Undergraduate Review

Volume 1 Article 13

2004 Preacher or Actor: The Dramatic Role of Puritan Sermons in America Beth Robbins

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Recommended Citation Robbins, Beth (2004). Preacher or Actor: The Dramatic Role of Puritan Sermons in America. Undergraduate Review, 1, 49-56. Available at: http://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol1/iss1/13

This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Copyright © 2004 Beth Robbins Preacher or Actor: The Dramatic Role of Puritan Sermons in America

by Beth Robbins

he Puritans settled into Massachusetts Bay in 1630 un­ T der John Winthrop in response to religious restrictions presented to them in England. While they did not necessar­ ily intend to break: away from the Church of England, the distance between these New Englanders and their original church affiliations could reap no other result. They retained their Calvinist beliefs in the power of God to save the "elect" and eternally damn others, and they dedicated their Beth Robbins is currently a senior double major in Elemen­ lives to working towards achieving a state of grace with tary Education and English from God. These founding settlers set the standard for future Holden, MA. She wrote the paper generations. John Winthrop described America as a "city for Ann Brunjes's Early Ameri­ upon a hill," since many people in England believed that can Literature Class in Spring the Puritans, and all those who fled England, would fail in 2004. Following graduation she America and were watching the new communities closely. plans to teach overseas before Ever mindful of England's constantly scrutinizing eye, pursuing graduate work in ESL. the Puritans would strive for nothing short of excellence. The paper came to be because Conversion to Christianity and a life dedicated to proclaim­ Dr. Brunjes both made the ing the works of God became the heart and soul of Puritan Puritans intriguing and seemed doctrine, and elaborating these principles throughout two sure noone else would be so interested in studying them. generations were ministers such as Thomas Hooker, In­ crease Mather, and Jonathan Edwards. The words of these three men vibrated in the hearts of their congregations from 50 The Undergraduate Review the early seventeenth century and through previously misled citizens, he persevered in the better part of the eighteenth century, and gaining both political and religious influence the terrifying dramatic presentation of these by strictly directing the daily routines of his exquisitely crafted sermons still provokes followers in the ways of Puritan founders. questions of morality and faith in contem­ His commanding presence and confident porary readers. These evangelical preachers preaching earned him the trust of the com­ used their religious outlet of sermons to not munity, thus reinforcing his authority. only preach the word of God, but also to As the Great Awakening dawned at assert their own intellect, wit, and learning, the tum of the century, conventional preach­ which have cemented their place in Ameri­ ers were replaced with scientific theorists can sentimental literature. and Enlightenment ideals. One of the last Thomas Hooker was born in 1586 in attempts at a Puritan contingency came from Leistershire, England. He was educated at Jonathan Edwards. Edwards was born in Queen's College in Cambridge, and en­ 1703, in East Windsor, Connecticut, the only tered the teaching profession as a minister. male child of eleven. He was a third gen­ However, despite his estimable reputation eration minister, the grandson of Solomon as a minister, Hooker was forced into early Stoddard, one of the most influential and in­ retirement for being "one of the most con­ dependent Puritan ministers of Northampton spicuous leaders of Puritan sentiment in the (Baym 464). Edwards studied at home and land" (Miller 290). In England, his strict at Yale College, where he focused his stud­ Puritan teachings posed a threat to the estab­ ies on theology. He discovered a deep love lished Anglican Church and, in effect, to the of religious theories, and longed to share government as well. So he took his Puritan his recognition of the importance of reli­ ideals to New England, where he proved gious commitment with the public. Edwards himself to be one of Connecticut's most "managed to tend to his duties as pastor or eloquent preachers (Miller 290). Though a growing congregation and deliver brilliant his styIe and theories were not embraced by sermons, to write some of his most impor­ the Anglican Church, Hooker was able to tant books...and watch his eleven children express his arguments to the more accepting grown up" (Baym 465). While skillfully New England congregations as the Puritan balancing his home life and religious career, movement waved across the New World. he was also able to adapt to the changing At the conclusion of Hooker's career, needs of his congregation. With the dawn of more and more ministers of the Puritan the Great Awakening, Edwards was finally world were grasping the opportunity to use able to fully proclaim the need of the people their place at the pulpit to move the hearts to return to the conventional authority of the and minds of congregations. Increase Mather church. Ironically, however, his preaching was one such minister. A second generation methods were far from conventional. While New Englander and minister, Mather had he believed the church was the complete humbler beginnings than his British-born authority in a community, he used non-tra­ predecessors. Mather received a free edu­ ditional, dictating styles of preaching to cation in Boston and attended Harvard in deliver this message. 1651. He managed to travel to England to Hooker, Mather, and Edwards both study and practice the ministry from 1656 embody and contrast the Puritan beliefs. to 1661, but he returned to America to teach While their words and messages are con­ at Second Church. Even though Mather's tracted directly from the Bible, their actions ministry was met with opposing policies and and deliverances are less than pure. These The Undergraduate Review 51

men were undoubtedly well-educated and authority for themselves in their communi­ devout Christians. They believed in the word ties. They considered themselves successful of God so strongly they could think of noth­ by the size and response of their following ing else. However, conventional methods of rather than the convictions in the hearts of conveying this unprecedented faith were not the people. So, while they claimed to preach the most effective. The sermonists' compul­ the word of God in such a way as to benefit sion to enforce conversion is what led to the the people, the material remuneration of a creation of their religious literature. Their position of authority were also no less ap­ resulting sermons were a combination of pealing to these Christian men than to any literary genius, manipulative tact, dramatic other community leader. effect, Scriptural references, and fanatical In an attempt to prove the validity Christian beliefs. They were terrifyingly ef­ of his beliefs to his congregation, Thomas fective not only in their own time, but long Hooker preached in a powerful and domi­ after Puritanism had receded in America. nating manner. Thus, he was considered a The sermons overflow with the authors' "virtual dictator" during his time in Con­ emotional struggles to influence the masses necticut. In his sermon "Meditation," Hook­ of the truth, and this emotion removes the er maintains that Christians must devote all sermons from purely religious texts and thought to sinful acts they have committed places them instead into sentimental Ameri­ and to the greatness of God, so that they can can literature. fully experience the truth in salvation. He Though the Puritan beliefs were describes the way to Providence "by serious increasingly questioned, "the transformative meditation" and he instructs his constituents impulse within Puritanism had its clearest to "look back to the lineage and pedigree manifestation in the pulpit, for the printed of our lusts, and track the abominations of Word erupted through the existing social our lives, step by step, until we come to the order only when given voice by Puritan min­ very nest where they are hatched and bred" isters" (Gustafson 15). All three sermonists (Hooker 303). In this way, he constantly re­ depict the practices and religious movements minds his congregation of the way to salva­ of their respective times. Their importance tion. as ministers of the word of God was mani­ Increase Mather also used a physical­ fested almost entirely in their abilities to ly dominating style of preaching to enforce interpret that word for their congregations. his authority in the community. He was con­ They share certain fundamental stylistic sidered to be a "commanding figure" (Miller elements in their sermons that remain stable 335). He held his position in the ministry in regardless of changing times and attitudes. the highest esteem, and enforced this in his One of these elements is the authoritative sermons by constantly reaffirming his own dominating figure each preacher presented authority in the church. In his "Sleeping at himself to be. The sermonists, while they Sermons," Mather exerts the importance of lived among their congregations, were not listening to what he offers during his ser­ entirely humbled by their own messages. mons: "As for sleeping at sermons, some They were well-educated in prime English look upon it as no sins; others account it a and American schools and universities, and peccadillo, a sin not worth taking notice of, they were well aware of the influence such or of troubling themselves about. By my a luxury had. By asserting the word of God text shewest that danger and death is in it" in a dominating and dictating manner, these (Mather 349). Mather reminds his followers men created nearly infallible positions of that without his guidance and explanation of 52 The Undergraduate Review the truth, they will often underestimate the cal, and public entity: the Bible. Puritan magnitude of their actions and thus expose ministers believed that as orators they were themselves to the severity of God. His ser­ simply allowing the Lord to work through mons reflect his deep emotional attachment them, but this "extemporaneous ideal re­ to the word of God, and his extreme need to quired the speaker to inhabit Scripture bring his congregation to the same under­ fully and personally experience its mean­ standing he had discovered. ing...creating an authenticity effect of divine Most likely the most terrifying inspiration through voice, gesture, emo­ example of the true authoritative fashion tional display, and spontaneous interactions is Jonathan Edwards. The most prominent with the audience" (Gustafson 47). In other example of his dominating preaching style words, Puritans believed that the written is his renowned "Sinners in the Hands of an word of God could not be fully grasped and Angry God." Edwards was very concerned understood without the interpretive preach­ with guiding his congregation down the ing of an ordained minister. This belief was right path: "Focusing attention on his pre­ extremely advantageous for sermonists of cisely articulated word; Edwards invested that time, as they were seen as the sole con­ his oral performances with textual authority" nection between God and the public, thus to (Gustafson 62). He emphasizes that without question them was to question the Lord. completely recognizing God's authority, Increase Mather took on the role of "every unconverted man properly belongs to spiritual medium as well. His plain and solid hell" (Edwards 500). In this way he por­ style was coated with Scriptural references trays himself as the most knowledgeable of to remind his congregation that his ideas the way to salvation and therefore the only were not independently generated, but were model authority for his congregation to fol­ rather grounded in the word of God. Mather low. was thus able to maintain credibility and au­ In addition to asserting authority thority beyond public doubt because of the through physical domination of the pulpit, community's intense reliance on and belief preachers relied heavily on Scriptural refer­ in the Bible. As he describes the dangers ences to validate their messages and their of taking small sins for granted, he states, power in society. Audiences were familiar "We have solemn instances in the Scripture, with the Bible and were more apt to relate concerning those that have lost their lives, to the preacher's words and understand his because they have been guilty of such mis­ message ifit originated in the Bible. Thomas carriages, as carnal reason will say are but Hooker "granted the pulpit orator greater little sins" (Mather 349). He then follows authority with his congregation and greater this with multiple explicit biblical refer­ control over Scripture" (Gustafson 23) with ences. Similarly, Edwards bases the topic an outward display of Scriptural knowledge. of his entire sermon on a biblical passage: Within just a few sentences of "Meditation," "Their foot shall slide in due time" (Dt. Hooker quotes Josiah: "thou shalt not suffer 32.35), and then he proceeds to cite not only the word to depart out of thy mind, but thou supporting passages from the Bible, but also shalt meditate therein day and night" (Hook­ from the history of the church. By support­ er 301). For each point he makes, Hooker ing their sermons with constant references is sure to follow with at least two direct to the written word, Hooker, Mather, and Scriptural quotes. In this way, he is able to Edwards emphasize the belief that they are connect the intangible concept of complete only tools through which the spirit of God dedication of the mind to a familiar, physi- works. As such "tools," preachers eliminated The Undergraduate Review 53

the accusations of personal gain in their high is one that Edwards' congregations could society positions. They were seen as ap­ easily visualize. Francis Breymer states, "It pointed by God, similar to the prophets, and was not enough to simply recall Christ's thus as truly working for the overall good of sacrificial drama; it had to be visualized, the people, not ever for their own personal witnessed over again, even in its goriest advancements. details" (Breymer 5). Over and over, list However, even multiple biblical by list, Edwards repeats the notions of the references were not necessarily plain and co­ wrath of an eternal and angry God until the herent enough for full congregational under­ image of man dangling over the fiery pit of standing. Since many preachers' audiences hell is emblazoned on the hearts and minds lacked in education, similes, metaphors, and' of his listeners. Edwards uses eloquence and illustrations from their daily routines were descriptive language to establish himself as often used to enhance the intended mes­ a credible source of God's words. He estab­ sage. In this way, "Puritans sought to move lishes himself as merely a tool of the Scrip­ their listeners beyond passive acceptance of ture, thus his credibility as a leader remains orthodox dogma to active engagement with untouched. He is able to maintain the au­ the meaning of Scripture" (Breymer 3). Ed­ thority because people are afraid to question wards is a prime example of this: he wanted the possibility that he may be wrong. In their his congregation to not just understand the eyes, such an act would be considered blas­ doctrine, but to be spiritually moved by phemous: an act against God. what they believe in. For Edwards, in order Hooker and Mather also use simi- to aid this experience, he needed to break les and repetition in their sermons in order down his original theme into its most basic to provide clarity for their congregations. elements, listing the consequences of not Hooker chooses similes to avoid any possi­ recognizing God's miracles, the validity of bilities of misunderstanding in his congrega­ God's omniscient power, and the application tion. He compares meditation to the life of of this teaching to one's daily life. Edwards a goldsmith, to the absorbed water of a root addresses his entire sermon directly at his which "loosens the weeds and thoms, which congregation, accusing them outright of they may be plucked up easily" (Hooker denying God's power in order to bring his 304). In this short sermon, Hooker states concept into a very real and personal light. and restates the importance of his message In his "Application" of his sermon, he con­ in many ways. However, this not only aids demns their ignorance: "You probably are his congregation's understanding, it also not sensible of this; you find you are kept gives him an increased air of authority. out of hell, but you do not see the hand of He has earned such an understanding for God in it" (Edwards 503). He then describes himself as to offer so many variations on a the consequences of this ignorance in a way single theme for others. Mather's approach they can relate to and visualize: "The bow is observed as somewhat more worldly, as of God's wrath is bent, and the arrow made he does not just accuse those sitting (and ready on a string, and justice bends the ar­ sleeping) before him, but also the general row at your heart, and strains the bow, and it nature of man. He does not use Edwards' is nothing but the pleasure of God, and that style of accusation, nor does he flower his of an angry God...that keeps the arrow one message with similes and metaphors. In­ moment from being made drunk with your stead, he lectures on a topic of familiar to blood" (Edwards 504). The image of a bow most parishioners and uses its universality to and arrow constantly pointed at one's heart open the eyes of his listeners to the dangers 54 The Undergraduate Review surrounding them. He almost justifies their meantime is constantly increasing.. .If God should sinful actions to put his congregation at ease: only withdraw His hand from the floodgate; it would "We may here take notice that the nature of immediately fly open, and the fiery floods would rush forth with inconceivable fury, and would come up on man is woefully corrupted and depraved, you with omnipotent power (Edwards 503). else they would not be so apt to sleep when the precious Truths of God are dispensed" Edwards speaks of an angry God who (Mather 348). Then Mather reminds them "abhors" men whose "eternal wrath" is that it is their responsibility to recognize this "inconceivable" and "terrible." Key words fault, and avoid its consequences at all costs. and gestures such as these were meant to He gives his congregation enough hope to frighten and terrify congregations into con­ change their ways, but also enough fear of version and complete dedication of the soul. God to listen to and completely trust his "If creating the verbal effect was part of words. Edwards' rhetorical skill, equally important Regardless of what the preacher's was his ability to stir powerful emotions in message or original intent was, their de­ his audiences" (Gustafson 65). The emotion­ livery of this message was a completely al response of congregations was the gauge separate entity: "There is no doubt that the of a successful sermon, and Edwards and his preachers adopted a plain style, but the predecessors were master manipulators of designation referred to content, not delivery" this tool. (Breymer 3). In this way, Puritan ministers Ironically, as powerful and authori­ often used non-traditional styles and ele­ tative as these preachers and their sermons ments in order to awaken their parishioners were due to their dramatic style, Puritans to a sense of righteousness and obedience. avidly opposed drama and theater. The "Pu­ Since "ministers could verify the truth of ritan reputation for a so-called 'plain style' their interpretation only in its effect on their of preaching, their public condemnation of congregation, its success in converting lis­ the theatre, and the allegedly subdued nature teners" (Gustafson 19), preachers were often of their demeanor in general" (Breymer 5) pushed to extreme dramatic attempts to posed a confusing contradiction with Puritan ensure that success. For Hooker, the sermon sermon style. Based on the written records performance threatened their congregations. of the actual texts and reports of witnesses These threats were aimed directly at listen­ of such behavior, it has been proven that ers in consequence for their actions or lack dramatic style was an imperative element thereof. "The Puritan minister could console in Puritan preaching. Hooker explained his the saint with the message of Christ's love or performances of "fire in the pulpit" as "a he could provide the strong psychic of terror reflection of the fire of faith in the preacher" needed for the corrupt heart" (Breymer 5). (Breymer 5). In other words, the justifica­ Most prominent in threatening sermons is tion for any dramatic outbursts by ministers Edwards' "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry was the supposed divine intervention of God." Not only does he attack and accuse God which guided the sermons. This style his parishioners, he tells them they deserve was effective for a limited time in America. at any moment to be cast into the pits of Each minister had a unique style that was hell: embodied and imitated by others, but each faded away as the interests of the audiences It is true that judgment against your evil works has not been executed hitherto; the flood of God's changed. Hooker was forced into early vengeance have been withheld; but your guilt in the retirement in England for his conspicuous The Undergraduate Review 55 preaching habits, but he was welcomed with shudder and even, on some level, question enthusiasm in early seventeenth century their own virtues and faith? The answer to America. He was a sternly orthodox preach­ that question lies in part in the inspiration er until his death in 1647, and while his of the original fervor of the ministers, but sermons were dominating and commanded more so in the basic elements of the sermons authority, Hooker did not lose his enthusias­ themselves. The Bible has changed very tic audience during his lifetime. little since it has come into existence, and Increase Mather entered the ministry for many Christians it is the physical core in the mid to late seventeenth century, and and foundation of faith and religion. For this was highly esteemed until his return from reason, biblical references used as explana­ England at the tum of the century. Though tions in the sermons have become the pillars he was never overthrown as a minister, which support the validity of these sermons. his power did lose momentum towards the As much as scholars can study the intentions end of his career. However, "he remained a of the ministers and dissect the dramatic commanding figure ...maintaining the prin­ exaggerations of their orations, readers are ciples of the founders to the last ditch, and still left with the original intended mes- yet moving with the times on at least some sage which begs for personal ownership, important questions" (Miller 335). Jonathan understanding, and acceptance. In this way, Edwards, on the other hand, lost much cred­ Thomas Hooker, Increase Mather, and ibility when he increased his radical style in Jonathan Edwards were successful in their order to restore the church's authority. He endeavors to force their audiences, through­ began his career at a prime time, in the early out time, to look at themselves through the eighteenth century, and for about fifteen critical eyes of God and reevaluate their vir­ years the public response was in his favor. tues and morality under this new light. The But in his later years his people were "tired emotional undertones of the sermons are of religious controversy and the hysteri- what draw the line between purely religious cal behavior of a few fanatics turned them sermons and sentimental literature. Since the against the spirit of revivalism" (Baym 465). sermons have become a source of study for For Edwards, the religious resurgence had generations and are still as effective as when come to an end, and his fanatical enthusi­ they were originally delivered, they have asm for the power of the church overstayed also become classics in the literary world. its welcome and eventually lost the sup­ Their unique combination of influential writ­ port of the people. So, in essence, the effect ing and dramatic effect has left little room of Edwards' sermons meant to inspire lost for creative interpretation of a message; it is momentum as he increased the dramatics. clear for all readers. However, the combina­ Breymer remarks, "It was when the drama tion of both literature and drama are neces­ of the performance directed the audience to sary for the full emphasis intended to be the truth of the message that God worked portrayed. In this way, Hooker, Mather, and his will on the souls of those he had chosen" Edwards not only broke down traditional (Breymer 5), and for Edwards, God was no barriers as religious fanatics, but were liter­ longer intervening in his favor. ary pioneers as well. One question remains to be explored in conclusion to the investigation of the true Works Cited intentions and stylistic modes of the Puritan Breymer, Francis & Ellen Rydell. "Performance Art? sermons: Why have they survived the test of Puritans in the Pulpit." History Today. 45.9 time, and why do they still cause readers to (1995): 50-55. 56 The Undergraduate Review

Edwards, Jonathan. "Sinners in the Hands of an An­ gry God." Norton Anthology ofAmerican Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. New York: Norton, 1979. 498-509. Gustafson, Sandra M. Eloquence is Power: Oratory & Performance in Early America. Virginia: University of North Carolina, 2000. Hooker, Thomas. "Wandering Thoughts." Excerpted from Miller and Johnson, eds. The Puritans: A Sourcebook ofTheir Writings. Vol. 1. New York: Harper and Row, 1963. 301-309. Mather, Increase. "Sleeping at Sermons." Excerpted from Miller and Johnson, eds. The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their Writings. Vol. 1. New York: Harper and Row, 1963. 348-350.