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Continue In South African history, this article may require cleaning up in accordance with Wikipedia quality standards. The specific problem is to reduce the overall quality, especially the lead section. Please help improve this article if you can. (June 2019) (Find out how and when to remove this message template) Part of the series on the history of the weapons of the South African Precolonial Middle Stone Age Late Stone Age Bantu expansion kingdom mapungubwe Mutapa Kaditshwene Dutch colonization of the Dutch Cape of kaSenzangakhona kaSenzangakhona kaSenzangakhona kaMpande kaCetshwayo 1887 Annexation (British) British Colonization Colonia Colony Bur South African Orange Free Republic Bur War First Storm War Jameson Reid Second World War Union of South First World War of Legislation Internal Resistance to apartheid referendum after apartheid Mandela Presidency Motlante Presidency of the Presidency of the President zuma The theme of of invention and the opening of the Military History Political History Religious History Slavery Timeline portalv Part series on Culture People Languages English Ndebele North Soto Sowazi Swazi Tswana Tsonga Xhosa Zulus Kitchens Festivals Public Holidays Religion Literature Writers Music And Performing Arts Music Musicians Media Television Movie Sport Monuments World Heritage Symbols Flag Herba South Africa portalvte Historic statesin presentSouth Africa to 1600 Kingdom Mapungubwe (1050 -1270) Kingdom of Mutapa (1430-1760) 1600-1700 (1652-1795) 1700-1 (c.1780-1817) Ndwandwe (c.1780-1817) (1795) Graaff-Reine (1795-1796) Cape Colony (1795-1802) 1800-1850 Dutch Cape Colony (1802-1806) Cape Colony (1806- 1910) Waterboer Land (1813-1871) Kingdom of the zulus (1818-1897) Adam Kok Land (1825-1861) Winburgh (1836-1844) Sherstrame (1837-1837) 1848) Natalia Republic (1839-1843) 1850-1875 (1852-1902) Orange (1854-1902) Republic of Utrecht (1854-1858) Lee Republic of Greenburgh (1856-1860) (1861-1879) (1870-1880) Diggers' Republic (1870-1871) 18 75-1900 (1882-1885) Goshen (1882-1883) Nyeu Republic (1884-1888) Klein Vristat (1886-186-1888) 1891) 1900-present Cape Colony (1806-1910) Union (1910-1961) Transkay (1976-1994) Boputatswana (1977-1994) Venda (1979-1994) Siskey (1981-1994) Republic of South Africa (1961-present) South African FlagUseCivil and State Flag, and state ensignDesignThe ensignDesignThe South Africa was adopted on 27 April 1994. It replaced the flag that had been in use since 1928 and was chosen to represent multiculturalism and ethnic diversity in the country's new post-apartheid democratic society. It is believed that the first modern humans inhabited South Africa more than 100,000 years ago. The backstory of was divided into two phases based on broad models of technology, namely the Stone Age and the Iron Age. After the discovery of the ovminins in Taung and Australopithecus fossils in the limestone caves in Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, and Kromdraai these areas were collectively designated a World Heritage Site. The first inhabitants of southern Africa are collectively called Hoisan, Hoi-Hoi and San separately. These groups were displaced or sometimes absorbed by migrating Africans (Bantus) during the expansion of the Bantu from West and . While some retained the oblast, others were grouped into a category known as Colored, Multiracial Ethnic Group, which includes people with a common background from two or more of these groups: , Bantu, English, Africans, Austrones, East Asia and South Asians. European exploration of the African coast began in the 13th century, when Portugal pledged to open an alternative route to the Silk Road that would lead to China. In the 14th and 15th century, Portuguese explorers traveled along the West African coast, detailing the coastline, and in 1488 they skirted the Cape of Hope. The established a trading post in under the command of Jan van Rifik in 1652, European workers who settled on the cape, became known as Free Burgers and gradually established farms in the Dutch Cape colony. After the invasion of the Cape colony in 1795 and 1806, there were mass migrations, known collectively as the Great Way, during which the Voortrekers established several boeres on the inside of southern Africa. The discovery of diamonds and in the nineteenth century had a profound impact on the region's destiny, bringing it onto the world stage and introducing a transition from an exclusively agrarian economy to industrialization and urban infrastructure development. The discoveries also led to new conflicts, culminating in an open war between the Boer settlers and the , fighting mainly for control of the nascent South African industry. After the defeat of the in the Anglo-Boer or South African War (1899-1902) on 31 May 1910, under the South Africa Act of 1909, the Union of Southern Africa was established as the self-governing domination of the British Empire, which united four previously separate British : the Cape Colony, the , the and the Orange River The country became a fully sovereign nation state within the British Empire in 1934 after the passage of the Status of the Union Act. The came to an end on May 31, 1961, which was replaced by the Republic in a referendum of 1960, which legitimized the formation of the country as a republic. In 1948-1994, dominated South African politics. and white minority rule, officially known as apartheid, the African word meaning disjointed, was introduced in 1948. On 27 April 1994, after decades of armed struggle, terrorism and international opposition to apartheid, the African National Congress (ANC) won the country's first democratic elections. Since then, the African National Congress has ruled the country in alliance with the Communist Party and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. Early History (until 1652) Main article: Early history of the backstory of southern Africa Additional information: Hoisan, Hoisanid and Peopling African scientists, exploring periods before written historical records were made, established that the territory of what is now called as a whole as South Africa was one of the important centers of human evolution. It was inhabited by Australopithecus at least 2.5 million years ago. The modern human settlement occurred about 125,000 years ago in the Middle Stone Age, as evidenced by archaeological finds in the caves of the River Clasy. The first human habitation is related to a group of DNA originating in the northwestern part of southern Africa and is still common in indigenous coysan (Hoi and San). South Africa was later inhabited by Bantu-speaking people who migrated from the western region of Central Africa in the first centuries AD. In the Blombos Cave, Professor Raymond Dart discovered the skull of 2.51-year-old Taung Child in 1924, the first example of an Australopithecus African ever found. Following in Dart's footsteps, Robert Broome discovered a new much more reliable ovinid in 1938, Paranthropus robustus in Cromdra, and in 1947 discovered several more examples of Australopithecus African in Sterfontein. Further research in the Blombos Cave in 2002 found stones engraved with mesh patterns or cross-hatch, dating back about 70,000 years. This was interpreted as the earliest example of abstract art or symbolic art created by Homo sapiens. In recent decades, many other species of early hominids have become known. The oldest is Little Foot, a collection of legs of unknown homide aged between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, discovered in Sterkfontein by Ronald Clarke. An important recent finding was that 1.9 million years of australopithecus sediba, discovered in 2008. In 2015, the opening near earlier Homo was announced, called Homo naledi. It has been described as one of the most important paleontological discoveries of our time. San and Hoiho Hoisan demonstrate how to ignite a fire by rubbing sticks together. Descendants of the Middle Paleolithic are believed to be the aboriginal tribes of San and Hoiho. The settlement of southern Africa by Koisan's ancestors corresponds to the earliest division of populations of homo sapiens in general, associated in genetic science with what is described in scientific terms as the matriline haplogroup L0 (mtDNA) and the patrilineal haplogroup A (Y-DNA), originating in the northwestern part of southern Africa. San and Hoyha are grouped under the term Hoisan and are essentially distinguished only by their professions. While the sleds were hunter-gatherers, the hoyha were pastoralists. Hoyha's original origin remains uncertain. Archaeological finds of cattle bones on the Cape Peninsula indicate that Hoyhoy began to settle there about 2,000 years ago. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Portuguese sailors, who were the first Europeans on the cape, encountered cattle and cattle. Later, English and Dutch sailors exchanged metals for cattle and sheep on hoiha in the late 16th and 17th centuries. The traditional view is that the presence of livestock was one of the reasons why, in the mid-17th century, the Dutch East India Company established an intermediate location where the port city of Cape Town is now located. The establishment of an intermediate post by the Dutch East India Company on the Cape in 1652 soon led to a conflict between Hoyha and Dutch settlers over land ownership. This was followed by cattle rustling and cattle theft, with Hoyha was eventually driven from the peninsula by force, after a series of wars. The first Hoiho-Dutch war broke out in 1659, the second - in 1673, the third - in 1674- 1677. By the time they were defeated and pushed out of the Cape Peninsula and surrounding areas, the population of Hoihoy had been wiped out by a smallpox epidemic introduced by Dutch sailors, against whom the hoiha had no natural resistance or local medicines. Bantu People Looking at the Caught Mountains of the Luvuvuhu River (right) and the Limpopo River (far distance and left) The Buntu expansion was a major demographic movement in human backstory, sweeping much of the African continent during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC Bantu-speaking communities reached southern Africa from the Congo Basin as early as the 4th century BC. by forcing the original inhabitants of the region to move to more arid areas. (quote necessary) Some groups ancestral to the modern peoples of Nguni Sulu, Kyosa, Swaziland and Ndebele preferred to live near the east coast of modern southern Africa. Other peoples, now known as the Soto Tswana (Tshwana, Pedi and Soto) peoples, have settled in the interior of the plateau known as Heiveld, while the today's peoples of Wenda, Lemba and Tsonga have settled in the northeastern regions of present-day southern Africa. The Kingdom of Mapulubwe, located near the northern border of present-day southern Africa, at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers adjacent to present-day zimbabwe and , was the first indigenous kingdom in southern Africa between 900 and 1300 AD. It became the largest kingdom on the subcontinent before it was abandoned due to climate change in the 14th century. The Smiths created iron, copper and gold for both local decorative use and foreign trade. The kingdom controlled trade through East African ports to Arabia, India and China, as well as throughout southern Africa, making it rich by exchanging gold and ivory for imports such as Chinese porcelain and Persian glass beads. The specifics of contacts between Bantu-speaking and indigenous Hoisan ethnic group remain largely unexplored, although linguistic evidence of assimilation exists, since several southern Bantu languages (in particular, Khos and zulu) theorists are that they include many consonant clicks from Koisan languages, since the possibilities of such development are also self-valid. Colonization Portuguese Role See also: Portugal in the Era of Discovery, the Discovery of the Sea Route to India, Bartolomeu Diaz, Vasco da Gama, and the Portuguese Empire Statue of Bartolomeu Diaz at the High Commission of South Africa in London. He was the first European navigator to sail around the southernmost tip of Africa. Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Diaz was the first European to explore the coastline of southern Africa in 1488, trying to discover a trade route to the Far East through the southernmost cape of southern Africa, which he called Cape das Muchkas, which means Cape Storm. In November 1497, a fleet of Portuguese ships under the command of the Portuguese sailor Vasco da Gama rounded the . By December 16, the fleet had passed through the on the east coast of the country, where Diaz had previously turned back. Yes Gama gave the name Natal on the coast it passed that in Portuguese means Christmas. The Da Gama fleet proceeded north to zanzibar, then swam eastwards, eventually reaching India and opening the cape between Europe and Asia. The Dutch role This section needs to be expanded. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017) See also: in the , Maritime History of the Dutch East India Company, Dutch East India Company (VOC), First Dutch Indonesia, the Second Dutch to Indonesia, the Brouwer Route, and Jan Huyghen van Linschoten replica of the East Indies Dutch East India Company/United East India Company (VOC). The Dutch East India Company was one of the main forces behind the Golden Age of Dutch Intelligence (about 1590-) and Dutch cartography (about 1570-1670s). Dutch colonization (1652-1815) This section needs to be expanded. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017) Main article: Dutch Cape Colony See also: History of South Africa (1652-1815), Economic History of South Africa, Military History of South Africa, Hoiho-Dutch War, , Maritime History of dutch East India Company, Military History of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch Republic in the Era of Discovery See also: , , Swellendam, Graaff-Reineet, Franschhoek, in Southern Africa, , , African nationalism, Christianity in South Africa, African Calvinism, in Southern Africa, Cape of Dutch Architecture, Roman-Dutch Law, and South African Wine View of the Dining Room with Dutch Jan van Rifek, the first commander of the Dutch East India company Groot Constantia, the oldest winery in South Africa, was founded in 1685 by . The wine industry of Southern Africa (New World of Wine) is one of the enduring heritage of the VOC era. The recorded economic history of southern Africa began with the VOC period. The Dutch East India Company (in Dutch at the time: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) decided to establish a permanent settlement on the Cape in 1652. LOS, one of Europe's largest trading houses sailing along the spice route to the east, had no intention of colonizing the area, instead wanting only to establish a safe base camp where passing ships could take shelter and serve, and where hungry sailors could stock up on fresh supplies of meat, fruit and vegetables. To this end, on April 6, 1652, a small VOC expedition under the command of Jan van Ribek reached . LOS has settled on a promontory to supply its merchant ships. Hoyha stopped trading with the Dutch, and Cape and VOC had to import Dutch farmers to set up farms to supply passing ships and to supply the growing VOC settlement. A small initial group of free burghers, as these farmers are known, steadily increased and began to expand their farms further north and east into the territory of Hoihoi. The free burghers were former VOC soldiers and gardeners who were unable to return to Holland when their contracts were completed with VOC. Statue of Jan van Riefek, founder of Cape Town, in Heerengracht (Kasteel de Goede Hoop in Dutch), Cape Town. Founded officially in 1652, Kaapstad/Cape town is the oldest urban area in southern Africa. Most of the burgers were of Dutch origin and belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, but there were also Germans who were often Lutherans. In 1688, the Dutch and Germans were joined by the French Huguenots, who were Calvinist Protestants fleeing religious persecution in France under the Catholic ruler, King Louis XIV. Eventually, Van Riebeck and VOC began to make retreating servants from Hoyhoy and Sun. Descendants of alliances between Dutch settlers and slaves Koy San and Malay became officially known as Cape Colored and Cape Malay, respectively. A significant number of descendants of white and slave- owning unions were absorbed by local proto-Africans who speak white. The racially mixed family origin of many so-called was linked to race alliances on the promontory between the European occupation population and imported Asian and African slaves, indigenous Houthis and the San and their varietal offspring. Simon van der Stel, the first governor of the Dutch settlement known for his development of the lucrative South African wine industry, himself was of mixed racial origin. British Colonization, and Bur (1815-1910) British On Cape Home Article: British Cape Colony and History of South Africa (1815-1910) Rhodes Colossus- covering Cape to Cairo in 1787, shortly before the French Revolution, a faction in Dutch politics known as the Patriot Party tried to overthrow the regime of stadtholder William V. Although the uprising was suppressed, it was resurrected after the French invasion of the in 1794/1795, which resulted in stadtholder fleeing the country. Then the patriotic revolutionaries proclaimed the , which was closely associated with revolutionary France. In response, the stadtholder, who settled in England, issued Letters to Kew ordering the colonial governors to surrender to the British. The British captured the cape in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands. The cape was left back to the Dutch in 1803. In 1805, the British inherited the cape as a prize during the , recapturing the cape from the French-controlled Kingdom of Holland, which replaced the Batavian Republic. Like the Dutch before them, the British initially had little interest in the Cape colony, except as a strategically located port. Cape Articles The surrender of 1806 allowed the colony to preserve all their rights and privileges that they had enjoyed until now, and this launched South Africa on a diverging course from the rest of the British Empire, thus preserving Roman-Dutch law. British sovereignty of the region was recognized at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the Dutch accepted a payment of 6 million pounds for the colony. As one of their first tasks, they banned the use of the in 1806 with the aim of converting European settlers into a British language and culture. This had the effect of forcing more of the Dutch colonists to move (or march) from British administrative reach. Much later, in 1820, the British authorities persuaded some 5,000 Middle-class British immigrants (most of them in trade) to leave the UK. Many of the eventually settled in Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth. British policy towards southern Africa will fluctuate with successive , but the main imperative throughout the 19th century was to protect the strategic trade route to India, while insing as little as possible the cost of the colony. This goal was complicated by border conflicts with the Boers, which soon developed an aversion to British power. The European interior intelligence of Colonel of the Dutch East India Company was the first European, citing parts of the interior, commanding the Dutch garrison on the renamed Cape of Good Hope, from 1780 to 1795. Four expeditions Gordon undertook between 1777 and 1786 are recorded in a series of several hundred drawings, known collectively as the Atlas of Gordon, as well as in his journals, which were discovered only in 1964. The early relationship between the European settlers and The Xhos, the first Bantu they met when they ventured inwards, was peaceful. However, there was competition for land, and this tension led to skirmishes in the form of cattle raids since 1779. British explorers David Livingstone and William Oswell are believed to have been the first white men to cross the Kalahari Desert in 1849 when they left the missionary station in the northern Cape. The Royal Geographical Society later awarded Livingston a gold medal for the discovery of Lake Ngami in the desert. The main articles of the zulusian militarism and expansionism are: zulu and difacan This map illustrates the rise of the zulu empire under Shaka (1816-1828) in modern South Africa. The rise of the Shaki Empire led by Shaki forced other chiefs and clans to flee through a wide area of southern Africa. The clans that fled the war zone in zulu included Soshangan, Tsvangendaba, Ndebele, Hlubi, Ngwana and Mfeng. A number of clans have been caught between the zulus empire and the advancing Voortrekkers and the British Empire such as Xhosa. Teh the people are part of the Nguni tribe and were originally a minor clan in what is today is the northern Kwazulu-Natal, founded around 1709 by zulu kantombela. In the 1820s there was a time of great upheaval associated with the military expansion of the Kingdom of zulu, which replaced the original African clan system with kingdoms. Soto-speakers know this period as a dipacan (forced migration); The sulu-speakers call it mfekan (defeat). Various theories have been advanced for the causes of difakan, ranging from environmental factors and competition in the ivory trade. Another theory attributes the epicenter of the violence to the slave trade from delgoa Bay in , north of the city. Most historians recognize that Mfekan was not just a series of events caused by the founding of the kingdom of zulu, but by a host of factors caused before and after Shaka zulu came to power. In 1818, the Nguni tribes in the city established a militaristic kingdom between the and the Pongola River under the leadership of Shak Kazenzangahon, the son of the leader of the zulu clan. Shaka built large armies, tearing out of clan tradition, putting armies under the control of their own officers rather than hereditary chiefs. It then embarked on a large-scale programme of expansion, killing or enslavement of those who resisted in the territories he had conquered. His (the regiments of warriors) were strictly disciplined: failure in battle meant death. Shaka zulu, in the traditional military attire of the zulus, led to a massive movement of many tribes, which in turn tried to dominate the new territories, leading to large-scale wars and waves of displacement spreading throughout southern Africa and beyond. This has accelerated the formation of several new nation-states, in particular Soto (present-day ) and Swaziland (now Esvatini (formerly Swaziland). This led to the consolidation of groups such as Matebele, Mfeng and Makololo. In 1828, Shaka was killed by his brothers Dingaan and Umhlangan. The weaker and less experienced Dingaan became king, weakening military discipline, continuing despotism. Dingaan also tried to mend relations with British traders on the Natal coast, but events began to unfold that could see the demise of the independence of zulu. Estimates of the death toll from Mfecane range from 1 million to 2 million. The Burmese people and the republic's main article: The After 1806, a number of Dutch-speaking inhabitants of the Cape colony traveled inland, first in small groups. Eventually, in the 1830s, a large number of boers migrated to what became known as the Great Way. Among the initial reasons for their departure from the Cape colony was the rule of English. Religion was a very important aspect of settler culture and the Bible Church services were in Dutch. Similarly, schools, justice and trade before the arrival of the British, were all governed in Dutch. The language law has caused friction, mistrust and dissatisfaction. The story of the first trekboers Another reason for Dutch-speaking white farmers hiking from the cape was the abolition of slavery by the British on Emancipation Day, December 1, 1838. Farmers complained that they could not replace the labor of their slaves without losing excessive amounts of money. Farmers have invested large sums of capital in slaves. Owners who have purchased slaves on credit or put them as scum against loans face financial ruin. Britain has set aside a sum of 1,200,000 British pounds in compensation to Dutch settlers, provided that Dutch farmers have to file their claims in the UK, and the fact that the cost of slaves is many times greater than the amount allocated. This caused further discontent of the Dutch settlers. The settlers, incorrectly, believed that the administration of the Cape colony took money because of them as payment for the release of their slaves. Those settlers who were allocated money could only claim them in the UK in person or through an agent. The fee charged by agents is the same as that of one slave, so settlers claiming only one slave will receive nothing. The main article of the South African Republic: The flag of the South African Republic of the South African Republic, often referred to as the Virclair (meaning four-color) South African Republic (Dutch: Cuid-Afrikaans Republic or SAR, not to be confused with the much later Republic of South Africa), is often referred to as Transvaal and sometimes as the Republic of Transvaal. It was an independent and internationally recognized nation state in southern Africa from 1852 to 1902. The independent sovereignty of the republic was officially recognized by Great Britain with the signing of the on 17 January 1852. The Republic, led by , defeated British troops in the and remained independent until the end of the on 31 May 1902, when it was forced to surrender to the British. After this war, the territory of the South African Republic became known as the Transvaal Colony. The main article of the Free State Republic: Flag of the Republic of orange Free StateUnnable Brown Republic of the Orange Free State evolved from the colonial sovereignty of the Orange River of Great Britain, a violent presence of British troops that lasted from 1848 to 1854 in the territory between the rivers Orange and Waal, named Transoranj. Great Britain, because of the military burden imposed on it by the Crimean War in Europe, then withdrew its troops from the territory in 1854 where the territory, along with other parts of the region burs as an independent Boer republic, which they called the Orange Free State. In March 1858, after land disputes, a rustle of cattle and a series of raids and counter-raids, the Orange Free State declared war on the kingdom of Basoto, which it failed to defeat. Over the next 10 years, a series of wars took place between the Boers and the Basoto. The name Orange Free State was renamed the Orange River Colony, created by Great Britain after the latter occupied it in 1900 and then annexed it in 1902 during the Second Boer War. The colony, with an estimated population of less than 400,000 people in 1904, ceased to exist in 1910 when it was absorbed into the Union of Southern Africa as the Orange Province of the Free State. Natalia Main article: Natalia Republic Natalia was a short-lived Boer Republic, created in 1839 by Bur Voortrekkers, who emigrated from the Cape Colony. In 1824, a group of 25 men led by British Lieutenant F G Farewell came from the Cape colony and established a settlement on the northern shore of Natal Bay, which later became the port of , so named after Sir Benjamin d'Urban, governor of the Cape Colony. Bur-Vortrekkers founded the Republic of Natalia in 1838, with the capital in Petermaritzburg. On the night of 23 to 24 May 1842, British colonial troops attacked Camp Worthrecker in Congell. The attack failed, and British troops retreated back to Durban, which the storms besieged. Local merchant and his servant Ndongini, who later became folk heroes, were able to escape the blockade and drive to Grahamstown, 600 km (372.82 miles) in 14 days to raise British reinforcements. Reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later; the siege was broken, and the Vortreckers retreated. The Boers accepted the British annexation in 1844. Many of Natalia Burs, who refused to recognize British rule, went through the Mountains to settle in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republics. Cape Colony This section needs additional quotes to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message template) Main articles: Cape Colony and The Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope sir Harry Smith between 1847 and 1854, Sir Harry Smith, Governor and High Commissioner of the Cape Colony, annexed the territory far north of the original British and Dutch settlement. The expansion of Cape Smith's colony led to a conflict with the disgruntled boers in the Sovereignty of the Orange River, who in 1848 established a failed uprising in The Boomers, where the Boers were defeated by a detachment of cape horse-drawn rifles. The annexation also accelerated the war between colonial forces and the indigenous nation of Kyos Xhos 1850, in the eastern coastal region. Beginning in the mid-1800s, the Cape of Good Hope, which was then the largest state in southern Africa, began to move towards greater independence from Britain. In 1854 he received his first local elected legislature, Cape Parliament. In 1872, after a long political struggle, it reached a responsible government with a local accountable executive and prime minister. The Cape, however, nominally remained part of the British Empire, although in practice it was self-governing. Cape Colony was unusual in southern Africa in that its laws prohibit any on the basis of race and, unlike the Boer republics, elections are held under the non-racial Cape Skilled Franchise system, under which suffrage is applied everywhere, regardless of race. Initially, there was a period of strong economic growth and social development. However, Britain's ill-informed attempt to force the states of southern Africa to join the British federation led to ethnic tensions and the First Drilling War. Meanwhile, the discovery of diamonds around the Kimberley and gold in Transvaal led to a later return to instability, especially because they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious colonialist Cecil Rhodes. As prime minister of the Cape, Rhodes rolled back a multiracial franchise, and his expansionist policies laid the groundwork for the Second Boer War. By the end of 1847, after The British annexation of the former Boer Republic of Natalia, almost all the Boers had left their former republic, which the British renamed Natal. The role of The Boer settlers was replaced by subsidized British immigrants, of whom 5,000 arrived between 1849 and 1851. By 1860, when slavery was abolished in 1834, and after the annexation of Natal as a British colony in 1843, the British colonizers in Natal (now Kwazulu-Natal) had turned to India to address labour shortages. The men of the local nation of zulus warriors refused to take the slave post of workers. In the same year, the SS Truro arrived at the Port of Durban with more than 300 Indians on board. Over the next 50 years, another 150,000 Indian servants and workers arrived, as well as numerous free-to-let Indians, building a base for what would become india's largest community outside India. By 1893, when lawyer and public figure Mahatma arrived in Durban, the Indians outnumbered the whites in Natal. The civil rights struggle of the gandhi failed; prior to the advent of democracy in 1994, Indians in Home article: Griqua people Nikolaas Waterboer, Griqualand ruler, 1852-1896 By the late 1700s, the cape colony population grew to include a large number of mixed race so-called colored, which were descendants of extensive interracial relations between male Dutch settlers, Khoikhoi women, and slaves imported from the Dutch colonies in the East. Members of this mixed racial community formed the core of what was to become the people of Griqua. Led by a former slave named Adam Kok, these colored or (meaning mixed race or multiracial) as they were called the Dutch, began a trek north into the interior, through what is today called the Northern Cape. The Griquas trek to escape the influence of the Cape Colony was described as one of the great epics of the 19th century. They were joined by several San and Hoihoi Aboriginal people, local African tribes, and some white renegades. Around 1800, they began to cross the northern border, forming an orange river, eventually arriving in an uninhabited area, which they called Griqualand. In 1825, the Grikua faction was called by Dr. John Philip, superintendent of the London Missionary Society in South Africa, to move to a place called Filippolipolis, a missionary station in Sana'a, a few hundred miles southeast of Gricualand. Philip's intention was for the Griquas to defend the missionary station there against the bandits in the region, and as a bulwark against the movement north of the white settlers from the Cape colony. Friction between Griquas and settlers over land rights led to British troops being sent to the region in 1845. It marked the beginning of a nine-year British intervention in the region, which the British called Trans-Orange. In 1861, to avoid the inevitable prospect of colonization by the Cape colony or to come into conflict with the expanding Republic of the Orange Free State, most of Filippoli Grikuas went on a further campaign. They moved about 500 miles east, over the Quatlamba (now known as the Drakensberg Mountain Range), settling eventually in an area officially designated as Nomansland, which Griquas renamed Griqualand East. East Gricualand was subsequently annexed by Great Britain in 1874 and incorporated into the Cape colony in 1879. The original Griqualand, just north of the Orange River, was annexed by the British Cape colony and renamed Griqualand West after the discovery in 1871 of the world's richest diamond deposit in the Kimberley, named after the British colonial secretary Earl Kimberly. Despite the lack of formal boundaries surveyed, Griqua leader Nicholas Waterboer claimed that the diamond deposits were located on land owned by Griquas. Transvaal Boer Republics The Orange Free State also challenged land ownership, but Britain, as an outstanding force in the region, gained control of the disputed territory. In 1878, Waterboer led a failed uprising against the colonial authorities, for which he was arrested and briefly exiled. Cape Frontier Wars At the beginning of the South African wars, European perceptions of national borders and land ownership were unparalleled in African political culture. For the moshoeshoe chief BaSotho from Lesotho, it was usually a tribute in the form of horses and cattle represented by the adoption of land use under his rule. For both the Boers and British settlers, it was believed that the same form of tribute was the purchase and permanent ownership of land under independent authority. When British and Boer settlers began to set up permanent farms after marching across the country in search of basic farmland, they faced resistance from the local Bantu people, who originally migrated south from Central Africa hundreds of years ago. Subsequent border wars, known as the Kyosa Wars, were informally named by the British colonial authorities as the Wars. In southeastern southern Africa, the Boer and Kyosa collided along the Great Fish River, and in 1779 the first of nine border wars broke out. For nearly 100 years thereafter, Xhosa fought settlers sporadically, first by the Boers or the and then by the English. During the Fourth Frontier War, which lasted from 1811 to 1812, the British forced Kyosa to return across the Great Fish River and set up forts along the border. The growing economic participation of Britons in southern Africa since the 1820s, and especially after the discovery of the first diamonds in the Kimberley and Gold in Transvaal, has led to pressure on land and African labour, and has led to increasingly strained relations with African states. In 1818, differences between the two leaders of Zos, Ndambe and Ngkika, ended in the defeat of Ngkika, but the British continued to recognize Ngkiku as supreme leader. He turned to the British for help against Ndambe, who avenged in 1819 during the Fifth Border War, attacking the British colonial city of Grahamstown. The War Against king of the zulus Ketschwayo (circa 1875) In the eastern part of modern southern Africa, in a region called Natalia Boers, the latter made an agreement with King Zulu Dingane of the kasenzangahon, allowing the Boers to settle in the part of the then kingdom of zulu. This was followed by the rustling of cattle and a group of boers led by Pete Retifa was killed. After the assassination of The Party of Retifa, the Boers defended themselves against the attack of the zulus on the River Komke on December 16, 1838. It is estimated that five thousand zulus warriors were involved. The Boers took a defensive stance with the banks of the River Kome form a natural barrier in their rear with their bull wagons as barricades between themselves and the attacking army of zulu. About three thousand zulus warriors died in a clash known historically as the Battle of the Bloody River. In the later annexation of the kingdom of zulu by imperial Britain in 1879, the Anglo-Sulus War began. Following Lord Carnarvon's successful introduction of the federation in Canada, it was believed that similar political efforts, combined with military campaigns, could succeed with African kingdoms, tribal areas and Boer republics in southern Africa. In 1874, Sir Henry Bartle Frere was sent to South Africa as High Commissioner of the British Empire to bring such plans to life. Among the obstacles was the presence of the independent States of the Republic of South Africa and the Kingdom of Sululand and its army. Frere, on his own initiative, without the approval of the British government and with the intention of dispersing the war against zulu, on December 11, 1878, presented an ultimatum to the king of the Kutschwayo, to whom the king of the zulus could not fulfill it. Then Bartle Frere sent Lord Chelmsford to invade the sululand. The war is notable for several particularly bloody battles, including the overwhelming victory of the zulu at the Battle of Isandlwan, as well as a landmark in the chronology of in the region. The final defeat of great Britain from the zulus, marking the end of the independence of the zulu nation, was achieved with the help of zulu collaborators, who fueled cultural and political grievances against the centralized power of the zulus. The British then set about establishing large sugar plantations in the area, which is now called Kwazulu-Natal province. Wars with basoto-king Moshho with his advisers Since the 1830s, a number of white settlers from the Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and began to arrive in the fertile southern part of the territory known as the Lower Caledonian Valley, which was occupied by Basoto pastoralists under the rule of Basoto's founder, the monarch Mosho I. In 1845, a treaty was signed between the British colonists and Moshosho, who recognized the white settlement in the area. There were no clear borders between the white settlement area and the kingdom of Moshoso, leading to border clashes. Mosho's impression is that he is giving settlers grazing land in accordance with African occupation regulations rather than property, while settlers believe that they have been granted permanent land rights. African settlers, in particular, did not want to live under the rule of Moshuso and among Africans. The British, who at that time controlled the area between the Orange and Waal Rivers called the Orange River sovereignty, decided that a different border was needed, and proclaimed a line called the Line of the Guardian, between the British and Basotho territories. This led to a conflict between the Basoto and the British, who were defeated by the Moshosho warriors at the Battle of Viervoet in 1851. As punishment, the Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Cape Colony, Sir George Cathcart, deployed troops to the Mohokare River; Moshush was ordered to pay a fine. When he did not pay the fine in full, in 1852 a battle broke out on the Berea plateau, in which the British suffered heavy losses. In 1854, the British handed over the territory to the Boers by signing the Sand River Convention. This territory and others in the region then became the Republic of Orange Free State. From 1858 to 1868, a series of wars followed between the Kingdom of Basoto and the Republic of Burz of the Orange Free State. In subsequent battles, the Orange Free State unsuccessfully attempted to capture the mountain stronghold of Moshoso in Taba Bosio, while Soto raided the territories of the Free State. Both sides have adopted scorched-earth tactics, with large plots of herders and farmland being destroyed. Faced with famine, Moshoshho signed a peace treaty on 15 October 1858, although the most important border issues remained unresolved. The war broke out again in 1865. After an unsuccessful call for help from the British Empire, Moshosho signed the Treaty of Taba Bosio in 1866, with Basoto, boa constrictor of considerable territory to the Orange Free State. On March 12, 1868, the British Parliament declared the Kingdom of Basoto a British protectorate and part of the British Empire. Open fighting broke out between the Orange Free State and Basoto. The country was later named Basutoland and is now called Lesotho. Wars with the Ndebele Boer Voortrekkers depicted at the beginning of the artist's renditionIn 1836, when The Boer Voortrekkers (pioneers) arrived in northwestern modern south Africa, they came into conflict with the Ndebele subgroup that the settlers called Matabele, led by Chief Mzilziika. A series of battles followed, in which Mizilykazi was defeated. He left the area and led his people north to the Matabele region of southern Rhodesia (now zimbabwe). Other members of the Ndebele ethnic language group in various parts of the region also clashed with the Vortrekkers, especially in the area that later became Northern Transvaal. In September 1854, 28 28 28 20ors accused of rustling cattle were killed in three separate incidents by the Ndebela Chiefs' Union in Mokopa and Mankopana. Mokopane and his followers, anticipating retribution from settlers, retreated to the mountain caves known as Gwasa (or Makapansgat in Africa). At the end of October, the Bur , with the support of local collaborators of the Gatla tribe, besieged the caves. By the end about three weeks later, Mokopane and between 1,000 and 3,000 people died in the caves. The survivors were captured and allegedly enslaved. The Wars with Bapedi Bapedi, also known as the Sehuhun Wars, consisted of three separate campaigns between 1876 and 1879 against Bapedi under their reigning monarch, King Sehuhun I, in the northeastern region known as Sehuhunland, which borders Swaziland. Further friction was caused by Sehuhun's refusal to allow miners to seek gold in what he considered sovereign and independent under his rule. The First Sehuhum War of 1876 was fought by the Boers, and two separate campaigns of the Second Sehukhum War of 1878/1879 were conducted by the British. During the final campaign, Sekukuni (also spelled Sehuhun) and members of his entourage took refuge in a mountain cave, where he was cut off from food and water. He eventually surrendered on December 2, 1879, to the combined deputation of the Boers and British troops. Sehuhune, his family and some Bapedian generals were subsequently imprisoned in for two years, while Sehuhugenland became part of the Trans-Thailand Republic. No gold was found in the annexed area. The discovery of the diamonds of Cecil John Rhodes, co-founder of Consolidated Mines in the Kimberley First diamond discovery between 1866 and 1867 were alluvial, on the south bank of the Orange River. By 1869, diamonds had been found some distance from any creek or river, in a solid rock called the blue earth, later called kimberlite, after the mining town of Kimberley, where diamond excavations were concentrated. Excavations were located in the area of vague borders and challenged the ownership of the land. The claimants were the South African (Transvaal) Republic, the Orange Free State Republic and the mixed-race gricua country under the leadership of Nikolaas Waterboer. The Governor of Cape Colony, Sir Henry Barkley, persuaded all claimants to obey the arbitrator's decision, and robert W. Keith, Deputy Governor of Natal, was therefore asked to proceed with the arbitration proceedings. Keith gained ownership of Griquas. Waterboer, fearing conflict with the Brown Republic of the Orange Free State, subsequently asked for and received British protection. Griqualand then became a separate crown colony renamed West Griqualand in 1871, with the lieutenant general and the legislative council. The Royal Colony of Grikuland West was annexed to the Cape Colony in 1877 and adopted in 1880. No material benefits were accrued by Griquas as a result of colonization or annexation; they received no share of the diamond wealth obtained in the Kimberley. The community of Griqua became then dissimulated. By the 1870s and 1880s, the Kimberley mines produced 95% of the world's diamonds. Expanding search for gold other resources were financed by the wealth and practical experience of the Kimberley. The proceeds of the Kimberley diamond excavation in Cape Colony allowed Cape Colony to gain a responsible government status in 1872, as it was no longer dependent on the British Treasury and therefore allowed it to govern completely, similar to the Federation of Canada, New York and some Australian states. Wealth derived from diamond mining in the Kimberley effectively tripled the customs revenues of the Cape Colony from 1871 to 1875, also doubled the population and allowed it to expand its borders and railways in the north. In 1888, the British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes co-founded De Beers Consolidated Mines in the Kimberley, after purchasing and combining individual claims with the finances provided by the Rothschild dynasty. The abundant, cheap African workforce is central to the success of Kimberley diamond mining, as it would later also be to the success of at the . In some academia, it has been suggested that the wealth produced in the Kimberley was an important factor influencing The Scramble for Africa, in which the European powers by 1902 competed with each other in drawing arbitrary borders almost across the continent and dividing it among themselves. The opening of the golden main article: Witwatersrand Johannesburg before gold mining turned it into a bustling modern cityThe lot of tales abound, there is no conclusive evidence of who first discovered the gold or how it was originally discovered in the late 19th century on the Witwatersrand (meaning WhiteWater Ridge) from Transvaal. The discovery of gold in February 1886 on a farm called Langlaagte on the Witwatersrand, in particular, caused a gold rush of miners and fortune seekers from all over the world. With the exception of rare exposures, however, the major gold deposits over the years have been gradually covered by thousands of feet of hard rock. The search and mining fields far underground called for capital and engineering skills that will soon lead to deep levels of the Witwatersrand mine producing a quarter of the world's gold, with an instant city in Johannesburg emerging riding the main Witwatersrand gold reef. In the two years since the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand, four mining finance houses have been set up. The first was formed by Herman Eckstein in 1887, eventually becoming Rand Mines. Cecil Rhodes and Charles Rudd followed them, with their Golden Fields company. Rhodes and Rudd have previously made a fortune from diamond mining in the Kimberley. In 1895, the boom of gold mining stocks began in the Witwatersrand. The precious metal at the heart of international trade South African exports for decades to come. Of the 25 leading foreign industrialists who played an important role in the opening of deep-sea mining operations in the Vitwatersrand gold deposits, 15 were Jews, 11 of whom were from Germany or Austria, and nine of this latter category were also Jewish. The commercial opportunities opened by the discovery of gold attracted many other people of European Jewish origin. In 1880, the country's Jewish population was about 4,000; by 1914, it had grown to more than 40,000 people, mostly migrants from Lithuania. The working environment of the mines, meanwhile, as one historian described it, was dangerous, cruel and burdensome and therefore unpopular among local black Africans. The recruitment of black workers began to seem difficult, even with the suggestion of a pay rise. In mid-1903, only half of the 90,000 black workers who worked in the industry in mid-1899 remained. It was decided to start importing Chinese workers who were willing to work for much lower wages than local African workers. The first 1,000 Chinese workers arrived in June 1904. By January 1907, 53,000 Chinese workers were working at gold mines. First Anglo-Boer War Home article: First Boer War This section needs additional quotes to check. Please help improve this article by adding quotes to reliable sources. Non-sources of materials can be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message template) Regional geography during the Anglo-Boer Wars: The South African Republic/Transvaal Orange Free State British Cape Colony Natalia Republic Transvaal Boer was forcibly annexed by Great Britain in 1877, during Britain's attempt to consolidate the states of southern Africa under British rule. The long-standing Boer resentment escalated into a full-blown uprising in the Transvaals, and in 1880 the first Anglo-Boer War, also known as the Boer Rebellion, broke out. The conflict ended almost immediately after Boer's decisive victory at the Battle of Majuba (February 27, 1881). The Republic has regained its independence as the Republic of Cuid-Afrikaansce (South African Republic), or SAR. Paul Kruger, one of the leaders of the uprising, became president of the SAR in 1883. Meanwhile, the British, who viewed their defeat under Majuba as an aberration, made the desire of federal South African colonies and republics. In their view, this is the best way to accept the fact of the white African majority, as well as to promote their larger strategic interests in the area. (quote is necessary) The reason for the Anglo-Boer wars was attributed to the struggle for which country would control and great benefit from the gold mines of the Witwatersrand. The vast wealth of mines was in The hands of the European , controlled mainly by British foreign managers, mining engineers and technicians, characterized Byers as , i.e. foreigners. Foreigners objected to being denied parliamentary representation and the right to vote, and also complained about the Government's bureaucratic delays in issuing licences and permits, as well as general administrative incompetence on the part of the Government. In 1895, a convoy of mercenaries hired by Cecil John Rhodes's Rhodes Charter Company and led by Captain Leander Starr Jameson entered the SAR with the intention of provoking an uprising on the Witwatersrand and establishing a British administration there. The armed invasion became known as Jameson's Raid. It ended when the invading convoy was ambushed and captured by the Boer . President Kruger suspected that the rebels had received at least tacit approval from the Government of the Cape Colony under the leadership of Cecil John Rhodes, and that the South African Republic of Kruger faced imminent danger. Krueger reacted by creating an alliance with the neighboring Brown Republic of the Orange Free State. This did not prevent the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Boer War. Second Anglo-Boer War Home article: The Second Boer War Emily Hobhouse agitated against the appalling conditions of British concentration camps in southern Africa, thereby influencing British public opinion against the war. Renewed tensions between britain and the Boers peaked in 1899, when the British demanded the right to vote for 60,000 foreign whites in the Witwatersrand. Until then, President Paul Krueger's government had excluded all foreigners from the franchise. Krueger rejected the Uk's demand and called for the withdrawal of British troops outside the South African republic. When the British refused, Kruger declared war. This Second Anglo-Boer War, also known as the South African War, lasted longer than the first, when British troops were supplemented by colonial troops from southern Rhodesia, Canada, India, Australia, and New York. It is estimated that the total number of British and colonial troops stationed in southern Africa during the war exceeded the population of the two Boer republics by more than 150,000. By June 1900, Pretoria, the last of the major Boer cities, had surrendered. However, the resistance of the Boer (meaning those who will fight to the end) continued for another two years with guerrilla warfare, which the British met in turn with scorched earth tactics. The Storms continued to struggle. British suffragette Emily Hobhouse visited British concentration camps in southern Africa and produced a report condemning the appalling conditions in the country. By 1902, 26,000 borers and children had died in disease and neglect. The Anglo-Boer War affected the entire race South Africa. Blacks were called or otherwise coerced by both sides to work for them, either as combatants or as non-combatants to support the respective military efforts of both the Boers and the British. The official statistics of blacks killed in combat are inaccurate. Most of the bodies were dumped in unmarked graves. However, it was confirmed that 17,182 black people died mainly from disease in concentration camps on Cape Alone, but historically this figure is not a true reflection of the overall figures. Concentration camp inspectors will not always record the deaths of black prisoners in camps. From the beginning of hostilities in October 1899 until the signing of peace on 31 May 1902, the war claimed the lives of 22,000 Imperial soldiers and 7,000 republican fighters. In terms of the peace agreement known as the Treaty of Verinig, the Boer republics recognized British sovereignty, while the British in turn pledged reconstruction in the areas in which they were under their control. Union of Southern Africa (1910-1948) Main articles: The History of South Africa (1910-48) and the Union of Southern African , Government Administrative Center, Pretoria, c. 1925 In the years immediately after the Anglo-Boer Wars, Britain began to unite four colonies, including the former Boer Republics into a single self-governing country called the . This was achieved after several years of negotiations, when the South Africa Act of 1909 enshrined the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State into one nation. Under the provisions of the law, the Union became an independent Dominion of the British Empire, governed in accordance with the form of a constitutional monarchy, with the British monarchy in the person of the Governor-General. Prosecutions in the courts of the Union of South Africa were initiated on behalf of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. The British High Commissions of the Territories of Basutoland (now Lesotho), Bechuanaland (now Botswana), and Swaziland continued under direct rule from the UK. Among other harsh segregation laws, including the denial of voting rights to blacks, the Union Parliament passed the Indigenous Land Act of 1913, which provided only eight per cent of southern African land for black people. White people, who made up 20 percent of the population, occupied 90 percent of the land. The Land Act will be the cornerstone of legalized racial discrimination over the next nine decades. Daniel Francois Malan, leader of the National Party from 1934 to 1953, General Louis Botha led the first government of the new Union, and his deputy was General Jan Smuc. Their South African National Party, later known as the , or SAP, followed the generally pro-British white line More radical drills split led by General Barry Herzog, forming the National Party (PP) in 1914. The National Party defended the interests of Africans, advocating for the separate development of two white groups and independence from Great Britain. Dissatisfaction with British influence in the Affairs of the Union culminated in September 1914, when the poor Boers, anti-British Boers and bitter sellers began an uprising. The uprising was suppressed and at least one officer was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad. In 1924, the National Party, which was dominated by Afrikaner, came to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party. Africans, previously regarded as low-level Dutch patois, have replaced Dutch as the official language of the Union. English and Dutch became two official languages in 1925. After a referendum on 5 October 1960 in which a majority of white South Africans voted to leave the British Commonwealth unilaterally and establish a republic, the Union of Southern Africa. World War I main articles: Ian Smuts and the military history of the South African British Empire are red on the map, at its zenith in 1919. (India is highlighted in purple.) Between both halves of the Empire is South Africa, the lower center. At the beginning of World War I, South Africa joined Britain and the Allies against the German Empire. Both Prime Minister Louis Botha and Defence Minister Jan Smutsy were former generals of the Second Boer War who had previously fought against the British, but now they have become active and respected members of the Imperial War . Elements of the refused to fight against the Germans and along with other opponents of the government; they rebelled in an open rebellion known as the Maritsa Rebellion. On October 14, 1914, the government declared martial law, and forces loyal to the government under the command of Generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts defeated the uprising. Rebel leaders were prosecuted, fined and sentenced to six to seven years' imprisonment. Nearly 250,000 South Africans served in South African military units supporting the Allies during World War I. This included 43,000 in German southwest Africa and 30,000 on the Western Front. An estimated 3,000 South Africans have also joined the Royal Flying Corps. The total number of casualties among South Africans during the war was about 18,600. Allied military work helped the Allies by capturing two German colonies of German and German , as well as fighting in Western Europe and the Middle East. In July 1916, four battalions of the South African Brigade, attached to the 9th Scottish Division, suffered 766 casualties among the approximately 3,150 South African soldiers who fought at the Battle of Delville Wood, It was the most expensive road fought the South African Brigade on the Western Front. The death toll exceeded the number of wounded with a score of 4:1. Generals Smutsy (right) and Botha were members of the British Imperial Military Cabinet during World War I.Public opinion in South Africa was racially and ethnically divided. The British elements strongly supported the war, and formed by far the largest military component. Similarly, the Indian element (led by ) generally supported military action. The Afrikaners were divided, with some like Botha and Smuth taking a prominent lead in the British military effort. This position was rejected by many rural Africans who supported the Maritsa Rebellion. The trade union movement was divided. Many blacks in cities supported the war, expecting it to enhance their status in society. Others said it had nothing to do with fighting for their rights. The color element was generally favorable, and many served in the colored corps in East Africa and France, also hoping to better themselves after the war. At the request of the British military cabinet, 25,000 black South Africans were recruited to work as some kind of worker in the South African Indigenous Workers Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 of them were sent to France as stevedores in French ports, where they were housed in segregated complexes. A total of 616 men from the 5th Battalion SANLK drowned on 21 February 1917 when SS Mendy soldiers carrying them to France collided with another vessel near the Isle of Wight. The Mendy disaster was one of the worst tragedies of the Great War, second only to the Battle of Delville Wood. The South African government did not award a medal of military service to black servicemen, and a special medal issued by King George V to native troops who served the Empire, a bronze medal of the British War, was banned and not issued by SANLC. Blacks and mixed-race South Africans who supported the war were angry when, after the war, South Africa saw no weakening of white supremacy and racial segregation. The main economic role in this country was the country that provided two-thirds of the gold production in the British Empire, most of the remainder of the rest of Australia. When the war broke out, Bank of England officials worked with the South African government to block any gold shipments to Germany, and to force mine owners to sell only to the British Treasury, at prices set by the Treasury. This has facilitated the purchase of ammunition and food in the and neutral countries. During World War II, Simon's Harbor and a naval base in southern Africa were used by the Allies during World War II. During World War II, ports and harbours such as Cape Town, Durban and Simons Town, important strategic assets of the British Royal Navy. Top Secret Signals have played an important role in the early development and deployment of radio simulators and radar range technologies used to protect the vital coastal sea route around southern Africa. By August 1945, aircraft, in conjunction with British and Dutch aircraft stationed in southern Africa, intercepted 17 enemy ships, assisted 437 survivors of the wrecks, attacked 26 of the 36 enemy submarines operating off the South African coast, and carried out 15,000 coastal patrols. Some 334,000 South Africans volunteered for full military service in support of allies abroad. On 21 June 1942, some 9,000 South African soldiers representing a third of all South African forces on the ground were captured by German Field Marshal Rommel in the autumn in Tobruk, Libya. Several South African fighter pilots served with distinction in the Royal Air During the Battle of Britain, including the group's captain, Adolf , who led 74 squadrons and set a record for the personal destruction of 27 enemy aircraft. General Ian Smuths was the only important non-British general to be constantly sought by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Smuts was invited to the Imperial Military Cabinet in 1939 as the most senior South African, advocating for war. On May 28, 1941, Smuts was appointed Field Marshal of the British Army, becoming the first South African to receive the title. When the war ended, Smuets represented South Africa in San Francisco during the drafting of the United Nations Charter in May 1945. As in 1919, the Smutsy urged delegates to establish a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the League of Nations, the UN would have teeth. The Troubles also signed the Paris Peace Treaty, to settle peace in Europe, thus becoming the only signatories of both the treaty ending the First World War and the one that ended the second. Pro-German and pro-Nazi sentiments After the suppression of the failed, pro-German Revolt of Maritz during the South African campaign of World War I against German southwest Africa in 1914, The South African rebel General Mani Maritz fled to Spain. He returned in 1923, and continued to work for the Union of South Africa as a German spy for the Third Reich. In 1896, the German Kaiser Wilhelm angered Britain by sending congratulations to Republican leader Boer Paul Kruger after Kruger's commandos captured a convoy of British South African soldiers involved in an armed invasion and failed rebellion, known historically as The , into Boer territory. Germany was the main supplier of arms to the Boers during the followed the Anglo-Boer War. Kaiser Wilhelm Wilhelm Government for the two Boer republics to purchase modern Mauser rifles and millions of smokeless gunpowder cartridges. The German company Ludwig Loewe, later known as Deutsche Waffen-und Munitionfabriken, supplied 55,000 such rifles to the Boers in 1896. In the early 1940s, the pro-Nazi Movement Ossewa Brandwag (OB) became half a million strong, including future Prime Minister John Worster and Hendrick van den Berg, the future head of police intelligence. They were soon joined by anti-Semitic Boer Nation and other similar groups. When the war ended, Ob was one of the anti-parliamentary groups that had entered the National Party. South African African Weerstandsbeweging or AWB (meaning Afrikaner Resistance Movement), a militant neo-Nazi, a predominantly African white supremacist movement that emerged in the 1970s and was active until the mid-1990s, openly used a flag that very much resembled a swastika. In the early to mid-1990s, AWB tried unsuccessfully to disrupt the country's transition to democracy through various acts of public violence and intimidation. After the country's first multiracial democratic elections in 1994, a number of bombings were linked to the AVB. On 11 March 1994, several hundred members of the AWB joined the armed right-wing forces that invaded the nominally independent homeland of Boputatswana territory in a failed attempt to prop up its unpopular, conservative leader, . AWB leader Eugene Terre Blanche was killed by agricultural workers on April 3, 2010. Most politically moderate Africans were pragmatic and did not support ABB extremism. Play Media Encyclopedia Britannica documentary about South Africa from the 1956 apartheid era (1948-1994) The main article: Apartheid For the use of white faces - a sign of the apartheid-era racist legislation in the apartheid era was a continuation and extension of discriminatory and segregationist laws forming a continuum, which began in 1856, under Dutch rule on the cape, and continued throughout the country under British . Since 1948, successive national party administrations have formalized and expanded the existing system of racial discrimination and denial of human rights into the legal system of apartheid, which lasted until 1991. The key act of legislation at that time was the Citizens of the Motherland Act 1970. This law complemented the Indigenous Lands Act of 1913 by creating so-called homelands or nature reserves. It authorized the forced eviction of thousands of Africans from urban centres in southern Africa and south-west Africa (now Namibia) to what had become what had become the name of the Bantustans or original houses, as they were officially called, from the black tribes of southern Africa. The same south-west Africa, for which work continued to implement the league's controversial mandate after the First World War, was also applied. Apartheid apologists tried to justify the policy of homeland by referring to the partition of India in 1947, when the British did the same without causing international condemnation. The map of black homelands in south Africa at the end of apartheid in 1994.Although many important events took place during this period, apartheid remained the central linchpin around which most of the historical problems of the period revolved, including violent conflicts and the militarization of South African society. By 1987, total military expenditures amounted to about 28 per cent of the national budget. Since the uprising in 1976 and the security measures that accompanied it, the Joint Control Centers (JMCs), operating in at least 34 high-risk areas designated by the State, have become a key part of national security management. The police and military, which controlled the MLM by the mid-1980s, were empowered to make decisions at all levels, from the cabinet to the local government. The UN embargo of 16 December 1966, Resolution 2202 A (XXI) of the UN General Assembly, defined apartheid as a crime against humanity. The Apartheid Convention was reportedly adopted by the General Assembly on 30 November 1973, with 91 Member States voting in favour, four against (Portugal, South Africa, the and the United States) and 26 abstentions. The Convention came into force on 18 July 1976. On 23 October 1984, the UN Security Council approved this formal decision. The Convention proclaimed that apartheid was both illegal and criminal because it violated the Charter of the United Nations. On 12 November 1974, the General Assembly suspended South Africa from the United Nations. On 4 November 1977, the Security Council imposed a mandatory arms embargo in accordance with Resolution 181, calling on all States to stop selling and supplying arms, ammunition and military equipment to South Africa. The country will be re-represented at the UN only in 1994 after the transition to democracy. Apartheid in south Africa has responded to the UN arms embargo by strengthening its military ties with Israel and establishing its own arms industry with the help of Israel. Four hundred M-113A1 armoured personnel carriers and 106 mm recoilless rifles manufactured in the United States were delivered to South Africa via Israel. Extrajudicial killings In the mid-1980s, police and army death squads carried out state-sponsored killings of dissidents and activists. By mid-1987, the Human Rights Commission knew of at least 140 political assassinations in the country, while about 200 people had been killed by South African agents in the States. The exact number of all victims may never be known. Strict censorship prohibited journalists from reporting, filming or photographing such incidents, while the government launched its own secret disinformation program that provided distorted reports on extrajudicial killings. At the same time, state-sponsored vigilante groups have carried out violent attacks against communities and community leaders associated with the resistance to apartheid. The attacks were falsely attributed by the Government to black and black or factional violence in communities. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (HRC) later found that a secret, informal network of former or still serving army and police operatives, often working in conjunction with far-right elements, was involved in activities that could be construed as inciting violence and which led to gross human rights violations, including random and targeted killings. Between 1960 and 1994, according to statistics from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the was responsible for 4,500 deaths, the 2,700 and the ANC about 1,300. In early 2002, South African police prevented a planned military coup by a white supremacist movement known as ( Boer Force). Two dozen conspirators, including high-ranking South African army officers, were arrested on charges of treason and murder following a bomb attack in Soweto. The effectiveness of the police in disrupting the planned coup has reinforced public perception that the democratic order since 1994 is irreversible. (quote is necessary) At the end of its mandate in 2004, the RCN handed over to the National Prosecutor's Office (NPA) a list of 300 names of alleged criminals for investigation and prosecution by the NPA Priority Crime Unit. Fewer than a few criminal prosecutions have been instituted. The military operations in the frontline States also see: the border war and the Angolan civil war of the South African security forces in the second half of the apartheid era pursued a policy of destabilization of neighbouring States, support for opposition movements, sabotage operations and attacks on ANC bases and places of refuge for exiles in those States. These States, forming a regional alliance of South African States, have been named collectively by the front-line States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, zambia and, since 1980, zimbabwe. Members of the 44th Parachute Brigade patrolled during the border war in southern Africa. In early November 1975, just after Portugal granted independence to its former African colony of Angola, a civil war broke out between the rival MOVEMENTS UNITA and MPLA. In order to prevent the collapse of UNITA and consolidate the rule of a friendly government, government, On 23 October, between 1,500 and 2,000 troops from Namibia to southern Angola were deployed to combat MPLA. In response to the South African intervention, Cuba sent 18,000 soldiers as part of a large-scale military intervention called Operation Carlota in support of the MPL. Cuba initially provided 230 military advisers to MLA prior to the South African intervention. The Cuban intervention was decisive in helping to reverse the achievements of SADF and UNITA and consolidate the rule of MPLA in Angola. More than a decade later, 36,000 Cuban troops have been deployed throughout the country to help support the MLA's fight against UNITA. The Angolan civil war has resulted in 550,000 to 1,250,000 deaths, mostly from starvation. Most of the deaths occurred between 1992 and 1993 after the involvement of southern Africa and Cuba ceased. Between 1975 and 1988, SADF continued massive routine raids in Angola and zambia in order to dismantle the PLAN's reframe operational bases across the border from Namibia, as well as to support UNITA. Controversial bombings and airborne attacks carried out by 200 South African paratroopers on 4 May 1978 in Kassing in southern Angola resulted in the deaths of some 700 South Africans, including PLAN fighters and a large number of women and children. Col. Jan Breitenbach, commander of the Parachute Battalion, said he was recognized in Western military circles as the most successful airborne attack since World War II. The Angolan government described the target of the attack as a refugee camp. On 6 May 1978, the United Nations Security Council condemned South Africa for the attack. On 23 August 1981, South African troops re-entered Angola with the cooperation and support of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The Angolan army, resisting what it perceived as a South African invasion, was supported by a combination of Cuban forces and PLAN and ANC guerrillas armed with Soviet-supplied weapons. The apartheid-era military and political intelligence services, for their part, worked closely with American, British and West German intelligence services throughout the . However, the South African military has lost air superiority and its technological advantage, mainly because of the international arms embargo on the country. South Africa's participation in Angola officially ceased after the united Nations-brokered agreement, known as the New York Accords between the governments of Angola, Cuba and African withdrawal from south-west Africa (now Namibia), which the UN considers illegally occupied since 1966. In the 1980s, South Africa also provided logistical and other covert support to the Resist'ncia Nacional Mo'acanambia (RENAMO) rebels in neighbouring Mozambique, fighting with the FRELIMO Government during the civil war in Mozambique, and it launched cross-border raids in Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana, killing or capturing a number of South African exiles. Resistance to apartheid The picture of the in March 1960. The movement known as was formed in the 1950s, led by white war veterans who fought fascism in Europe and North Africa during World War II, only to find fascism on the rise in southern Africa when they returned home. With 250,000 paid members at the peak of its existence, it was the largest white protest movement in the country's history. By 1952, the brief flame of mass white radicalism had been extinguished when the Torch Commando disintegrated due to government legislation under the Communism Suppression Act, 1950. Some members of the Torch Commandos subsequently became leading figures in the armed wing of the banned African National Congress. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the country's resistance to apartheid took the form of predominantly passive resistance, partly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's pacifist ideology. Following the massacre of 69 peaceful demonstrators in Sharpeville in March 1960 and the subsequent declaration of a state of emergency and the banning of anti-apartheid parties, including the African National Congress (ANC), the Pan-African Congress (PAC) and the Communist Party of South Africa, the focus of national resistance was on armed struggle and clandestine activities. The armed wing of the UMhonto Veizwe (the acronym MK, that is, Spear of the Nation) declared the moral legitimacy of resorting to violence on the basis of the necessary defense and simply war. From the 1960s to 1989, the MK carried out numerous sabotages and attacks against soldiers and police officers. In 2003, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission noted that despite the ANC's stated policy of attacking only military and police installations, most of the victims of MK operations were civilians. The National Liberation Movement was divided in the early 1960s, when the African faction in the ANC objected to the alliance between the ANC and the Communist Party of South Africa. The leaders of the Communist Party of South Africa were mostly white. Africans broke away from the ANC to form the Pan-African Congress and its military wing named Poco, which became mainly in the provinces of Cape. Cape. In the early 1990s, Poco was renamed the People's Liberation Army (SPLA) of Azania. His clandestine cells carried out armed robberies in order to raise funds and obtain weapons and vehicles. In many of these robberies, civilians have been killed or injured. Attacks on white civilian targets in public places increased in 1993. APLA denied that the attacks were racist in nature, claiming that the attacks were directed against the apartheid Government because all whites, in the PAC's view, were complicit in apartheid policies. An attack on a Christian church in Cape Town in 1993 killed 11 people and injured 58. Hundreds of students and others who fled to neighbouring countries, particularly Botswana, to avoid arrest after the on 16 June 1976 provided fertile ground for the recruitment of an ANC and PAC military wings. The uprising was triggered by government legislation forcing African students to accept Africans as an official means of learning, with the support of the broader Black Consciousness Movement. The uprising spread across the country. By the time it was finally suppressed, hundreds of protesters had been shot dead and many injured or arrested by the police. In 1983, a non-racial coalition of the United Democratic Front (UDF) was formed, bringing together for the first time about 400 civil, church, student, trade union and other organizations. At its peak in 1987, UDF had about 700 branches and about 3,000,000 members. She pursued a nonviolent strategy known as ungovernability, including rent boycotts, student protests and strike campaigns. There was a strong relationship between the African National Congress (ANC) and the ADF, based on the general statement of the Charter of Freedom mission. After restrictions imposed on its activities, the UDF was replaced in 1988 by the Mass Democratic Movement, a free and amorphous alliance of anti-apartheid groups that had no permanent structure, clouding the ban on its activities. Between 1960 and 1990, a total of 130 political prisoners were hanged on the gallows of . The prisoners were mainly members of the Pan-African Congress and the United Democratic Front. The Post-Apartheid Period (1994-present) The main article: The History of South Africa (1994-present) by Frederick W. de Klerk and , two of the driving forces in ending the apartheid collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s meant the African National Congress (ANC) allied with the Communist Party of South Africa, could no longer depend on the Soviet Union for weapons and political support. It also meant that the apartheid government could no longer bind apartheid and supposed legitimacy with the protection of Christian values and civilization in the face of , which means a red danger or threat of communism. Both sides were forced to the table that resulted in the final repeal of all apartheid laws in June 1991, paving the way for the country's first multiracial democratic elections three years later. As the culmination of growing local and international opposition to apartheid in the 1980s, including armed struggle, mass civil unrest, economic and cultural sanctions by the international community, and pressure from the anti-apartheid movement around the world, President F.W. de Klerk announced the lifting of the ban on the African National Congress, the Pan-African Congress and the Communist Party, as well as the release of the political prisoner Nelson Mandela on February 2, 1990 after twenty-seven years in prison. In a referendum held on 17 March 1992, the white electorate voted 68 per cent for democracy. After lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the Convention on Democratic South Africa (CODESA), a draft constitution containing concessions to all parties was published on 26 July 1993: a federal system of regional legislatures, equal voting rights regardless of race and a bicameral legislature. From 26 to 29 April 1994, the South African population voted in the first general election under universal suffrage. The African National Congress won, ahead of the ruling National Party and the Inkath Freedom Party. The Democratic Party and the Pan-African Congress, in particular, formed a parliamentary opposition in the country's first non-racial parliament. Nelson Mandela was elected President on 9 May 1994 and formed a national unity government consisting of the ANC, the National Party and Inkatha. On 10 May 1994, Mandela was appointed as the new President in Pretoria, together with and F.W. De Klerk as his Vice-Presidents. The Government of National Unity ceased its work at the end of the first session of Parliament in 1999, and the ANC became the only party in power, while maintaining a strategic alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COATU) and the Communist Party of South Africa. After considerable debate and following the submissions of human rights groups, individuals and ordinary citizens, Parliament adopted a new Constitution and Bill of Rights in 1996. The death penalty had been abolished, land reform and redistribution policies had been implemented, and fair labour legislation had been enshrined. Emigration, debt burden and poverty The immediate post-apartheid period was marked by an exodus of skilled white South Africans amid security concerns related to crime. The South African Institute of Race Relations estimates that 800,000 or more white people, out of an estimated 4,000,000 people who were in south Africa when apartheid officially ended a year ago, emigrated in 2005. Big white diaspora, both English-speaking and African, have sprouted in Australia, New zealand, America, and especially in the United Kingdom, to which some 550,000 South Africans emigrated. The Apartheid Government declared a moratorium on the payment of external debt in the mid-1980s, when it declared a state of emergency amid escalating civil unrest. With the formal end of apartheid in 1994, the new democratic Government was saddled with an onerous external debt of 86,700,000,000 rubles ($14 million at current exchange rates) accrued by the former apartheid regime. A government devoid of cash after apartheid was forced to repay the debt or face a downgrade of the credit rating by foreign financial institutions. The debt was finally settled in September 2001. Another financial burden was imposed on the new post-apartheid Government, pledging to provide antiretroviral (ARV) treatment to the poor victims of the HIV/AIDS epidemic that has engulfed the country. The highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS was recorded in southern Africa compared to any other country in the world: 5,600,000 people were affected by the disease in 2011 and 270,000 HIV-related deaths in 2011. By then, more than 2,000,000 children had been orphaned by the epidemic. In 2011, 100,000 AIDS-related deaths were reported as a result of ARVs treatment, less than in 2005. The church in Greenmarket Square in Cape Town, South Africa, with a banner commemorating the Marikan massacre, continued to be a fundamental aspect of the South African mining industry, which employed half a million mostly black miners. Labor unrest in the industry led to a mass murder in mid-August 2012, when riot police shot dead 34 striking miners and wounded many others during the notorious . The incident has been widely criticized by the public, civil society organizations and religious leaders. The system of migrant workers was identified as the main cause of the unrest. Multinational mining corporations, including the Anglo-American Corporation, and Anglo Platinum, have been accused of failing to address the legacy of apartheid. By 2014, about 47% (mostly black) South Africans continued to live in poverty, making it one of the most unequal countries in the world. Widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of socio-economic transformation, government incompetence and non-scientificism, as well as other public grievances in the post-apartheid era, has provoked many violent protests. In 2007, less than half of the protests were related to some form of violence, compared to 2014, when almost 80% of the protests were violent by participants or The slow pace of change has also stoked tensions within the trilateral alliance between the ANC, the Communist Party and the South African Trade Union Congress. THE ANC rose to power on the basis of the socialist agenda freedom in the Charter of Freedom, which is intended to provide the basis for the ANC's social, economic and political policies. The Charter decreed that the national wealth of our country, the heritage of the South Africans, must be restored to the people; mineral wealth underground, banks and the monopoly industry are transferred to the property of the people. Anc icon Nelson Mandela, in a statement issued on 25 January 1990, stated: The nationalization of mines, banks and monopoly industries is an ANC policy, and changing or changing our views in this regard is unthinkable. But after the ANC's election victory in 1994, the eradication of mass poverty through nationalization was never implemented. Instead, the ANC-led government adopted neoliberalism in a historic reversal of policy. The wealth tax on the super-rich to finance development projects was deferred, while domestic and international corporations enriched by apartheid were exempt from any financial reparations. Large corporations were allowed to move their main lists abroad. According to a leading South African economics expert, the government's concessions to big business represent treacherous decisions that will haunt South Africa for generations to come. main article: Corruption in South Africa During the administration of President corruption in South Africa has also become a growing problem. The well-known corruption scandals surrounding this period included large-scale state takeovers, often related to allegations against the . They were also linked to corruption related to financial difficulties at some state-owned enterprises, such as and , which had a marked negative economic impact on the country's finances. Other corruption scandals related to this period included the collapse of VBS Mutual Bank and . The Commission of Inquiry was appointed during the presidency of to investigate allegations of a state-related corruption. See also: Xenophobia in post- apartheid south Africa has been marked by numerous outbreaks of xenophobic attacks on foreign migrants and asylum seekers from various conflict zones in Africa. A scientific study conducted in 2006 showed that South Africans showed a higher level of xenophobia than anywhere else in the world. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has found that competition for jobs, business opportunities, utilities and housing creates tension among refugees, asylum seekers, migrants and host communities, the main cause of xenophobic violence. In 2008, South Africa received more than 207,000 individual applications for asylum, and in 2009, another 222,300, which is almost almost four-fold increase for both years in 2007. These refugees and asylum-seekers came mainly from zimbabwe, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, , Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. After apartheid, heads of State, in accordance with the post-apartheid Constitution, the President is the head of both the State and the Government. The President is elected by the National Assembly and is serving a term that expires at the next general election. The president can serve a maximum of two terms. In the case of a vacancy, the Acting President is the Vice-President. President Term Of Office Political Party - Portrait of the Name took office Duration 1 Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) May 10, 1994 June 16 16, 1999 5 years, 37 days African National Congress 2 Thabo Mbeki (1942-) June 16, 1999 24 September 2008 (retired) 9 years, 9 years, 100 Days of African National Congress 3 (1949-) September 25, 2008 May 9, 2009 226 Days african National Congress 4 Jacob zuma (1942-) May 9, 2009 February 14, 2018 (retired) 8 years, 264 Days of African National Congress 5 Cyril Ramaphosa (1952-) 15 February 2018 Present 2 years, 241 days African National Congress See also History of Africa Scramble for Africa History of Cape Colony History Johannesburg History of the North Cape History of South African Wine Map of South African Presidents List of South African Prime Ministers List of South African Heads of State List Related to South Africa Topics Military History of South Africa Timeline of the Liberal Party in South Africa Years in South Africa History of Cities in South Africa : Cape Town history and chronology of Durban history and timeline of history and timeline of history and timeline of Port Elizabeth history and History and Timeline Links - Archive copy. 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The medium of ideal - public release document (formerly ): a think tank that influenced the policy of separate development in South Africa Full text of the UN Convention South Africa, 10 years later from the National Public Radio USA History: Useful Links. LibGides. Libraries of the University of Kwazulu-Natal. Registry. Archivalplatform.org Rondebosch. Archive from the original on October 5, 2017. Received on October 5, 2017. (Catalogue of South African archival and memorial institutions and organizations) Extracted from black south african history pdf. south african history black and white. south african black history books

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