorder under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991) pp. 192-203. 15. Quoted in Frederic Wakeman, Jr, The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China, 2 vols (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985), vol. I, p.317. 16. Lynn A. Struve (trans. and ed.), Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993) p. 2. 17. Jonathan D. Spence, : Self-portrait of K'ang-hsi (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977) p. 43. 18. A late seventeenth-century writer quoted in Helen Dunstan, Conflicting Counsels to Confuse the Age: A Documentary Study of Political Economy in Qing China, 1644-1840 (Ann Arbor: , Center for Chinese Studies, 1996) pp. 151-2. 19. Pei Huang, Autocracy at Work: A Study of the fung-cheng Period, 1723-1735 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974) p. 21. 20. Albert Feuerwerker, State and Society in Eighteenth-Century China: The Ch'ing Empire in its Glory (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for Chinese Studies, 1976) p. 84. 21. Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973) pp. 285-315. 22. Kung-chuan Hsiao, Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967) p. 144. 23. Pierre-Etienne Will and R. Bin Wong, Nourish the People: The State NOTES 305

Civilian Granary System in China, 1650-1850 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies, 1991). 24. Dunstan, Conflicting Counsels, pp. 203-45, 293. 25. Benjamin A. Elman, From Philosophy to Philology: Intellectual and Social Aspects of Change in Late Imperial China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). 26. Madeleine Zelin, The Magistrate's : Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch'ing China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984) pp. 265-6. 27. Feuerwerker, State and Society, pp. 74-5.

Notes to Chapter 5 China in the Late Qing 1. J. Mason Gentzler (ed.), Changing China: Readings in the History of China from the Opium War to the Present (New York: Praeger, 1977) pp.23-8. 2. James L. Hevia, 'The Macartney embassy in the history of Sino• Western relations', in Robert A. Bickers (ed.), Ritual and Diplomacy: The Macartney Mission to China, 1792-1794 (London: British Association for Chinese Studies, and the Wellsweep Press, 1993) pp.57-79. 3. Joseph W. Esherick, 'Cherishing sources from afar', Modern China, 24.2 (April 1998) pp. 135-61. 4. John King Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the , 1842-1854, rev. edn (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969) p. 74. 5. D. K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire 1830-1914 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973) p. 212. 6. , 'The Chinese revolution and the Communist Party' (1940), quoted in Stuart Schram, The Political Thought of Mao Tse• tung, revised and enlarged edn (London: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969) p.262. 7. Karl Marx, New York Daily Tribune, 14 June 1853, reprinted in Dona Torr (ed.), Marx on China, 1853-1860: Articles from the New York Daily Tribune (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1968) pp. 1-2. 8. Jonathan Spence, God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of (London: Harper Collins, 1996) p. 65. 9. Yu-wen Jen, The Taiping Revolutionary Movement (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973) p. 6. 10. Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in , 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980) p. 130. II. Ping-ti Ho, Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959) pp. 236-48, 275-8. 12. Mary Clabaugh Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874, 2nd edn (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962) p. ix. 13. Ssu-yu Teng and John K. Fairbank, China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923 (New York: Atheneum, 1963) pp.30-5. 306 NOTES

14. Ibid., pp. 50--4. 15. Ibid., p. 76. It was customary for a Mongol to refer to himself as a slave when addressing the emperor. 16. Albert Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan• huai (1844-1916) and Mandarin Enterprise (New York: Atheneum, 1970) p. 30. 17. Albert Feuerwerker, 'Economic trends in the late Ch'ing empire, 1870-1911', CHC, 11, pp. 1-69. 18. Robert Gardella, Harvesting Mountains: and the China Tea Trade, 1757-1937 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1994) pp. 81-3,110-11,170-4. 19. Leang-Ii Tang, China in Revolt: How a Civilization Became a Nation (London: Noel Douglas, 1927), reprinted in Jessie G. Lutz (ed.), Christian Missions in China: Evangelists of What? (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1965) pp. 51-9. 20. Hosea Ballou Morse, International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 3 vols (New York: Longmans, Green, 1910-18), vol. III, pp. 158-9. 21. Jack Gray, Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to the 1980s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990) pp. 132-5. 22. Paul A. Cohen, History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) pp.251-60. 23. Frederic Wakeman, Jr, The Fall of Imperial China (London: Collier Macmillan, 1977) p. 228.

Notes to Chapter 6 Republican China, 1911-49 1. Marianne Bastid-Bruguiere, 'Currents of social change', CHC, 11, pp. 535-602 at p. 561. 2. Mary Clabaugh Wright, 'Introduction: The rising tide of change', in Mary Clabaugh Wright (ed.), China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900-1913 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973) pp. 1-63. 3. Joseph W. Esherick, Reform and Revolution in China: The in and (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1976) p. 175. 4. Ernest P. Young, The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977) p. 243. 5. Franz Michael, 'Introduction', in Stanley Spector, Li Hung-chang and the : A Study in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964) pp. xxi-xliii. 6. Jerome Ch'en, Yuan Shih-k'ai, 1859-1916: Brutus Assumes the Purple, 2nd edn (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1972) p. 214. 7. Edward A. McCord, The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993) pp. 309-15. 8. James E. Sheridan, China in Disintegration: The Republican Era in Chinese History, 1912-1949 (New York: The Free Press, 1975) pp. 183-206. NOTES 307

9. Julia C. Lin, Modern Chinese Poetry: An Introduction (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1972) p. 85. 10. W. T. de Bary et al. (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), vol. II, pp. 156-67. 11. S. Y. Teng and J. K. Fairbank (eds), China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923 (New York: Atheneum, 1963) p.239. 12. Ibid., pp. 252-5. 13. Jean Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement, 1919-1927 (Stan• ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1968) pp. 177-210. 14. Harold R. Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1938) p. 126. 15. Stuart R. Schram, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung, revised and enlarged edn (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969) pp. 250-9. 16. C. Martin Wilbur, 'The Nationalist Revolution: From Canton to Nanking, 1923-28', CHC, 12, pp. 527-720 at p. 690. 17. Albert Feuerwerker, 'Economic trends, 1912-1949', CHC, 12, pp. 28-127. 18. Han-seng , Landlord and Peasant in China: A Study of the Agrarian Crisis in South China (New York: International Publishers, 1973); Ramon H. Myers, The Chinese Peasant Economy: Agricul• tural Development in Hopei and Shantung, 1890-1949 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970). 19. Douglas S. Paauw, 'The and economic stagnation 1928-1937', in Albert Feuerwerker (ed.), Modern China (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1964) pp. 126-35. 20. Thomas G. Rawski, Economic Growth in Prewar China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989) pp. xxi-xxi, 332, 344. 21. Robert E. Bedeski, 'China's wartime state', in James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine (eds), China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937-1945 (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1992) pp. 33-49. 22. Lloyd E. Eastman, Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937-1949 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984) p. 43. 23. John S. Service, Lost Chance in China: The World War 11 Despatches of John S. Service (New York: Random House, 1974) pp. 178-81. 24. Chalmers A. Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1937-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962) p. 59. 25. Donald G. Gillin, '''Peasant nationalism" in the history of Chinese Communism', Journal of Asian Studies, 23.2 (February 1964) pp. 269-89; Mark Selden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).

Notes to Chapter 7 China since the 1949 Revolution 1. Xinxin and Ye Sang, Chinese Lives: An Oral History of Contemporary China (London: Penguin Books, 1989) p. 119. 2. Barry Naughton, 'The pattern and legacy of economic growth in the 308 NOTES

Mao era', in Kenneth Lieberthal, Joyce Kallgren, Roderick MacFarquhar and Frederic Wakeman, Jr (eds), Perspectives on Modern China: Four Anniversaries (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1991) pp.226-54. 3. Mark Selden, The People's Republic of China: A Documentary History of Revolutionary Change (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979) p. 402. 4. Merle Goldman, 'The Party and the intellectuals', CHC, 14, pp. 218- 58. 5. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: The Free Press, 1977) p. 205. 6. Alexander Eckstein, China's Economic Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977) pp. 58-9. 7. Nicholas R. Lardy, 'The Chinese economy under stress, 1958-1965', CHC, 14, pp. 360-97. 8. Alan S. Whiting, 'The Sino-Soviet split', CHC, 14, pp. 478-538. 9. Benjamin Yang, Deng: A Political Biography (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), p. 151. The quotation is usually rendered as 'Black cat or white cat. .. '. 10. Meisner, Mao's China, p. 285. 11. Jiaqi and Gao Gao, Turbulent Decade: A History of the (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996) p. 32. 12. David Milton, Nancy Milton and Franz Schurmann (eds), People's China: Social Experimentation, Politics, Entry onto the World Scene, 1966-72 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977) pp. 269-81. 13. Yan and Gao, Turbulent Decade, p. 529. 14. Dwight H. Perkins, 'China's economic policy and performance', CHC, 15, pp. 475-539 at pp. 482-3. 15. Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) pp. 381, 385. 16. Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom, Student Protests in Twentieth-Century China: The View from (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991) p. 304. 17. John Gittings, obituary of Yang Shangkun, Guardian, 15 September 1998. Further Reading

The number of books on Chinese history available in English is already vast and is increasing rapidly. The following suggestions for further read• ing highlight a number of classic works and a selection from recent litera• ture.

GENERAL THEMES

Recent general histories of China include: John K. Fairbank, China: A New History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Ray Huang, China: A Macro History (New York, M. E. Sharpe, 1989); and Franz Michael, China Through the Ages: History of a Civilization (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1986). Recent histories of modern China include: , China this Century (: Oxford University Press, 1992); John K. Fairbank, The Great Chinese Revolution, 1800-1985 (New York: Harper and Row, 1986); Immanuel C.-Y. Hsti, The Rise of Modern China, 5th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Richard T. Phillips, China since 1911 (London: Macmillan, 1996); J. A. G. Roberts, Modern China: An Illustrated History (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1998); and Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (London: Hutchinson, 1990). The following works introduce key themes in Chinese history: S. A. M. Adshead, China in World History (London: Macmillan, 1988); Thomas J. Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979); W. T. de Bary, Wing-tsit Chan and Burton Watson (eds), Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960); Lloyd E. Eastman, Family, Fields and Ancestors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London: Eyre, Methuen, 1973); J. K. Fairbank, The Chinese World Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); Ping-ti Ho, Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959); Ramon H. Myers, The Chinese Economy: Past and Present (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1980); Dwight H. Perkins, Agricultural Development in China, 1368-1968 (Chicago: Aldine, 1969); Paul S. Ropp (ed.), Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); John E. Wills, Jr, Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).

The Cambridge History of China, General Editors Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978-) is not

309 310 FURTHER READING

a continuous history of China but a collection of essays on periods of Chinese history. The following volumes have appeared to date:

1 The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 Be-AD 220 (1987) 3 Sui and T'ang China, 589-906, Part 1 (1979) 6 Alien Regimes and Border States, 710-1368 (1994) 7 The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1 (1988) 10 Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911, Part 1 (1978) 11 Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911, Part 2 (1980) 12 Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 1 (1983) 13 Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 2 (1986) 14 The People's Republic, Part 1: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1949-1965 (1987) 15 The People's Republic, Part 2: Revolutions within the Chinese Revolution, 1966-1982 (1991)

These volumes are referred to as CHC, 1, etc.

PREHISTORY A!ND EARLY HISTORY

The best introduction to themes in China's prehistory is still David N. Keightley (ed.), The Origins of Chinese Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983). A new field of China's prehistory is introduced in Steven F. Sage, Ancient and the Unification of China (New York: State University of New York Press, 1992). For an interpretation of China's formative period, see , Chinese Civilization in the Making, 1766-221 Be (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). On the archaeology and history of the Zhou period, see Cho-yun Hsti and Katheryn M. Linduff, Western Chou Civilization (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); and Mark Edward Lewis, Sanctioned Violence in Early China (New York: State University of New York Press, 1990). On the literature of the period, see D. C. Lau (trans. and ed.), Mencius (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), and Confucius: The Analects (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985). The best biography of Confucius is Raymond Dawson, Confucius (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981). On the Qin empire, see Derk Bodde, 'The state and empire of Ch'in', CHC, 1, pp. 20-102. On the Han period, see several books by , including Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period, 202 Be• AD 220 (London: Carousel, 1973), and Crisis and Conflict in Han China, 104 Be-AD 9 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1974); and Cho-yun Hsii, Han Agriculture: The Formation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy (206 Be-AD 220) (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980). FURTHER READING 311

THE PERIOD OF DIVISION AND THE SUI AND TANG DYNASTIES

On the Period of Division and the , see Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Aristocratic Families of Early Imperial China: A Case Study of the Po-ling Ts'ui Family (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), W. J. F. Jenner, Memories of Loyang: Yang Rsiian-chih and the Lost Capital (493-534) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); and Arthur F. Wright, 'The Sui dynasty (581-617)', CRC, 3, pp. 48-149. On the history and culture of the Tang period, see John C. Perry and Bardwell L. Smith (eds), Essays on T'ang Society: The Interplay of Social, Political and Economic Forces (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976); Edwin G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-shan (London: Oxford University Press, 1955); Denis C. Twitchett, Financial Administration under the T'ang Dynasty, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); and Arthur F. Wright and Denis Twitchett (eds), Perspectives on the T'ang (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973). For an introduction to , see Arthur Cooper (trans. and ed.), Li Po and Tu Fu (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973). Aspects of Tang reli• gion are dealt with in Stanley Weinstein, Buddhism under the T'ang (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Tang expansion south• wards is treated imaginatively in Edward H. Schafer, The : T'ang Images of the South (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), and in socio-economic terms in Hugh R. Clark, Community, Trade, and Networks: Southern Fujian Province from the Third to the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

THE SONG AND YUAN DYNASTIES

James T. C. Liu has written a number of important studies on Song China. They include Reform in Sung China, Wang An-shih, 1021-1086 and his New Policies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), and China Turning Inward: Intellectual-Political Changes in the Early Twelfth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). A number of books have been written about the Song bureaucracy and examination system. They include John C. Chaffee, The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Richard L. Davis, Court and Family in Sung China, 960-1279: Bureaucratic Success and Kinship Fortunes for the Shih of Ming-chou (Durham: Duke University Press, 1986); and Winston W. Lo, An Introduction to the Civil Service of Sung China, with Emphasis on Its Personnel Administration (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987). The emergence of the gen• try is discussed in Brian E. McKnight, Village and Bureaucracy in Southern Sung China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); and Robert P. Hymes, Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-chou, 312 FURTHER READING

Chiang-si, in Northern and Southern Sung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). For an influential discussion of economic developments under the Song, see Yoshinobu Shiba, Commerce and Society in Sung China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970). Song foreign relations are dealt with in Morris Rossabi, China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983). On the Mongol conquest and Yuan China, see John D. Langlois, Jr (ed.), China under Mongol Rule (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); Frederick W. Mote, 'Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215-1368', CHC, 6, pp. 616-64; and Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).

THE MING AND EARLY QING PERIODS

On the founding of the Ming dynasty and its early history see Edward Dreyer, Early Ming China: A Political History, 1355-1435 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); and Charles O. Hucker, The Ming Dynasty: Its Origins and Evolving Institutions (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1978). On the Ming voyages, see J. V. G. Mills (trans. and ed.), Ma Huan, Ying-yai sheng-Lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' {1433 J (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). Financial issues are dealt with in Ray Huang, Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), and matters relating to gentry society are consid• ered in Hilary J. Beattie, Land and Lineage in China: A Study of T'ung• ch'eng County, Anhwei, in the Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Timothy Brook, Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); and John W. Dardess, A Ming Society: T'ai-ho County, Kiangsi, Fourteenth to Seventeenth Centuries (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1996). On the decline and fall of the Ming, see Ray Huang, 1587: A Year of No Significance - The Ming Dynasty in Decline (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981); James W. Tong, Disorder under Heaven: Collective Violence in the Ming Dynasty (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991); and James Bunyan Parsons, The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1970). The rise of the Manchus and their conquest of China is dealt with at length in Frederic Wakeman, Jr, The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of the Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China, 2 vols (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). Vivid insights into that event are contained in Lynn A. Struve (trans. and ed.), Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993). On the early years of Manchu rule, see Robert B. Oxnam, Ruling from FURTHER READING 313

Horseback: Manchu Politics in the Oboi Regency 1661-1669 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975); Lawrence D. Kessler, K'ang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule, 1661-1684 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); and Jonathan D. Spence, Emperor of China: Self• Portrait of K'ang-hsi (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973). On the middle years of the , see Beatrice S. Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China (1723-1820) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Pei Huang, Autocracy at Work: A Study of the Yung-cheng Period, 1723-35 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974); Harold L. Kahn, Monarchy in the Emperor's Eyes: Image and Reality in the Ch'ien-lung Reign (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Susan Naquin and E. S. Rawski, Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987); and Madeleine Zelin, The Magistrate's Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch'ing China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). Two books pick out signs of tension in the late eighteenth century: P. A. Kuhn, Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), and Susan Naquin, Shantung Rebellion: The Wang Lun Uprising of 1774 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).

CHINA IN THE LATE QING PERIOD

Of the extensive literature on the Opium wars, John King Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854, revised edn (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), has become a classic. The Chinese perception of these events is presented in Frederic Wakeman, Jr, Strangers at the Gate: Social Disorder in South China, 1839-1861 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966); and James M. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). The mid-nineteenth-century rebellions are dealt with in Philip A. Kuhn, Rebellion and Its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1794-1864 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970); Franz Michael and Chung-Ii Chang, The : History and Documents, 3 vols (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966-71); Elizabeth J. Perry, Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China, 1845-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Stanley Spector, Li Hung-chang and the Huai Army: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Chinese Regionalism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); and Jonathan Spence, God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan (London: HarperColIins, 1996). On late Qing themes, see Mary Clabaugh Wright, The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-chih Restoration, 1862-1874, 2nd edn (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962); Jonathan Ocko, Bureaucratic 314 FURTHER READING

Reform in Provincial China: Ting Jih-ch'ang in Restoration Kiangsu, 1867-1870 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983). Economic history is dealt with in Albert Feuerwerker, China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844-1916) and Mandarin Enterprise (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958); Robert Y. Eng, Economic Imperialism in China: Silk Production and Exports, 1861- 1932 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Robert Gardella, Harvesting Mountains: Fujian and the China Tea Trade, 1757-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994) and Robert Lee, France and the Exploitation of China, 1885-1901 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989). On missionaries, see Paul A. Cohen, China and Christianity: The Missionary Movement and the Growth of Chinese Antiforeignism, 1860-1870 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963). On the emergence of nationalism, see John E. Schrecker, Imperialism and Chinese Nationalism: Germany in Shantung (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971). On the 100 Days' reforms, the Boxer uprising and the , see Luke S. K. Kwong, A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1898 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Joseph W. Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Paul A. Cohen, History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Marianne Bastid, Educational Reform in Early Twentieth-Century China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988); Charlton M. Lewis, Prologue to the Chinese Revolution: The Transformation of Ideas and Institutions in Hunan Province, 1891-1907 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).

REPUBLICAN CHINA

On the 1911 revolution, see Joseph W. Esherick, Reform and Revolution in China: The 1911 Revolution in Hunan and Hubei (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Edward J. M. Rhoads, China's Republican Revolution: The Case of Kwangtung, 1895-1913 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), and Mary Clabaugh Wright (ed.), China in Revolution: The First Phase, 1900-1913 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973). On , the May Fourth period and the era, see Ernest P. Young, The Presidency of Yuan Shih-k'ai: Liberalism and Dictatorship in Early Republican China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1977); Tse-tsung Chow, The : Intellectual Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960); Edward A. McCord, The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Arthur Waldron, From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924-1925 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). FURTHER READING 315

The rise of the Nationalist Party and the record of the Nanking decade are discussed in Donald A. Jordan, The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926-1928 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1976); Elizabeth J. Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Lloyd E. Eastman, The Abortive Revolution: China under Nationalist Rule, 1927-1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974) and Parks M. Coble, The Shanghai Capitalists and the , 1927-1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986). On the early history of the , see Arif Dirlik, The Origins of Chinese Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Fernando Galbiati, P'eng P'ai and the Hai-lu-feng Soviet (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985); Roy Hofheinz, Jr, The Broken Wave: The Chinese Communist Peasant Movement, 1922-1928 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977); Zedong Mao, Report from Xunwu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990); and Benjamin Yang, From Revolution to Politics: Chinese Communists on the (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990). For the Sino-Japanese War and the Civil War, see Lloyd E. Eastman, Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937-1949 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984); Chalmers A. Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962); Mark Selden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Steven I. Levine, Anvil of Victory: The Communist Revolution in , 1945-1948 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987); and Suzanne Pepper, Civil War in China: The Political Struggle, 1945-1949 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978).

CHINA SINCE THE 1949 REVOLUTION

On the period of consolidation, the First Five-Year Plan and the , see Lowell Dittmer, China's Continuous Revolution: The Post-Liberation Epoch, 1949-1981 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Kenneth G. Lieberthal, Revolution and Tradition in Tientsin, 1949-1952 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Vivienne Shue, Peasant China in Transition: The Dynamics of Development toward Socialism, 1949-1956 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Ezra F. Vogel, Canton under Communism: Programs and Politics in a Provincial Capital, 1949-1968 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969); Jasper Becker, Hungry Ghosts: China's Secret Famine (London: John Murray, 1996). For the Cultural Revolution, see David Milton et a1. (eds), People's China: Social Experimentation, Politics, Entry on to the World Scene, 1966-72 (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977); and Jiaqi Yan and Gao 316 FURTHER READING

Gao, Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996). On China in the 1980s and 1990s, see Barry Naughton, Growing out of the Plan: Chinese Economic Reform, 1978-1993 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Gregor Benton and Alan Hunter (eds), Wild Lily, Prairie Fire: China's Road to Democracy, Yan' an to ' anmen, 1942-1989 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). Biographies of include Richard Evans, Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China, revised edn (London: Penguin Books, 1997); and Benjamin Yang, Deng: A Political Biography (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1998). On social themes during the period, see Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Judith Banister, China's Changing Population (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987); Colin Mackerras, China's Minority Cultures: Identities and Integration since 1912 (New York: Longman, 1995); Margery Wolf, Revolution Postponed: Women in Contemporary China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985). Index

NOTE: 'Early China' refers to the period before 221 BC. 'Early empire' refers to 221 BC to AD 1368.

Abahai,140 anarchism, 222 ,82 ancestor worship, 7, 15,46 absolutism, 97 Andersson, I. Gunnar, 2 Ming absolutism, 127-30, 136 Anglo-French War, see Arrow War see also autocracy , 27,31, 119, 133, 172, 183, Academia Sinica, 233 221,238,271 Advanced Producers' Co-operatives, Anhui army, see Huai army 263,268-9 Anhui (Anfu) clique, 218 agrarian crisis, 229, 232 Annam (Annan), 49,66,77, 125-6, agrarian laws, 254, 259 156 agriculture, 3, 271 , 179-80, 185 in early China, 4, 12 Anti-Bolshevist League, 237 in early empire, 29, 36-7, 68, 71, anti-foreignism, see xenophobia 87,89, 112 'Anti-Rightist' campaign, 266, 295 in Ming and Qing, 120, 130, 157, Anyang, 3, 6 183 Aomen (Macao), 135, 165-6 between 1911 and 1949,215,231-2 ari stocracy since 1949,271 in early China, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14, 16, agricultural output, 101-2,229, 21 259,263,266,272-3,275,283, in early empire, xiv, 23, 41,43,47, 289-90 57,59,61,63,69-71,85,92, agricultural producers' cooperatives, 94,102 263 see also families, great 'agriculture first', 272 armies, II, 13 Aguda,93 see also National Revolutionary Ahmad, 110 Army; Red Army; regional armies Aidi, former Han emperor, 34 Army of the Green Standard, 160, Aigun, Treaty of, 171 199,203 air force, 238, 250, 258 Arrow War, 170-1 air lines, 232 arsenals, 185-6 airfields, 244 Asiatic mode of production, xii Albazin, 148 astronomy, 109, 150 alchemy, 44 autocracy, xii, xiv, 48, 91, 97, 100, Altan Khan, 134 154-5 America, Americans, 185, 190,207 see also absolutism see also autonomous regions, xxv, 257, 292-3 Amherst, Lord, 164 Autumn Harvest uprising, 227, 235 Amoy, see Ayurbarwada (Renzong emperor), river, 148, 171, 190 107,109,113-14 , 69-70 rebellion, xiii, xviii, 61, 63, 65, Ba, state, 21 69-71,74-6 Bac Le, 191 Analects (Lunyu), 14, 19 Balazs, Etienne, 88

317 318 INDEX

Ban Chao, 37 Bolshevik, Bolshevism, 222, 224 , 35 bonds, government, 231, 257 bandits, banditry, 77, 137,201 bondservants, 144, 149-50 banks, banking, 157,231 Bonham, Sir George, 169 banners, bannermen, 139-40, 142-5, Book of Changes (Yijing), 18, 19, 149, 152, 155, 160 100 Banpo,2 Book of Documents (Shujing), 8, 18, Bao Jingyan, 44 24 baojia, 90-1,173,181-2 Book of Rites (Liji), 18 '', 9, 39 Book of Songs (Shijing), 9, 18,24,63 Barr, Major-General David, 251 border incidents Bayan, 106 with India, 276 Bayan of the Merkid, 114 with , 286 Beattie, Hilary J., 133-4 see also frontiers Bedeski, Robert E., 234 border regions, 246, 249, 256 (Peking), 1, 60, 83, 94 Borodin, Mikhail, 224-7 in Yuan, 112 Boucher, Guillaume, 110 in Ming, 125-7, 134-5, 138-41 bourgeois, bourgeoisie, 88, 245--6, in Qing, 143, 147, 150--1, 165, 167, 280,283 171,173,176,179,185,188, bourgeois-democratic movement, 202-3 223,227,245 between 1911 and 1949,217-18, Bowring, Dr (later Sir John), 170 220,228 , 202 since 1949,268,272-3,278,281-2, Boxer Uprising, 200--3, 210 294-8 boycotts, 208, 220 Convention of Beijing, 171, 190 brigades, production, 269, 272, 276, siege of Beijing legations, 201-2 284 see also Beiping Britain, British, 156 Beijing language school, see and Opium War, 162-71, 174 Tongwenguan and Taiping rebellion, 176, 180 Beijing man, 1 in late Qing, 186-8, 190, 193-4, Beijing National University (Beida), 197,202 220--2,242,252,266,279,288, between 1911 and 1949,214,216, 295-6 225-6,244 Beijing-Hankou railway, 193, 223 since 1949,267,282,293-5 Beiping (Dadu), 120,228,240,255 bronze, 3-6, 9, 12,29 see also Beijing Brook, Timothy, 133, 136 Army, 199,203,208,212, Buddhism, Buddhists, 216-17 introduction and early history, , 193 44-9 Bengal, 164 in the Tang, 52, 54-5, 58-60, 65-6, Bielenstein, Hans, 35--6, 39 73-6, 78 Big Sword Society, 201 later history, 100, 106, 109, 113-14, big-character posters, 279, 288 119, 136, 143 birth control, 291 monasteries and temples, 43, 45, 54, Black Flags, 191 74--6,109,136,293 black market, 243 scriptures, 45, 55 Blue Shirts, 230 suppression, 73, 76 Bo Juyi, 70 see also Buddhist sects Bodhidharma, 73-4 Bulganin, Nikolai, 267 Bogue, Supplementary Treaty of the, bureaucracy, 10 168 in early empire, 28, 31,41-2,53, Bokhara, 105 77,84-9,92,97,109 INDEX 319

bureaucracy (continued) Chan (Zen) Buddhism, 73, 101 in Ming, 122, 125, 127, 129, 133, chancellery, chancellors, 48, 53, 84, 136 121-2, 124, 127 in Qing, 143, 154-5, 182, 184 see also ministers, chief since 1949, 265, 296 Chang Jung, vii bureaucratic capitalism, 231 Chang'an,42,44,46 see also officials former Han capital, 30, 36 Burma, Burma Road, 142,242-4 Sui capital, 48, 52 burning of the books, 24, 26 Tang capital, 53-5, 57-8, 61-2, 66, 68,70-1,73,75,78,80-1,84 cabinet, 212, 214 Changchun, 250 cadres, 245-6, 248, 254, 260-1, ,199,222,234-5 264-5,275,277,281,283 chariots, 4, 11 7000 cadres' conference, 274 chemicals, chemical fertilizers, 271, 'cage policy', 247 290 , 216 , 279, 285-6 , 92 , 220-3, 295 Cai Yuanpei, 220 Chen Han-seng, 229 calendar, 3, 5, 150, 176 , 218, 223 canals and waterways, 22,24,50-1, Chen Sheng, 25-6 87,112 Chen, state, 47-8 see also , 282, 286 Canton, see Chen Yun, 271-3 , 39-41, 64 Ch'en, Jerome, 217 Cao Pei, 40 , 100 Cao Rulin, 220 , 100, 103 capital cities, 3, 57-8, 62, 68, 82, 84, Chengdi, former Han emperor, 35 88, 125 ,4,21,36, 70, 78 see also individual cities Chengziyai, 2 capital investment, 88, 157, 189,261, Chengzong, Yuan emperor, see Temiir 263,291 Chiang Kaishek, see Jiang Jieshi see also investment China Inland Mission, 197 capitalism, capitalists, 234, 261, China Merchants' Steam Navigation 263-4,298 Company, 186-7 'capitalist-roaders', 275, 280-1, 287 , xxi, 79, 83, 256 'career open to talent', 86 Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Cathay, 60, III founding and early history, 206, Catholics, Catholicism, 168,193, 219,221-3,225-7 195-7 'peasant stage', 234-9, 249 CC clique, 230 during Sino-Japanese War, 244-9, celadon, 101 295 censors, Censorate, 48, 53,84,91, in civil war, 253-5 108, 121, 128, 140, 152 after 1949,265-6,270-1 , 159 and the Cultural Revolution, 274-5, censuses, enumerations of population, 279-82,285 111,261,271,291 since 1976, 289, 297-8 Central , 55, 60, 80, 93, 106, Party Congresses, First (1921), 223; 109-10 Fifth (1927), 236; Sixth (1928), see also Western Regions 234; Eighth (1956), 267, 274; ceramics, 3,101, 157 Ninth (1969), 282, 285 see also celadon; porcelain; pottery membership, 224, 245, 274 Chaffee, John W., 86 rectification campaigns, 245, 248, Champa, 49, 102 274,279-80 320 INDEX

Chinese Eastern Railway, 193 communes, 268-9, 271-2, 274, 289 Chinese Soviet Republic, 236, 239 urban communes, 268, 270 Chinese Turkestan, 181; see also communism, transition to, 265, 271 Communist Youth League, 275 , 207, 240-4, 248 compass, 87 Chongzhen, Ming emperor, 136 compradores, 187, 207 Christianity concessions, 193-4,233 in early empire, 68, 110-11 concubines, 22, 57,103, 134, 141,181 in Qing, 150-1, 162, 168, 196 , 20, 39, 44, 48, 52, 60, Taiping Christianity, 175-6, 179 67,75,114,136-7 between 1911 and 1949, 230 between 1911 and 1949,219,220, Christian converts, 196,201,209, 230 219 Confucian classics, 85, 91, 108, see also Christian denominations, 114, 155, 159, 198-9 missionaries 'Confucian eremitism', 115 , state, 11,21-2 Confucian family, 15 Chuanbi, Convention of, 167 Confucian government, 98, 120; see Chun, Prince, 204 also emperor, role of Civil Appointments, Board of, 48 Confucian rites, 108, 150-1 civil liberties, 253, Confucian scholarship, 34,67,75, civil war, 207, 249-55 196 Cixi (Empress Dowager), 181, 189, Confucian state, 221 199-204 Confucian temples, 145, 154 clans, clan rules, 54 Confucian virtues, 230 see also families, lineages Neo-Confucianism, 98-10 1, 103, class struggle, 36, 91, 172, 277, 292 108, 154, 230 classification of rural population, 236 obstacle to modernization, 188 Clausewitz, 251 Confucius, xvii, 7, 14--16, 19,32,44, climate, 4, 137 86,199,221,230 coal, coal mines, 187, 193, 232, 242 anti-Confucius campaign, 21, 286 see also Kaiping mines conscription, 51, 116, 199,243 coastal population, removal of, 143, Consoo fund, 164 147 constitutional reform and constitutions Cochin China, 190 Late Qing reforms, 204, 212-13 Cohong, 156, 164, 166-7 constitutional monarchy, 204--5, coinage, see money 209,216 Cold War, 258 between 1911 and 1949,214,217, collaborators 229,253 with Japanese, 241, 246, 252, 254-5 since 1949,289,292,296 with , 108-9, 114 'contradictions', 265-6, 274 with Manchus, 141, 146 co-operatives, 246, 263 collective farms, collectivization, 261, agricultural, 232, 263, 265 263-5,271,276 corruption, bureaucratic collective kitchens, 268, 270, 292 in the empire, 92, 112, 128-9, 151, decollectivization, 264, 275, 289 153, 158, 160--1, 172-3, 182 Comintern (Communist International), in the RepUblic, 229, 243-4, 248, 222-4,227,235,237,295 255 commanderies, 23, 27, 30, 37, 84, in the People's Republic, 275, 291, 138 297 see also prefectures cotton, cotton textiles, 131, 135,157, commerce, see trade 164,194,201 commerce, chambers of, 207 Council of Deliberative Officials, Common Programme, 257 145-6 INDEX 321

counter-revolution, 260, 277,298 democracy, democracy movement, 'country trade', I 64 210,222,224,229,248,255, court, imperial, 33, 38, 53, 58, 6 I, 283,289,295-7 69-70,144,153,156,163 'democracy wall', 266, 295-6 inner court, 149, 153 democratic dictatorship, 257 outer court, 149 Deng Pufang, 288-9 court letter, 152 Deng Xiaoping, 223, 256, 273-5, Court of Colonial Affairs, see Lifan 281-2,287-8,293-6,298-300 yuan Dent, Lancelot, 166 creches and nurseries, 268-9, 292 depression, world, 137,232,234 crossbow, 13 despotism, 104, 123-4 Cultural Revolution, 123,247,256 Dewey, John, 220,222 origins of, 272-8, 288 Dezong, Tang emperor, 72, 75 course of, 278-82, 291-5 Di, people, II, 19, 24, 42 effects of, 282-5, 287-9, 295 Di, Shang deity, 7 Cultural Revolution Group, 279, dialect groups, 173 281-2,285 ding, 151 currency, see money Ding Ling, 248, 266 customs duties, 186,242 , 101 internal customs, 169, 171 diplomatic representation see also lijin, tariffs of the West in China, 162-3 China overseas, 189 Dadu, see Khanbalik, Beiping Discourses on Salt and Iron, 32-3 , 239 discrimination, racial, 104, 108, 113 Dagu forts, 170-1, 198,202 dissidents, 295, 298 Dai, Countess of, 29 districts, district magistrates, 53, 182 Daizong, Tang emperor, 70-1, 75 divination, 7,18-19,29 Dalai Lama, 156, 272, 293 Doctrine of the Mean, 19 Dali,66 Dong Qichang, 65 Danansky island, see Zhenbao Dong Zhongshu, 30-2 dao (the Way), 14,32, 100 Donglin academy, 136-7, 165 Daoguang, Qing emperor, 165, , 96 169-70 , 140-1, 143-4 Daoism, Daoists drama, see literature in early China, 16-17 Dreyer, Edward L., 121 in early empire, 31, 38-9, 44-6, Du Fu, 65 52,54,64,73,75-6,100, dualism, 82-3,92, 94-5, 109 113-14 , 217 in Ming, 135 Dunhuang, 65 neo-Daoism, 44-5 dynastic cycle, xiii, 118, 135, 172 Daodejing (The Way and Power dynastic decline Classic), 16,44 in the early empire, 26, 33-4, 50-1, Dapenkeng, 2 71,77-8,92,94-5,99,115-18 Dardess, John W" xi, 133-4 in Ming and Qing, 136, 158-61, , 42, 126 173, 181,204 Davies, Richard L., 103 dynastic histories, 23, 32, 54, 108-9, Davis, Sir John, 169 145 Dazhai Brigade, 276 dynasties of conquest, xiv, 81, 108, 143 December 9, 1935 movement, 240 Dzungar, Dzungaria, 148-9, 153, defence, maritime, 184 155-6 degrees and titles, 48-9, 181 purchase of, 155, 181-2 East India Company, British, 156, see also ; shengyuan; xiucai 163,165 322 INDEX

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, 103 education of, 155 Eckstein, Alexander, 270 imperial clan, S6 economic development minors, minorities, 29, 33, 38, lOS, in the early empire, 4-5, 12-13, 23, 126, 129, 144 29,50,68,88-9,102,111-12 non-Chinese emperors, 107-9, 143, in Ming and Qing, 122, 130-1, 148, 153, 15S 156-8 obligations of, 30 between 1911 and 1949,228-9 role of, 33, 53-5, 63, 82, 90, 97-S, under Deng Xiaoping, 289-90 114, 116, 120, 12S-9, 197 see also Five-year Plan; Great Leap succession, 3, 8, 60, 107, 152 Forward succession disputes, 25,29, 33, 39, economic planning, 32, 92, 261, 267, 56-7,98,106-7,140,151 283,290 usurpation ofthrone, 29, 34-5, 47, see also Five-year Plan; Four 52-3,56,59, lIS, 124, 126, Modernizations 152, 154 economic policy, 131, 158, 184,204, Yuan Shikai as emperor, 214,216 265,267,272,287 empresses, 38, 56 education, 15, 18 Empress Dowager, see Cixi in the early empire, 31, 54, 85, 89 encirclement campaigns, 237-8 in Ming and Qing, 122,203,205 epidemics, 173 between 1911 and 1949,215,219, equal field system (juntian) 49, 53-4, 232-3 102 atYan'an,247 see also 'well-field' system 1949-66,260,262-5,267,269, Erlitou, 3, 6 273 erosion, 173 during Cultural Revolution, 277, Esen, 126-7 279-80,283-4 Esherick, Joseph W., 163 see also schools, universities eunuchs Eight Regulations, 164 in the early empire, 25, 33,37-9, Eighth Route Army, see Red Army 72,76-7,97 'eight-legged essay', 199,203 in Ming and Qing, 126, 129, 135, Elder Brother Society (Gelaohui), 144,149 210 dictators, 12S-30, 136 elections, 204,214,246,253,289, 'Ever-Victorious Army', ISO 297 examinations, examination system electricity, electrification, 232, 242, in early empire, 31, 4S, 52,57, 290 60-2,65,S3,85-7,89,91,98, Eleuth, see Dzungar 102-3, 108-9, 114 Elgin, Earl of, 170-1 in Ming and Qing, 122, 132-3, 136, elite, 12,53, 79, 102-3, 133-4, 136, 140, 143, 155, 159, lSI, 183, 142,145,184,205,248,254 199,202-3,207 Manchu conquest elite, 144, 150 between 1911 and 1949,229 see also aristocracy; gentry; in the Cultural Revolution, 277, 284 intellectuals examination candidates, 154, 173, Elliot, Charles, 166-7 175, 183,221 Elliot, Admiral George, 167 examination quotas, 85, 122, 181-2 Elman, Benjamin A., 159 examinations, 203, 208 Elvin, Mark, 87, 102, 157 exports, 101, 137, 156, 163, 195,219 Embroidered Guards, 128 see also trade, foreign emigration, 207-8, 229 extraterritoriality, 168, 196,233 see also Overseas Chinese Ezhou,98 emperors as Buddhist rulers, 109 fabi,253 INDEX 323

Faguo,46 , 149,266 Fairbank, John K., 163, 168 foreign experts, 190 family, 15-16, 104,221,269,291 foreign office, 190 great families, 36, 39, 41,44,86 see also see also clan; lineage foreign relations famine, 119, 130, 158,200,243,246, in the early empire, 33, 50, 55-6, 271 66--8, 84, 96, 110 , 89 in Ming and Qing, 125, 134, 156, , 92 184 Fang Lizhi, 297 between 1911 and 1949,218,233-4 fascism, 230 since 1949,265,285-6 Faxian,46 see also Sino-Soviet dispute Fazang, 73 foreign rule, see dynasties of conquest Fei river, 96 Fotudeng, 46 Feishui,42 'Four Big Families', 230 , 3, 7 Four Books, 19 feng and shan sacrifices, 58 'four cardinal principles' , 296, 298 , 182, 184-5 'four great freedoms', 296 , 218 'Four Modernizations', 287, 297 Feng Yunshan, 175 '', 280 FengYuxiang, 218-19, 225, 228, 234 Fournier, F. E., 191 fengshui, 187 France, French, xii, 168, 170-1, 186, Fengtian clique, 218 190-1,193,197,214,223 Fengtian- war, 218 see also Sino-French War Fengyang, 119 Franciscan missionaries, 110-11 Ferghana, 66 Free Zone, 242-3 Ferry, Jules, 190 frontiers, 24, 28, 30, 33, 38, 68-9, 80, feudalism, 8-18, 27 171-2 abolition of, 20, 23 defence of frontiers, 71, 77, 83-4, Feuerwerker, Albert, 88, 157, 161, 93,96-7,120-1,126-7,134, 189, 194,229 138 Fieldhouse, D. K., 168 frontier policy, 28, 30, 43, 52, 68, 'Fifth Modernization', 296 71-2, 135, 148, 181 see also democracy Fryer, John, 190 filial piety, 15,44,48,221 Fu Hao, 6 firearms, 95, 135, 139-40,142,147, Fu Jian, 42 150, 155 Fu Vi, 52, 75 First Emperor, see Qin Shi Huangdi Fujian, 68,81,92,143,146--7,195 fish-scale charts and registers, 123, Fujian mutiny, 237 130 fuqiang (wealth and power) projects, 'Five Antis' campaign, 260-1 186-8 Five Classics, 18-19 Fushun,139 Five Dynasties, 79-81, 85 Futian Incident, 237 five elements, 19,24,30,32, 100 Fuxi,3 'five kinds of red', 280-1 , 167, 185-6 Five Pecks of Grain rebellion, 38 Fuzhou shipyard, 186, 191 Five-Year Plan First, 261-2, 264-6, 272 Gaixia,27 Second,267 Galdan, 149, 151 floods, 33, 51, 96,112,117,130,137, , 277-8, 287-8 200, 212, 300 , 60, 82,172, 183, 187,239, food supply, 157, 173 246,262 foot-binding, 103-4,219 Gao Gang, 266--7 324 INDEX

Gao Jiong, 47 consequences, 269-74,277, 280, Gaozong, Song emperor, 95-7 289,294 Gaozong, Tang emperor, 56-9 second Great Leap, 270 Gaozu, Han emperor, 27-9, 36 Great Learning, 19 Gaozu, Tang emperor, 52-4, 56 Great Snowy Mountain, 239 Gardella, Robert, 194-5 Great Wall, 24, 87, 127, 140 Ge1aohui, see Elder Brother Society see also walls Jingzhong, 146 Green Gang, 226 Geng Zhongming, 146 'Group of Five'. 277-9 Genghis Khan, 95, 105, 113, 140 Guan Zhong, 11 'gentleman', 14-15 Guandong Army, 228. 240 gentry, 36, 99 guandu shangban (,official supervi• in Ming, 132-3, 136, 138 sion and merchant management'), in Qing, 145, 147, 160, 165-7, 169, 186,189 198,200,207 Guang Wudi. later Han emperor. 35-7 and Taiping rebellion, 175-6 , 24. 30,68.81, 143, in , 181-4 146-7 and missionaries, 196-7 in the late Qing, 164. 169-70, 175, and 1911 Revolution, 204-5, 211, 198 213,215 since 1911,21 1,224.227,229 Germans, Germany, 144, 193,201-2, , 24, 30. 68, 164, 169. 173, 214-15,220,238,241 175, 198, 238 Gillin, Donald G., 248 Guangxi clique, 218 God Worshippers' Society, 175 Guangxu, Qing emperor, 199 Golas, Peter, 102 Guangzhou (Canton), 30, 68, 109, golden age, 3, 14, 53, 63 135, 142, 156 Goldman, Merle, 266 in the late Qing, 162, 166-7, 170, Gong, Prince, 180, 185-6 172,174-5,185,196 Gongsun Hong, 31 since 1911 208-9,211,218,223-6, Gongsun Shu, 36 241,260,286 Goodnow, Dr F.J., 216 Guangzhou Commune, 227 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 297 Guangzhou entry crisis, 169-70 Gordon, Captain Charles, 180 'Guangzhou system', 164-5 government, central, 28, 37, 48, 52-3, Guangzhou-Hankou railway, 204 84-5, 108, 121, 144-5, 189,215, Guangzhou-Xianggang strike, 225 229,257 Guangzhouwan, 193 governors-general and governors of Guanyin, Goddess of Mercy, 74 provinces, 110, 145, 153, 183 guerrilla warfare, 235, 237, 247 see also military governors , 146,238 grain production, 43 Guizhou, 130, 146,238 grain procurement, 269, 271-2 , 5, 8-9 grain transport, 50, 58, 61-2, 71, , 198 77, 112, 117 Guo Zixing, 119 grain tribute, 123, 173, 184 Guomindang (Nationalist Party) granaries, 61-2, 153, 158, 177 founding and early history, 206-7, Grand Canal, 71, 84, 117, 119, 125, 209,214-15,220,222-8 131, 141, 145 during decade, 228-35, Grand Council, 153, 155 237-40,251-2 Gray, Jack, 200 during Sino-Japanese War, 240-4, Great Britain, see Britain 252 Great Grasslands, 239 in civil war, 251-3, 255-6 Great Leap Forward, 256, 265, 268-9, since 1949, 258, 260 273,291-2 Gutian conference, 235 INDEX 325

Giiyiig Khan, 110 Huai (Anhui) army, 180, 186, 192 , valley, 8, 10,45,50,77, Hailing, emperor, 94, 96 96, 177,251 , 193 ,31 Hai Rui Dismissed/rom Office Huai Yi, 8 (opera),277-8 Huai-hai, battIe of, 251 Hakka (kejia), 174-5 Huan, Duke of , II , xiv, 81,104,147,154,293 , 77-8, 80-1 , xiv, 48, 68 , 210 former or Western Han, 26-34 Huangdi (), 3 later or Eastern Han, 35-9, 79 huangdi (sovereign emperor), 27 , 106,212 Huangpu (Whampoa) Military Han, Southern, kingdom, 81 Academy, 224-5, 229-30 Han, state, 19, 21 Huaxian, 175 Han Fei, 21-2 Huayan (Flower Garden) Buddhism, Han Gan, 65 73 Han Liner, 119-20 Hubei,20, 165.199,206 Han Tuozhou, 95-8, 100 Hubei Army, 212 Han Yu, 75-6, 99 Hucker, Charles 0., 88 Hangzhou, 96, 102, Ill, 131, 145, Hui,292 279 Huiyuan, 45-6 Hankou,180,212-13,223,233 Huizong, Song emperor, 92, 95, 101 ,244 human nature, 17-18 Hanyang, 211 human rights, 257, 283 Hanyeping Coal and Iron Company, human sacrifice, 5-6, 25 211,215 Hunan, 29, 96,154,165,179-80,183, Harbin, 93 199-200 Hart, Sir Robert, 186 since 1911,210,212,222-3,225-7, Hawaii,209 235-6,238,287 , 51, 81, 229, 233,239 Hunan army, 179-80 ,297 Hundred Days' reforms, 198-200,204 ,2-3,35,80,243,255,268 Hundred Flowers campaign, 265-6, Heshen, 160, 173 295,297 Hevia, James L.. 163 Hundred Regiments' campaign, 247-8 Hideyoshi, 139 Hungarian uprising, 265 'high-level equilibrium trap', 157 Huns, see Ho Ping-ti, xiv, 133-4.183 Huo Guang, 33 homosexuality, 56 'hydraulic society', xii Hong Kong, see Xianggang Hymes, Robert P., 103 Hong merchants, see Cohong Hong Ren'gan, 175-7, 179 IIi, 181, 198 Hong Xiuquan, 174-6, 230 immortality, 24-5, 135 Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang), Ming Imperial Academy, 31, 114 emperor, 104, 118, 120-4, 127-8, Imperial Household Department, 149 130-2, 136 Imperial Maritime Customs Service, , 156 186 horses. 11.43,65,90, 139 Imperial Telegraph Administration, hou (marquis), 27 188 Hu Feng, 265 Imperial University, 85 Hu Shi, 34. 220-2 imperialism, Western, 174. 189-9, Hu Weiyong, 122 195,219,224,229,233 , 288, 296-7 economic imperialism, 157, 194-5, , 287-8 201 326 INDEX imports, 187 encroachment on China, 228. incentives, 262, 269. 283, 290 239-40 . 167. 171, 189. 191. invasion of Manchuria. 206-7. 232. 193-4.197,202 237 India, Indians, 45, 55, 65, 69, 126. in Sino-Japanese War (1937-45), 170,195,272.293 207,240--2,243,246-9 war with China, 276 since 1949.258 industry. industrialization. 6. 88, 157. Jardine, Matheson and Company. 187 290 Jardine, William, 165-6 consumer goods. 232. 266. 290 jasagh.113 foreign-owned. 192-3.208.232 jen (benevolence), 15 handicraft. 29,131,157.194 Jesuit missionaries. 131. 135. 144, heavy. 187. 194.257.261.266.290 147-8, 150, 171, 195 industrial output. 219. 242. 264, Jia Sidao, 98-9, 106--7 266.273,283.290 . 26 industrial revolution. 88. 131. 157 Jiajing, Ming emperor, 134-5 light. 266 Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek), 207, location of. 229 224-31,233.237-42.244.248-9. management of industry: see 293--4 management Jiang Jingguo. 294 migration of industry, 242 Jiang. Mme. see Song Meiling military. 183. 189 , 273, 277-9, 282, 286--8 modern. 188.219.231-2 Jiang Zemin, 298, 300 obstacles to industrialization. 157 . 177 Yan·an.246 Jiangnan arsenal. 186, 190 infanticide. 130. 292 . 26, 182--4 inflation. 253. 255. 257, 290 , 45, 91, 101, 103, 130, 133, Inner Asia. 87, 181 215,225,235-7,239,243 Innocent IV. Pope, 110 Jiangxi central base, 235-8 intellectuals. 198.219,221,242.248. Jiangxi Communist Labour 252.255.265.295-6 University, 273 International Monetary Fund, 291 Jiangyin, 142 investment, 189.263 Iiankang,40--1,46,48 foreign investment. 193-4. 262. see also Nanjing 264.272 Jianwen, Ming emperor, 124, 126 iron. 9. 12, 15.37.88 Jiaozhou bay, 193,201 see also steel Jiaqing, Qing emperor, 160, 172 irrigation, xii, 15,29,37, 102, 183, Jilin, 67, 138 268.270--1 Jin, Eastern, dynasty, 41 Isaacs, Harold. 225 Jin (Iurchen), dynasty, xix. 83. 90, Islam, 109-10 93-5,97-8,105.138,143 see also Muslims lin, Later, dynasty (), 82 Issyk Kul. 55 Jin, state, 11, 19 Iin, Western, dynasty, 40--2 jade, 6 Iinan, 228 Japan, Japanese, 67, 101, 107.112, Jingdezhen, 130 135, 171. 188, 190--2 Jingdi, Han emperor. 29 in Sino-Japanese War (1894-5). Jinggangshan ('Sacred Mountain of 192-3 the Revolution '), 235 in late Qing, 199, 202-4, 208-10, Jingtai. Ming emperor, 127 214 Jingtu, see Pure Land Buddhism Twenty-one Demands. 215-6, 218, Jinmen (Quemoy). 257 220 Jinsha (Golden Sands) river, 239 INDEX 327

jinshi (presented scholar), 85-6, 122, labour, 88, 131, 157, 194,208,263, 124,133-4 268,270-2,289,291 Jintian, 175 labour movement, 208, 223-4 Jirgalang, 140, 144 labour service, 12, 34, 36, 132, 223 , 233 labour unions, 223-4, 226, 255, Jiulong (Kowloon), 171 283 John of Montecorvino, III 'productive labour', 247, 269, 273, John of Plano Carpini, 1 10 277,283-4 Johnson, Chalmers, 248 Lady Hughes (British merchant ship), Julu,26 164 July 21 workers' universities, 284 Lamaism, 58, 109,293 juntian, see equal field system land junzi (gentleman), 14-15 cultivable area, 130, 157,290 Jurchen, 79-80,92-7,103,125,134, Land Investigation Movement, 237-8 138-9 land laws, 99, 232, 236, 259 see also Jin dynasty land reform, 43, 99, 107 revolutionary land reform, 227, , 84-5, 88, 93, 95-6, 101-2, 236-7,240,246,248,253-5, 241 257,259,263-4 Kaihuang Code, 49 land registers, 123,246 Kaiping, 106 Land System of the Heavenly Kaiping mines, 187 Dynasty, 177 Kalgan, see land tax , 277-9 in early empire, 12, 19,49, 112 Kang Yuwei, 198-200, 209 in Ming and Qing, 132, 151, 153, Kangxi, Qing emperor, 118,144-54, 164, 174, 177, 184 184 in Republic, 218, 231, 242-3 Karabalghasun, 67 since 1949,257 Khaishan, Yuan emperor, 107 land tenure, 102 Khanbalik (Dadu), 111-13, 115 land-ownership, 13,33-4,99,107, Khrushchev, Nikita, 267, 270-2, 275 112-13, 136,210 Khubilai Khan, 106-14, 116, 125 landlords, landlordism Kim Ok-kyun, 192 in early empire, 13, 29, 33, 36, Kinsai, see Hangzhou 90-1 Kissinger, Henry, 286 in later empire, 124, 132, 172, 177 Koguryo, 50-1,56,58,66-7 in republic, 224, 229, 232, 234, Kokonor, Lake, 56 236-7,243,246,248,254-5 K6ko Temiir, 120 since 1949,259 Kong Xiangxi (H. H. Kung), 230-1 see also equal field system; 'well- Kong Youde, 146 field' system, , 30, 50, 58, 67, 105, 120, 140, Langson, 191 156, 191-3, 198 Lanzhou, 187,262 Korean War, 258-60, 271, 276 , 16,21,44 see also Koguryo; Koryo; Silla Lardy, Nicholas, 270-1 Koryo, 93, 120 law kotow, 162-3 in early empire, 20-1, 27, 49, 52-4, Kowloon, see Jiulong 57,61,63,83,88,106, Kowshing, 192 in Ming and Qing, 122, 128, 164, Koxinga, see Zheng Chenggong 204 Kracke, E. A., 86 'law of avoidance', 48, 86, 182 kulaks, 263-4 League of Nations, 233 Kung, H. H., see Kong Xiangxi 'lean to one side', 258 Kunming, 242 Lebanon crisis, 272 328 INDEX

Legalism, Legalists, 20-1, 23, 25, 32, ,68 92,99 , 131 Lei Feng, 276 , 159 Lenin, Leninist, 223-4, 245, 262 literary revolution, 220-1 Lhasa, 149, 155--6 literati, 62, 153, 159; see also gentry Ii (distance), 24 literature, 158 Ii (principle), 100 drama, 115 Li Bo, 64-5 novels and short stories, 159,248 Li Chengqian, 56 poetry, 18,44,63-5, 158,219,265 , 220, 222-3 Liu Bang, 26-7; see also Gaozu Li Deyu, 76-7 Liu Bingzhong, 106 , 180-8, 190-3, 198-9, Liu, James T. C., 92 209 Liu Jin, 129 Li Jingye, 59 , 203 Li Keyong, 81-2 , 259, 267, 270, 273-4, Li Liejun, 215 279,281-3,285 , 63, 68, 70 Liu Xiu, 35; see also Guang Wudi Li Lisan, 234-5 , 71 Li Peng, 297-8,300 , 114 Li Shimin, 47,51-3; see also Taizong LiuYuan, 41 , 21-6 Liu-, 42 Li Six un, 65 Liuqiu (Ryukyu) islands, 190 Li Tai, 56--7 Lo, Winston W., 86 (Loyal king), 176, 179 loans, foreign, 194, 204, 211, 231, Li Yuan, 51-2 253,258,291 see also Gaozu see also Nishihara loans; LiYuanhong,213,217 'Reorganization Loan', Li Zbaodao, 65 local corps, see militia Li Zhi, 56; see also Gaozong local self-government, 182 , 138, 141 Loewe, Michael, 32 , 241 London Missionary Society, 196 Liang, dynasty, 42, 46-7 Long March, xxiv, 207, 238-9, 244, Liang, Later, dynasty, 78, 81 248, 270 Liang Ji, 38 , 241 , 91,199,204,209,216 Longcheng,28 Liao (Qidan), dynasty, 79, 81-4, , 46, 58 92-4 Longquan, 10 1 Liao, Western, dynasty, 80, 93 , 2-3 , 224 Lu, state, II, 14 Liaodong, 139-40; Liaodong Lu Jia, 28 peninsula, 192-3,215 Lu Xun, 221 , 82 , 239 'liberated areas', 246, 256--7, 259 Lugouqiao (Marco Polo Bridge) Liberation Army Daily, 278 incident, 240 Liji, see Book of Rites Lunyu see Analects lijia (tax system), 123, Luo Ruiqing, 278-9 [ijin () tax, 180, 182, 231 ,3 , 250, 270, 273-4, 276, 278, Zhou capital, 11 280,282,285--6 later Han capital, 36, 45 , 165-7, 184 Western Jin capital, 41-2, 46 lineages, 12, 133-4, 174 capital, 40, 43-4 see also clans; families under Empress , 57-8 Lingdi, Later Han emperor, 38-9 in Tang, 62, 70, 84 INDEX 329

Lushan,45 speeches and writings, 172, 226, (1959), 270-1; 236,245,265-8,274,282-3 (1970),285 thought, 226, 245-6, 274, 276, 287, LU, Empress, 29 296 LU Buwei, 15,21 Maodun, 28 LU Hui, 91 Mao'ergai,239 Marco Polo Bridge, see Lugouqiao Ma, Empress, 124 Margary, Augustus, 190, 198 MaYuan, 37 Maring, 223--4 Macao, see Aomen markets, marketing, 13,68,268,270, Macartney, Halliday, 186 289 Macartney, Lord, 162--4 market economy, 289-90, 299 McCord, Edward A., 217 marquises, marquisates, 31; see also Maillard de Tournon, Charles, 150 hou Maitreya Buddha, 59, 119, 160,200 marriage, 3,94, 104, 113, 133, 154,236 management, 189,262,265-7,272, divorce, 236-7, 254, 259 283,291 marriage alliances, 28, 50, 60, 67, Manchu, Manchus, xiv, 134, 145, 152, 72, 138 167,169,181,200,204-5, marriage law, 236, 254, 259,292 209-10,212-13 remarriage of widows, 103-4, 221 anti-Manchuism, 139, 142, 154, Marshall, General George C., 249-50 159, 176, 197 martial arts, 74, 200-1 Manchu abdication, 213 Martin, W. A. P., 185 Manchu conquest, xx, 118, Marx, Karl, 168, 174, 194 138--43 Marxism, Marxism-Leninism, 222, , 217, 219 245,296-7 Manchu-Chinese diarchy, 118, 140, Marxist views, 5, 13,26,77,91, 123, 143, 148 157, 194 see also Qing dynasty mass campaigns, mass movements, Manchuria, 47,60,66-7,79-80,94, 117, 224-6,254,260-1 192-3,202,207,209,215,219,225 Mawangdui, 29 under Japanese control, 228-9, 232, May Fourth (1919) Incident and 237,239 Movement, 206, 219-22, 225, during civil war, 249-52, 254 236,245,297 since 1949,257 May Thirtieth (1925) Incident and see also Manzhouguo Movement, 225 mandate of heaven, xiii, 8, 34, 49, medicine, 3, 44, 109 104, 154, 172 Western medicine, 196 Manichaeism, 68, 92 Meditation school of Buddhism, 73 manorial system, 102 meltage fee, 153 Manzhouguo,241 memorials, 24, 148, 199 Mao Tse-tung, see Mao Zedong Mencius,7, 17-18 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) Mencius, 17-19 early career of, 222, 226-7,234-9, Mendoza, Juan Gonzalez de, ix 244-5 Meng Tian, 24, 28 after 1949, 258-9, 263-6, 294-5 merchants and Great Leap Forward, 267-8, in early empire, 22-3, 34, 42, 57, 270-2 68,86,110 and Cultural Revolution, 273-83 in Ming and Qing, 157, 198,204, last years and succession, 282, 207,211 285-6,288 between 1911 and 1949,207,224 death and assessment of, 256, 278, 'merchant-gentry alliance', 207 283-4,287-8,296 see also bourgeoisie 330 INDEX

Miao, 154, 292 see also Hui; Miao; Tibetans; Miaodigou, 2 Uighur; Zhuang Michael, Franz, 140,217 mirrors, 29 Middle Kingdom, 156 missionaries, Christian, 150-1, 170, Mif, Pavel, 235 185, 190, 192, 195-7,233,260 migration, 24, 29, 35,68,71,87, 1I2, anti-missionary incidents, 190, 130, 134, 159-60, 173, 183,293 196-7,201 militarization, 182 Miyazaki, Ichisada, 91-2 military academies, 224 mobile warfare, 238 military affairs 'modernist', 32, 34 in the early empire, 9, 49, 62, 80, Money 83-4,87,90,96,105,107,116, in early China, 12-13 121 in early empire, 23, 34, 36, 52, 63, in Ming, 121, 125, 135, 138 76,81,87, 102, 1I0, 112 in Qing, 147-9, 179-80, 182, in Ming and Qing, 131, 204 203-5,211-12,217 between 191I and 1949,219,231, Military Affairs Commission, 241, 253,255 288 Mongol dynasty, see military colonies, 49, 62, 68, 72, Mongol invasion, 88, 95, 97-8, 100, 121 104, 106-7,112 military garrisons, 137, 139 , 28, 50, 60, 105, 120 military governors, 62, 69-70, 78, Inner Mongolia, 94, 106,239,262 80,82,215-16,218; see also Outer Mongolia, 28, 219, 257, 293 Mongolian language, 1I4 military households, 116 Mongolian People's Republic, 257, military regions, 256 286 military service, II Mongols, 42, 103-5 militia, 62, 87, 90, 160, 167, 169, in the Yuan, 108-11, 113-16 175-6,179,201,211,225,269 in the Ming and Qing, 119-22, 125, millenarian movements, 160, 175 127, 134, 139-40, 145, 149, Min, kingdom, 81 152, 188,212 mines and mining, 187, 190 Mongke,99, 106, 110, 113 see also Kaiping mines monopolies, 32-4,71,90, 1I0, 187-9, Ming dynasty 218 founding of, 104, 118-20 see also salt administration; Tea and Ming dynasty, 120-34 Horse agency late Ming, 134-8, 141-4, 150 Morrison, Robert, 196 Ming Ioyalism, 145, 147 Morse, H. B., 199-200 Ming restoration, 174 Moscow, 224,227, 234,258,267,270 Ming Tombs Dam, 268 'most-favoured nation' clause, 168, Mingdi, later Han emperor, 37, 45 192, 196 Mingtang (Hall of Light), 60 Mote, Frederick w., Ill, 124 ministers, 12, 14,28,37,53,61,97-8, mou, 130 104, 135 Mozi, 15-16,21 chief ministers, 11,62-3,68,72, Mu Qi, 101 76,84,90,92,96,98,100,122, Muchanga, 169-70 127, 169 Mukden, see prime minister, 214 Mukhali, 105 'twice-serving ministers', 144 Muraviev, 171 see also chancellors music, 16 ministries, 203-4 Muslims, 106, 109-10,292 minorities, national, xiv, 154,239, Muslim rebellions, xxii, 156, 172, 257,259,289,291-3 180-1, 183 INDEX 331

Mussolini, Benito, 230 New Youth, 220-2 mutual aid teams, 263 rebellion, xxii, 172, 177-80, 186 Muye, 8 Nie Yuanzi, 279, 288 Nikolaevsk, 171 Nagasaki,249 'nine rank system', 41 Naito Torajiro, xiii Ningbo, 98, 103,167 , 197,225,227,234-5,238 , 246 Nanjing (Nanking), 40, 119-20, 123, Ningzong, Song emperor, 96-8 125-6,141-2,197,208,213 Nishihara loans, 218, 220 underTaiping, 170, 172, 176-7, 179 Nishijima Sadao, 35 in Republic, 215, 226, 228, 233, Nixon, Richard M., 286, 294 241,251-2 North China Plain, 4 rape of Nanjing, 240 Northern Expedition, 206, 225-8 Treaty of, 167-70 nuclear weapons, 270, 272-3, 276, see also Jiankang 286 , 206, 228-34, 242 , 138-40 , 242 Nanyang, 35-6 Oboi, Oboi regency, 144-5, 150 Nan Yue, 68 Odoric of Pordenone, 111 ,66, 77,83,106 Oertai, 153 Napier, Lord, 165 office, sale of, 38 National People's Congress, 289 officials, 4, National Revolutionary Army, 224-5, in early empire, 20, 28, 37,61,81, 227-8 88,94,97-8 see also Nationalist armies in later empire, 120, 136-7, 143, National Salvation Association, 240 186-8,197-200,252,257 National South-West Associated appointment, 28,31,83,86,108, University (Lianda), 242 145, 159, 173, 182 nationalism salaries, 153, 160,243 under Qing, 167, 176, 195, 197-8, training, 220 203,205,208-9,211 see also bureaucracy between 1911 and 1949,218-19, OgOdei, 95, 105-6 224-5,248 oil,262 Nationalist armies, 226, 237, 243-4, see also petrol 247,249-51 Oirat, 125-7, 134 see also National Revolutionary 'one-child family' policy, 291-2 Army 'one China' policy, 286 Nationalist Party, see Guomindang 'one country, two systems', 295 nationalization of foreign assets, 260 one-party government, 210, 229 nature, 16,44 Operation Ichigo, 244, 248 naval forces, navy, 142, 186, 189, opium, opium trade, 164-8, 171, 174, 191-2,198,250 176,194,218-19 , 192 Opium War, 162, 166-8, 174, 182, Neolithic, 1-3 184, 197 Nerchinsk, 148 oracle bones, 4-5 Treaty of, 148, 150 Ordosregion, 24, 28, 37, 83,127 , 206,208, 210,212-13 Organic Law, 257 New Democracy, 245, 259 ortogh, 110 New Fourth Army, see Red Army 'outer frontier strategy', 68 New Laws, 90-2 , 89, 99 New Life Movement, 230, 238 Overseas Chinese, 207, 209,261 New Territories, 193, 294 'new thought', 221-2 Paauw, Douglas S., 231 332 INDEX painting, 44, 65, 99, 101 petroleum, petro-chemicals, 242-3, 273 palace memorials, 149, 153 see also oil Palmerston, Lord, 165-6, 170 'Phags-pa, 109 Pamirs, 156 pilgrims, pilgrimages, Buddhist, 55, Pang Xun, 77 76 , 2 Pingcheng, 28, 42-3, 46 paper currency, see money Pingliuli uprising, 210-12 Paris Commune, 281 Pinglu,70 Paris Peace Conference, 220 , vii Parker, Peter, 196 piracy, pirates, 117,119, 135, 142, Parkes, Harry, 170-1 170,174 parliament, 204, 213-15, 217, 223 Pires, Tome, 135 patriotism, 96, 127, 142,247 poetry, see literature pax Mongolica, 104, 110 Pohai, 67, 82 peaceful co-existence, 272, 286 Political Consultative Conference, Pearl Harbor, 244 249,253 , see Zhu river political parties, 89 peasants, 38, 224, 229, 232, 243, 264 Political Study clique, 230 middle peasants, 236, 259 political tutelage, 210, 253 peasant associations, 224, 226, 275 Polo, Marco, 102, III peasant rebellions, 35, 77, 137, 140, Pope, 110-11, 150-1 172-3, 245; see also rebellions population, poor peasants, 227, 236, 254, 259, in early empire, 37, 68, 70, 102, 263 111-12 rich peasants, 236, 246, 259, 263-4 in Ming and Qing 130-1, 137, 157, Pei, state, 26 183 PeiJu,50 since 1949, xi, 261 Pei Yaoqing, 62 population growth, 118, 154, 157, Peking, see Beijing 159,173,229,273,291 , 235, 247, 258, 270, 276 population loss: after rebellions, Peng Pai, 224, 227 183; after Great Leap Forward, PengYan,75 271 , 273, 277-9 porcelain, 101, 130 Pengcheng,45 see also ceramics Penghu (Pescadores) islands, 147, Portugal, Portuguese, 126, 135, 139, 192 166 Penglai, 25, 29 postal service, 112 People's Consultative Conference, pottery, 2-3; see also ceramics 257 Pottinger, Sir Henry, 167, 169 People's Daily, 287 prefectures, 84-5, 203 People's Liberation Army, 250, 255, price controls, 290-1, 299 257-8,269,287,293,298 printing, 81, 85, 103 and the Cultural Revolution, 274, private plots, 268, 270, 289 276,278,281-2,285, proletariat, industrial, 208, 234, 245, People's Political Council, 241 255 People's Republic of China, establish- prostitutes, prostitution, 154,219,255 ment of, 256-61 Protestants, 176, 196 'people's rights', 200 provinces, 121, 127-8, 182,206 'people's war', 269, 276, 278 provincial assemblies, 204, 206, Peppe~ Suzanne, 284 211-13,215 period of division, 40, 79 provincial government, 84-5, 154-5 see also regionalism provincial secession, 212 Persia, 47, 55, 68 provincial separatism, 71-2 INDEX 333

Prussia, 193; see also Germany mid-nineteenth-century rebellions, Pulleyblank, Edwin G., 71 170,172-80,182-3,217 punishments, 20, 49, 53, 128 see also rebellions under their puppet regimes, 241, 247 individual name Pure Land (Jingtu) school of Red Army, 234-9, 243, 248 Buddhism, 73-5 Eighth Route Army, 243, 247-8 Putiatin, Count, 171 First Front Army, 239 Pyongyang,58,192 Fourth Front Army, 238 New Fourth Army, 243-4, 247 qi (material force), 100 Red Coats, 95 Qi, Northern, dynasty, 47,51 Red Eyebrows, 35-6 Qi, state, 11 Red Flag, 272, 279 Qi Jiguang, 135, 179 RedGuards,279-82,284,288,293-6 Qiang,42 Red Lantern Society, 202 Qianlong, Qing emperor, 118, 153, Red river, 190 155-63,173 Red Turban rebellion, 119-20 Qidan, 60, 79-83,87,92-4,105,116 Red Turban rebellion (Guangdong), see also Liao (Qidan) dynasty 170,172 Qin, Earlier, dynasty, 42 reform, reform programmes Qin empire, 22-6, 32 in early empire, 61-2, 72, 89-92, Qin,state, 11, 13, 19-22 101 Qin Gui, 96-7 in Ming and Qing, 132, 143-4, Qin Shi Huangdi, 23-6 152-3,177,203-5 Qing (Manchu), dynasty, 83, 118, see also Deng Xiaoping; Hundred 140-61 Days' reforms late Qing, 162-205 'reformist', 32-3, 35 see also Manchus refugees, 41, 294 Qingdao, 193,215 regional armies, 179-80, 182-3, 208 , 58, 66 see also Huai army; Hunan army Qinghua University, 202,242, 279 regionalism, 78, 108, 146, 181-3, 189, QingJian'gang culture. 2 217 qingliu ('party of purists'), 191, 198 religion, 6-7, 15,29, 158-60 qingtan ('pure conversation'), 44-5 see also Buddhism; Christianity; qingyi (moral censure), 165 Daoism; Qishan,167 Remington rifles, 186 Qiu Jin, 210 renminbi, 255 Qiu Shiliang, 76 Renovationist faction, 253 Qiying, 169 Rent and Interest reduction campaign, Qu Qiubai, 234 246 Quanzhou, 68 Renzong, Song emperor, 89-90 Quemoy, see Jinmen Renzong, Yuan emperor, see , 141-3, 159,217 Ayurbarwada Quinsai (Kinsai), see Hangzhou Reorganization Loan, 214 Republic of China on , 293-4 Rabban Sauma, III Resist America, Aid Korea campaign, railways, 187-8, 193,204,211-12, 259 218,231-2,240,262 'response to the West', xv see also railway lines by name responsibility system, 289 Rawski, Evelyn S., xiv, 102 restoration, late Tang, 71-2 Rawski, Thomas G., 231 see also Tongzhi restoration rebellions, 25-7, 50, 77-8, 92, revenue 117-19, 137-8, 141, 158, 160, imperial government, 87, 90, 99, 176,200 102,110, 123, 132, 153 334 INDEX revenue (continued) Sanskrit, 45 warlord regimes, 218-19 Sanxingdui,4 Nationalist government, 231, 242-3 Sanyuanli incident, 167, 197 Yan' an, 246 Schall, Adam, 144, 150 People's Republic, 257 scholars, scholarship, 23, 38, 159 revisionism, 275, 277, 279, 283 schools revolution in early empire, 85, 89 'continuing' or 'permanent', 268 in Ming and Qing, 122, 183, 196, 1911 revolution, 204, 211-14 203,207-8 Revolutionary Alliance from 1911 to 1949,233 (),21O-11, since 1949,260,264-5,267,269 213-14,224 in Cultural Revolution, 279, 284 revolutionary committees, 281-3, keypoint schools, 273 285 minban (run by the people) schools, revolutionary movement, late Qing, 247,269 198,209-11 schoolteachers, 208, 247,269, 273, 'revolutionary successors', 275; see 277,280,284 also see also education revolutionary tourism, 281 science, scientific research, 34, 88, 'Second Revolution', 214-15 222,232-3,265 Ricci, Matteo, 135 'scramble for concessions', xxiii, rice, 2, 68, 87, 102, 130 193-4, 198 'right to rebel', 18 Second Emperor, 25-6 rights recovery movement, 198, 204 secret societies, 165, 172,174,209, rites controversy, 150-1 211 ritual, 15-16, see also Elder Brother Society, Riviere, Henri, 191 Triad roads, 23-4,36,231-2 secretariat, 37, 53, 84, 108, 122, 124, Roberts, Issachar J., 175 129, 145 Roman Empire, 39 'seizures of power', 281 Romance a/the , The, Selden, Mark, 249 39,41 self-strengthening, 184-8, 198 Rong, II, 19,24 assessment, 189-90, 192 Rong Hong (Yung Wing), 185 Self-Strengthening Army, 208 rotation of office, 48, 86, 183 Semedo, Alvaro, 131 Ruan Yuan, 164 semu ren, 109, 113-14 Ruanruan, 42, 44 'sending down to the countryside', Ruijin, 235-6 248,266,284,295 rural bases, 234-5, 239 separation of civil and military office, Russia, Russians, 105, 148, 171, 181, 182-3 190,193,202-3,210,214,225,300 Service, John S., 248 Russo-Chinese Bank, 193 Seven Immortals of the Russo-Japanese War, 193,203-4 Grove, 44 see also Soviet Union Seymour, Admiral Edward, 202 , 7,11,137,140,239-40,244, St Petersburg, Treaty of, 181 246,248 Sacred Edict, 154, 183-4 Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia sacred treasury, 175 (Shaan-Gan-Ning) border sage rulers, 3, 17 region, 246 Saiyid Ajall, 110 Shamian island affair, 224 salt monopoly, 71-2, 76, 132,215 ,2, 11,25,29,58,95, 160, Samarkand, 105 193,200-2,215,220,228-9,264 Sanmen rapids, 58 Shang dynasty, 3-9 INDEX 335

Shang Kexi, 142, 146-7 siege warfare, 106 Shang Yang (Yang Gongsun, Lord silk, 29, 34, 72, 84, 93, 102, 131, 137, Shang),20 162 (Xanadu), 106, 112 , 45, 65, 68, 110 Shanghai, 131, 167, 172, 174, 176, see also trade. overland 180,185-8,192,208,210 Silla, 56, 58, 67 between 1911 and 1949,215,220, silver, 84, 93, 112, 131-2, 137, 153, 223,225-9,233,239-40,251, 163-4,174,194,231-2 253 , 91-2 since 1949,277,281,286,297 , 22-5, 32 Shanghai Cotton Cloth mill, 188 Sima Yan, Western Jin emperor, 41 'Shanghai storm', 281, 283 Single-Whip tax reform, 132 Shantou (Swatow), 291 sinicization, sinification, xiv, 43, 66, , 4, 7, 11,28,42,81,83,202, 68,73-4,83,92,94-5 218-19,276 in Yuan. 105-8,114, 116-17 Shanxi banks, 157 in Qing, 140, 143. 154 Shan yuan. Treaty of, 84 of Marxism, 245 , 74 Sino-French War (1883-5), 191, 198 , 78. 80--2 Sino-Japanese War (1894-5),188-9, Shell Oil, 260 198,203,211 Sheng Xuanhai, 187-8, 211 Sino-Japanese War (1937-45),234, shengyuan (government student), 199 239-49,252 ,3 Sino-Russian Treaty (1896),193 shenshi. see gentry Sino-Soviet dispute, 265,271-2 Shenyang (Mukden). 139, 250 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance and Shenzhen, 291,299 Mutual Assistance, 258, 271 Shenzong, Song emperor. 90, 92 six boards, six ministries, 84, 108, Sheridan, James E., 219 140,145 shi (gentleman), 12, 14 Six Dynasties, 47 Shi Kefa, 142 Sixteen Kingdoms. 40 Shi Miyuan, 98, 103 Sixteen Prefectures, 82-4, 87, 93 Shiji (Historical Records), 32 slaves, slavery, in Shang, 5,9, 116. Shijing, see Book of Songs 139, 149 Shimonoseki, Treaty of, 192-3, see also bondservants 198-9,208 smuggling. 164--6, 174 ships, shipyards, 87, 185--6, 190 Social Darwinism, 222 Shizong, Jin emperor. 94. 96 social mobility, 31, 133-4 Shotoku, Prince, 67 socialism, socialist transformation, Shu, state, 4, 8. 21, 222,262-5,296 Shu. later, kingdom 81 Socialist Education Movement, Shu Han, kingdom, 40 274-5 Shuihu zhuan, see Socialist Youth League, 222, 224 Shujing, see Book of Documents Sogdiana, Sogdians, 37, 69, 73 Shundi, later Han emperor, 38 Song dynasty, 79, 83, 108-9, 119-20, Shunzhi, Qing emperor, 144, 149-50 124, 127 Siberia, 148, 171 Northern Song, 79, 83-93, 95, 97, Sichuan, 4, 36, 38, 40,58.69,71,81, 101-2 90, 106, 120, 138 Southern Song, xix, 80, 94-104 in the late Qing, lSI, 195 Song Jiaoren, 214 in the Republic, 211-12. 216. 223, Song Meiling (Mme Jiang Jieshi), 230 238-9,275 Song Ziwen (T.V. Soong), 230-1 Sichuan Railway Protection League, Songjiang, 131, 135 211 Song-tsen Gampo, 58, 66 336 INDEX

Soong, T. V., see Song Ziwen Sun (Sun Vat-sen) sorcery scare, 159 early career 198,206,209-10 South Seas, 68 after 1911,213-14,218,223-5, South-east Asia, 107, 207, 229 227, 229-30 Southern Baptist mission, 175 Sunzi,13 Soviet period, 256, 261-5 Susongtai, 184 Soviet Union, 227, 249, 258, 261-4, , 145 267,271-2,275,278,286 swords, 13, 21 Soviet experts, 262,264,270,272 see also Sino-Soviet dispute Tada, General, 247 Special Economic Zones (SEZs), 291 tael,93 'spiritual pollution', 296 Tai, people, 66 , 7, 10-13 Tai'erzhuang, 241 Spring and Autumn Annals, 18 Taihe country, 133-4 Spring Purification circle, 165 Taiho Code, 67 Sputnik, 267 Taiping rebellion, xxii, 170-2, Stalin, Joseph, 227, 258, 262, 267, 174-80,183,191,196 271 Taishan,58 standard of living, 229, 289 Taiwan, 2, 143, 147, 174, 190, 192, state enterprises, 261, 269, 272, 281, 251-2 299-300 since 1949,257-8,269,272,286, State Statistical Bureau, 261 293-4 statistics, 271 see also Republic of China on steel, 262, 264 Taiwan backyard steel furnaces, 268 , 51,120 steppe, 30, 67, 104, 108, 116 Taizong, Tang emperor, 53-6 steppe transition zone, 52, 60, 127 Taizong, Song emperor, 83, 85 Steyl Society, 201 Taizu, Song emperor, 83, 85 Stilwell, General Joseph w., 244 Tan Sitang, 199 strategic hamlets, 160 , 40,51-76,83-4,94,99, strikes, 208, 223-4, 226, 234, 260 101, 109, 120, 125 'struggle meetings', 254 fall of the Tang, 77-81 Struve, Lynn A., 142 Tang, later, dynasty, 81-2 students, 207-8, 210, 242, 252, 255 see also Jin dynasty in May Fourth movement, 220, , 214 222-3 Tang Tingshu (Tong King-sing), 187 in People's Republic, 257, 262, 265, , 187 269,273 earthquake, 287 in Cultural Revolution, 272, 277, Tangut, 79, 83, 109 279,284 Tanka, 154 overseas students, 190, 203, 208, Tanshihuai, 38 210,223,262 Tao Qian, 64 student protests, 226, 233, 239-40, taotie mask, 6 252,297-8 targets, 267-9 Su Dingfang, 55 tariffs, 102, 167-8, 170, 194,202,233 Su Dongpo, 91, 101 see also customs duties subsidies, 67,72,84,96-8 Tarim basin, 58 Sui dynasty, 40, 47-51, 53-4, 66-7 Tatars, 105, 125 , old, 171 Tatsu Maru, 208 new, 189 taxation Sun Chuanfang, 218, 225-6 in early empire, 25, 34, 61, 71 , 224 in Ming and Qing, 122-3, 131-2, Sun Vat-sen, see Sun Zhongshan 151 INDEX 337

taxation (continued) Treaty of (1885), 191 between 1911 and 1949, 218,224, -Beijing railway, 202 231,253 Tianqi. Ming emperor, 129-30, 135--6 tax burden, 112, 123, 172,243,247 Tiantai Buddhism, 73 tax evasion, 33, 90 Tianzuo, Qidan Liao emperor, 93 tax farming, 106 tax quota system, 132 in early empire, 56, 58, 60, 66, 70. tax reform, 72: see also Single• 72,90,109 Whip reform in Ming and Qing, 120, 149, 155-6, tax registers, 62, 142, 151 219 tax remissions and exemptions, since 1949257,292-3 74--6, 112, 116, 138, 143, 147, Tibetan revolt, 272, 293 151,184 see also Xizang Autonomous tax-captain system, 123. 133 Region see also labour service; land tax; Toba,40,42--4,82 lijia; /ijin (likin) see also Wei, Northern Taylor. James Hudson. 197 Toghon Temiir, Yuan emperor, 108, tea, 90. 94. 110-11. 156, 162-3. 174, 114,117 195 Toghto. 117, 119 Tea and Horse agency, 90 Tokyo, 210 technology. 5, 37, 39. 88-9. 104. 123. Tombs, 3, 4, 6, 25, 29 131,157.184-7.229,264,273. Tong, James W., 137 291 Tong King-sing, see Tang Tingshu telegraphy, 188 Tongcheng, 133 Temujin. 105; see also Genghis Khan Tonghak rebellion, 192 Temiir. Yuan emperor, 107 Tongmenghui, see Revolutionary Ten Kingdoms. 79-81 Alliance terracotta army. 25 Tongwenguan, 185; see also transla- textiles. 122 tion schools see also cotton; silk; wool Tongzhi, Qing emperor, 180-1 Thatcher, Margaret. 295 Tongzhi restoration, 180--4 Thirteen Factories, 166 trade, 3, 12-14,20,23,29,36,84,88, Thirteen Offices, 144, 149 102, 110, 112, 122 Three Excellencies, 28, 37 foreign trade, 190, 195,207,290 Three Feudatories, Revolt of, xx, maritime trade, 81, 102, 109, 112, 146-8 134-5,137, 156, 162, 164-6, , 300 168 Three Kingdoms, 40 translation schools, 185, 188 Three People's Principles Youth Trans-Siberian railway, 193 Corps, 241-2 treaties, 66, 134 Three Principles of the People, 224 treaty ports, 167-8, 170-1, 174, Three Rules, 235 189,192--4,207-8,232 'three-all' policy, 248 unequal treaties, 168, 170-1, 191-2, 'three-thirds' system. 246 194,196,224,233 Tiananmen, Tiananmen Square, 280, see also named treaties 288 Triad societies, 174; see also secret demonstration (1976), 287-8 societies massacre (1989), 295, 297-9 tribute system, 37, 58, 67, 82, 134, Tianjin, 167, 170-1, 187,202-3,242, 156 251 tribute missions, 139, 162 Convention of, 192 tribute rice, 187 massacre, 190, 197 Triple Intervention, 193 Treaty of (1858), 170, 180, 190 Trotsky, Leon, 227 338 INDEX tuanlian, 182 wages, wage claims, 223, 255, 260, Tugh Temiir, Yuan emperor, 108 283 Tujue, 47; see also Turks see also incentives; workpoints Tumu incident, 127, 129, 134 Wakeman, Frederic, 205 TungUS, 93; see also Jurchen 'walking on two legs', 266, 273 Turkic,7 walls, 3, 24,49-50, 134 Turks, Turkish, 42, 47, 49-52, 55, 60, see also Great Wall 65-6,69,78, 109, III Wang, Tang empress, 57 see also Shatuo; Tujue; Uighur , 89-92, 95, 99, 101 (tribal headman system), 154 Wang Bi, 44 Tuyuhun, 56, 58 WangE,109 Twenty-one Demands, 215-16, 220 Wang Fu, 38 Twenty-eight Bolsheviks, 234-7, 244 Wang Guangmei, 275, 279 'two-stage revolution', 245 Wang Hongwen, 286-7 'two-track system', 277 , 227, 241 Wang Lun uprising, 160 Uighu~66-7, 70, 72,80,82,92,109, Wang Mang, 35-6, 43 292-3 Wang Ming, 244-5 unemployment, underemployment, Wang Shiwei, 295 266,270 Wang Wei, 64-5 united front Wang Xianzhi, 77 first, 223-7 Wang Yun, 114 second, 240, 244,246 Wang Zhen, 126-7, 129 United Nations, 258, 294 Wanli, Ming emperor, 135-6 United States of America, 168, 171, warlords, warlordism, 146,206,213, 186, 191, 194,202,208 223,225,228,234 between 1911 and 1949,213,216, , 217-20 231,233,244,248-53,257-8 , 7, 12-19,24 since 1949, 258, 272, 276, 278, war, 11-13, 16,20 285-6,293-4 Water Margin (Shuihu zhuan), 92 universities and colleges, 220, 233, Wei, Eastern, 44 239,252 Wei Jingsheng, 296 since 1949,260,262-3,269,273 Wei, kingdom, 40 during Cultural Revolution, 279, Wei, Northern, dynasty (Toba), 40, 42, 284 44,46-7,73,82 migration of universities, 242 , 4, 19 see also Beijing National Wei, state, 14, 20 University; Imperial University Wei, Western, 44 urbanization, 36, 43, 88, 102, 130-1, Wei Yuan, 184 220 , 53, 55 Urianghad, 125 Wei Zhongxian, 129-30, 136 river, see Wusuli river weights and measures, 23 Weihaiwei, 192-3, 233 Vairocana Buddha, 58 weiso system, 121 Valignano, Alessandro, 135 'well-field' system, 12, 18,20,34 Verbiest, Ferdinand, 147, 150 see also equal-field system Versailles, Treaty of, 220, 222 Wen, King, 7-8,14 Victoria, Queen, 166 Wen Yiduo, 219 , 30, 37,102,130,190-1, Wendi, Han emperor, 29 278 Wendi, Sui emperor, 47-9; see also Vladivostok, 171, 193 Yang Jian Voitinsky, Grigori, 222 Wenxian empress, 49 von Waldersee, Field Marshal, 202 Wenxiang, 181 INDEX 339

Western Regions, 30, 33, 37, 55 Xanadu, see Shangdu White Lotus, 119 xenophobia, 169, 197 rebellion, xxii, 159, 177, 200 Xi (West) river, 174 religion, 159-60, 174,200 Xi Xia kingdom, 79, 83, 93, 95, 105 Wittfogel, Karl, xii , 2-3 , see pirates XiaGui,101 women Xiamen (Amoy), 142, 167, 172,233, in early empire, 59, 61, 103 291 in Ming and Qing, 134, 154, 159, (district), 20 177,196,202,208 Xi'an, 2, 7, 23, 250, 262 between 1911 and 1949,221,229, Xi'an incident, 203, 240 233,236,248 see also Chang'an since 1949,257,259,269,292 Xianbei, 37-8,40,42,47,51,56,81 women's associations, 236, 254, Xianfeng, Qing emperor, 170, 180 259 , 238 women's rights, women's liberation, , 26-7 210,246 Xianggang (Hong Kong), 166--7, wool, woollen textiles, 163, 187 169-71, 174, 193,209,223,225, Woren, 188, 198 283,291,294-5,300 work points, 276, 284 Xiangyang, 106, 111, 138 workers, 208, 226, 228-9, 255 Xianyang, 23-6 see also proletariat Xianzong, Tang emperor, 72, 75 World War, First, 215, 217, 219 Xiao Chaogui (Western king), 175 Wright, Arthur, 49 Xiaowen, Northern Wei emperor, 43 Wright, Mary C., 184,209 Xiaoxian, empress, 144 writing, 2-3, 5, 23, 111 Xiaozhan, 203 Wu Cheng'en, 55 Xiaozong, Song emperor, 97 Wu, empress (Wu Zhao), 56-61, 66, Xibeigang, 4 68, 74 Xieli,55 Wu Guang, 25-6 Xin dynasty, 34-6; see also Wang , 123--4,277-8 Mang Wu Jingzi, 159 Xinjiang, 30, 155-6, 181,262 Wu, King, 8, 14 Xiongnu, 28,30, 33--4,37,41-2,47 Wu, kingdom (Three Kingdoms), 41 xiucai (cultivated talent), 48 Wu, kingdom (Ten Kingdoms), 81 Xizang, 239 Wu, Liang emperor, 42, 46 Xizang Autonomous Region, 257, Wu, Northern Wei emperor, 46 293 Wu Peifu, 218-19,223,225 see also Tibet , 141, 146-7 Xu Guangjin, 169-70 Wu Zhao, see Empress Wu , 108, 114 Wuchang,206,212-13 Xuan Zang, 55 Wude, see Gaozu Xuande, Ming emperor, 129 Wudi, Han emperor, 30-3 Xuandi, Former Han emperor, 33 ,212,234,241,262,270 Xuanwu,80 Wuhan government, 227 Xuanwu Gate incident, 53 Wuhan incident, 282 Xuanzong, Tang emperor, 61-70, 74 Wuhuan, 37 Xuanzong, late Tang emperor, 77 Wusong railway, 188 Huaiyi, 60 Wusuli (Ussuri) river, 171,190,286 Xunwu, 236 wuwei, 17,21 Xunzi, 18,21-2 Wuxi,136 , 241 Wuzong, Tang emperor, 76-7 Wuzong, Yuan emperor, see Khaishan Yalta agreement, 249 340 INDEX

Yalu river, 192,258 yin and yang, 32, 100 Yan, state, 22 Yinreng, 151 Yan Song, 135 Yongan, 176 , 218-19, 228,234 Yongle (Prince ofYan), Ming emper• Yan'an,207,244-50, 263,295 or, 118, 124-9 Yan'an forum on literature and art, Yongzheng, Qing emperor, 118, 248,277,295 152-5, 160 Yan'an University, 247 Young, E. P., 214 'Yan'an Way', 249 'Young China', 209 Yang Gongsun, see Shang Yang Young Men's Christian Association Yang Guang, see Yangdi (YMCA), 230 Yang Guifei, 63, 69-70 youth, 205, 220,241,266 , 69-70 Yu, Xia ruler, 3 Yang Jian, 40, 47; see also Wendi Yu Qian, 127 Yang Shankun, 298 Yu Xian, 201-2 Yang Xiuqing (Eastern king), 175-7 yuan, gold, 253, 255 Yang Yan, 71-2 Yuan (Mongol) dynasty, 107-15, Yangdi, Sui emperor, 49-51, 56 120-1, 124-5, 128 Yangshao culture, 2 fall of the Yuan, 115-17 yanguan (opinion officials), 97, 128 Yuan Shikai, 191, 199,201-3,208, yangwu (foreign matters), 185 212-13,217-18 , 71, 141-2, 197 presidency of, 206, 213-16 Yangzi river, 50, 93, 98-9, 141-2, as emperor, 206 167,171,251,279,300 Yuandi, former Han emperor, 34 10werYangzi, 2, 39, 71,77-8,81, Yuanyuan, 141 131, 136, 147, 159, 173, 176, , 96 180, 183, 187, 193,218,228, Yuezhi,30 240 Yung Wing, see Rong Hong middle Yangzi, 11,47,98, 176, 179, Yungang caves, 46 212,218 Yunmeng xian, 20 upperYangzi, 190,238,240 , 66, 110-11, 130, 146, 172, Yangzi highlands, 160, 173 216,241-2 Yangzi valley, 12,42, 59, 68, 71, Yuwen,47,50 87, 106, 119 Yuwen Rong, 62 Yanjing, 94-5, 105 Yao and Shun, 3 zaibatsu, 188 , 61 Zelin, Madeleine, 160 , 277-8, 286-7 Zen Buddhism, see Chan Ye Mingchen, 169-70 , 179-80, 183, 185-6, Yehonala, see Cixi 196--7,230 'Yellow Books', 123, 130 Zeng Jing, 154 Yellow Emperor, see Huangdi Zhang brothers, 60 , 2-3, 33, 50-I, 58, 65, , 277, 286-7 77, 96, 1I2, 117, 200, 246, 250 Zhang Faguei, 227 breaching of defences, 241 Zhang Guotao, 238-9, 244-5 shift of course, 35, 95, 119, 177 Zhang Jiuling, 63, 68 Yellow Turbans, 39 , 135-6 Yeliichucai, 105-6 , 30 Yen, Dr James, 233 Zhang Tiesheng, 284 Yes un Temiir, Yuan emperor, 108 Zhang Wentian, 237 Yi, King, 10 Zhang Xianzhong, 138 Yijing, see Book of Changes Zhang Xueliang, 228, 240 yin privilege, 86, 108 , 217, 219 INDEX 341

Zhang Zai, 100 Zhili (Hebei), 144, 167, 183, 199-200 , 185, 198-200, 203, , 218 208,211 Zhiyi,73 , 218, 225, 228 Zhongshan incident, 226 Zhangjiakou (Kalgan), 255 Zhongzong, Tang emperor, 59-60 , 56-7 Zhou, Duke of, 8-9, 14 Zhao, Earlier, dynasty, 42 (Empress Wu), 56, , 25-6 59-61 Zhao Kuangyin, 79, 83; see also Zhou, Eastern, 7, II Taizu , 226-7, 265, 273, 282, Zhao, Later, dynasty, 46 286-7 Zhao, state, 20, 22 Zhou, Later, dynasty, 83 , 288, 297-8 Zhou, Northern, dynasty, 47-8, 51 Zhaohui, 156 Zhou, Western, dynasty, xii, 7-10, Zhapu, 167 , 1 Zhefu Convention, 190 Zhoushan, 167 , 73, 83, 92,101,135,143 Zhu (Pearl) river, 166, 174 Zhejiang Restoration Society, 210 , 235 Zhenbao (Danansky) island, 286 , 78, 80, 82 Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga), 142-3, , 100, 103,230 147 Zhu Yuanzhang, 118-20; see also Zheng He, 126, 129 Hongwu Zheng, King, Qin ruler, 22-3 Zhuang,292 see also Qin Shi Huangdi Zhuangzi,17 Zheng, King, Shang ruler, 8 ,291 Zhengde, Ming emperor, 129 ZiLu,14 zhengfeng, see rectification Zichu,22 campaigns Zong Bing, 44 Zhengtong, Ming emperor, 126-7 Zongli Yamen (office for general Zhengzhou, 3,6 management), 184-5, 190-1 Zhengzhou Spinning and Weaving Zoroastrianism, 68 Machine Plant, 268 Zou Rong, 210 , 233 Zou Taofen, 240 Zhenjin, 107 Zunyi conference, 238 Zhezong, Song emperor, 92 , 180, 185-7 Zhi Dun, 45 ZUrcher, Erik, 74