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Proquest Dissertations Dispossession to Democracy: Discovering the Historical Roots of Farm Attacks in South Africa, 1652-2008 by Barb Matthews Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2008 © Copyright by Barb Matthews, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43519-9 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43519-9 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) Table of Contents ABSTRACT vi GLOSSARY vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 1 Land Dispossession 5 Labour Exploitation 10 Violent Crime 16 Conclusion 21 CHAPTER TWO: COLONIALISM, DISPOSSESSION AND THE STRUGGLE OVERLAND, 1652-1913 22 Introduction 22 Cape Colony 24 The Great Trek and The Establishment of Natal 40 The Orange Free State and South African Republic (Transvaal) 47 The Anglo-Boer War and the Union of South Africa 52 Conclusion 57 CHAPTER THREE: SEGREGATION, APARTHEID AND THE STRUGGLE OVERLABOUR, 1913-1994 61 Introduction 61 Labour Exploitation in the Segregation Era 63 Labour Exploitation in the Apartheid Era 78 Violent Justice in the Apartheid Era 97 iv Conclusion 102 CHAPTER FOUR: RURAL REFORM IN DEMOCRATIC SOUTH AFRICA, 1994-2008 106 Introduction 106 Crime and Policing 108 ANC Campaigns as Potential Motives in Farm Attacks 117 Labour Issues as Potential Motives in Farm Attacks 121 Land Issues as Potential Motives in Farm Attacks 131 Conclusion 140 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION 143 BIBLIOGRAPHY 150 v Abstract One of the most shocking post-apartheid developments in South Africa is the drastic increase in violent crime directed against white farmers. This violence has come to be known as farm attacks, and has claimed the lives of almost two thousand white farmers since 1994. Many white farmers believe there is an orchestrated campaign aimed at pushing them off the land, while the Committee of Inquiry into Farm Attacks concluded that 90% of farm attacks are simple robberies. This thesis, however, pursues an historical approach to demonstrate that farm attacks are a symptom of complex social ills that have plagued South Africa's rural communities for centuries. Although farm attacks cannot be separated from the wave of violent crime that has engulfed South Africa, the historical importance of land dispossession and labour exploitation must be examined as motives in this rural violence if farm attacks are to be understood and combated. VI Glossary African: used in this thesis to describe the black population of South Africa. Coloured, Indian and white South Africans are excluded from this category. Afrikaner: the white population mainly of Dutch origin. This group spoke Afrikaans, Dutch or variations thereof. Boer: Afrikaners who lived in rural regions as stock farmers, cultivators and hunters. Burgher or Free Burgher: the colonists of Dutch origin who settled in the Cape Colony. Bushmen: an indigenous hunter-gatherer people who lived near the Cape of Good Hope at the time of the earliest European settlement. The Bushmen have also been known as the San, but Bushmen is the currently accepted terminology. Commando: militia units primarily comprised of white farmers and their servants. They are tasked with crime control in rural areas, and during the colonial and apartheid eras they were often used against African resistance and liberation movements. Khoikhoi (Khoi): an indigenous pastoral people who lived near the Cape of Good Hope at the time of the earliest European settlement. European settlers knew the Khoikhoi by the derogatory name Hottentots. Khoisan: a blanket term describing the Khoikhoi and Bushmen collectively. The term Khoisan indicates the difficulties in distinguishing between the Khoikhoi and the Bushmen in historical contexts. Mfecane: loosely defined as the socio-political changes and associated demographic turmoil and violence of the early nineteenth century in southern Africa, which were the result of a complex interaction between factors governed by the physical environment and local patterns of economic and political organisation. Sjambok: a heavy leather whip. Trekboer/Voertrekker: the Boers who left the Cape Colony in protest in the mid nineteenth century. These people established the colonies of Natal, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal). vn Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for its generous financial support. Special thanks also goes to Dr. Gary Kynoch for his guidance, expertise and encouragement. The author would also like to thank Dr. Philip Zachernuk and Dr. Theresa Ulicki for offering their counsel, despite demanding schedules. viii Chapter One: Introduction Yes, it is the dawn that has come. The titihoya wakes from sleep and goes about its work of forlorn crying. The sun tips with light the mountains oflngeli and East Griqualand. The great valley of the Umzimkulu is still in darkness, but the light will come there. Ndotsheni is still in darkness, but the light will come there also. For it is the dawn that has come, as it has come for a thousand centuries, never failing. But when that dawn will come, of our emancipation, from the fear of bondage and the bondage of fear, why, that is a secret. -Alan Paton1 Introduction Written in 1948, Alan Paton's haunting words continue to ring true in South Africa. Democracy has come to the nation, yet countless black South Africans await liberation from economic dependence and deprivation, while many white South Africans fear losing their jobs, homes and land to the newly emancipated black majority. To make matters worse, since Nelson Mandela's release from prison and the end of the ban on the African National Congress in 1990, the rate of violent crime targeting black and white alike has dramatically increased.2 In this respect, although South Africa has achieved democracy, innumerable South Africans continue to await emancipation from "the fear of bondage and the bondage of fear."3 This is particularly apparent on South Africa's farmland. In 2002, South African reporter Jonny Steinberg released a book entitled Midlands, which detailed the intricacies of the murder of one young white fanner named 1 Alan Paton, Cry. The Beloved Country (New York: Scribner, 2003), 312. 2 See Crime Wave: The South African Underworld and Its Foes, ed. Jonny Steinberg (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2001); and Diana Gordon, Transformation and Trouble: Crime. Justice, and Participation in Democratic South Africa (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2006). 3 Paton, Cry. The Beloved Country. 312. 1 Peter Mitchell in KwaZulu-Natal in 1999.4 At the request of the victim's father, Steinberg changed the names of people and places in his description of this particular murder; nevertheless, the details of his analysis effectively highlight the complexity of farm attacks. Peter Mitchell was twenty-eight years old when he was found murdered in his jeep on the dirt road between his father's farmhouse and the irrigation fields. His cell phone and wallet were left untouched, indicating that this was not a mere robbery. Furthermore, "no cartridges were left at the scene, no fingerprints, no cigarette butts from which DNA evidence could be extracted—an unusually professional operation for a rural murder."5 By dusk most of the white farmers in the district had visited the crime scene, and all were filled with an unusual sense of terror, as this was a new experience for them. "White farmers were not killed under apartheid. Not like this, at any rate. They were killed by jealous spouses, by disturbed neighbours and by crazed children. But never like this."6 To the white farmers of the district, this was a symbol of the political changes sweeping across the nation: [During apartheid] no black man entered the vast commercial farmlands to kill a member of a powerful white family. And on the handful of occasions when a crazy black man did kill a white, the police would comb the countryside with their fists and their electric shocks and they would get a confession.
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