I t' \ I I I Ii ,,0 YOU DON'T ..ff I} p Fro qt����:I;;��� , GET ANY '( 11 DEG 1996 ; I)l CLOSER � Nt\, THAN THIS uality. How is it achieved, how is it maintained and what do you do whenQ it comes under threat? Geoff McNamara, author of our many astronomy arti- cles, dropped into the office the other day for a chat about life, the universe and everything. He commented that he enjoyed writing for Nature Australia because of NATURAL KIND its quality. When people take pride and care in their work, always striving to do the best they can and never satisfied with less, then you get quality. But how do you maintain it when budgetary resb·aints and cost cutting demand that you sacrifice something in order to survive? The Ausb·alian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) is currently facing this dilem­ ma - having to cut quality programs in order to achieve the bottom line. As is too often the case, science will be one of the big losers, being left with even fewer vehi­ cles through which it can inform you of the latest in scientific research. The Ausb·alian Museum is to be applauded for its determination to provide an environ­ ment in which such a journal as this one can continue to excel. And most important of all, you, our loyal reader, must also be applauded for placing value in science

and the environment. Freycinet Lodge is This issue's Last Word by Professor Tasmania's award winning Eco Tourism Lodge, situated on Ian Lowe, "Censoring Scientific Results", Tasmania's beautiful East Coast inside Freycinet National Park. addresses another serious threat to sci­ Freycinet is truly Nature's playground, and ence, this time from within, that has we invite you to take part in our highly' acclaimed Eco Encounters, been borne out of an ever-shrinking Close Encounters of the Natural Kind - a program of exciting activities including: resource base. Spotted Handfish. f¥;. Whale watching The National Aeronautics and Space 6 Photographic workshops Administration (NASA) is also labouring under budget restrains. But thankfully � Diving they've embraced the World Wide Web, which is where we found the images to roTasmanian devil watching � Bush food encounters illustrate Geoffs latest article, "Did Martians Ever Exist?". We downloaded the � Ornithological encounters images, sent them off to the printer and you can check out the results on page 38. � Orchid encounters

Life after death? For a population of Perth Sand Monitors, a cemetery is the only Make Freycinet Lodge part of your place to live. Graham Thompson takes an interesting look at life among the head­ Tasmanian holiday itinerary There's so much to see and do, we can promise you - stones for these graveyard goannas on page 30. Dr Chris Dickman, on the other one day just won't be enough. For bookings phone 0362 57 0 IOI hand, has spent a great deal of time in arid Australia trapping small desert mam­ For more information and a free colour mals. By chance he happened upon a discovery that has major implications for the brochure, send your name and address to: Freycinet Lodge PO Box 225 conservation of these amazing mammals. Kings Meadows 7249 TASMANIA. Follow the trials and tribulations of our eucalypts overseas, meet the unusual Spotted Handfish, learn of the efforts to save our spectacular Richmond Birdwing Butterfly and, in so doing so, continue to support our determination to care about Freycinet Lodge FREYCINET NATIONAL PARK • COLES BAY quality and the importance of communicating science. A WORLD OF I -Jennifer Saunders ATURAL ACTIVITIES }

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 1 Articles

SUMMERNatur 1996-97 VOLUME 25 NUMBERe 7

Published by The Australian Museum Trust 6 College Street, Sydney, NSW 2000. Phone: (02) 9320 6000 Fax: (02) 9320 6073 Internet:jenny [email protected] Web: http://w ww.austmus.gov.au Trust President: Malcolm Long Museum Director: Desmond Griffin EDITOR Jennifer Saunders, B.Sc. CIENTIFIC EDITOR Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. PHOTO RESEARCHER Kate Lowe DESIGN AND PRODUCTION RICHMOND BIRDWING Watch This! Design The Birdwing Butterfly is one of our most spectacular and, PRINTING where it was once plentiful Excel Printing Company around Brisbane, it is now MARKETING AND SALES rarely, if ever, seen. But the Howard Dimond butterfly is no longer alone Phone: (02) 9320 6331 in its fightfor survival. BY DONSANDS ADVERTISING &SUESCOTI Phone: (02) 9320 6331 SUBSCRIPTIONS 24 Michelle Atzemis GOANNAS Phone: (02) 9320 6119 IN THE GRAVEYARD Toll-free (1800) 028 558 You may think that DID MARTIANS Fax: (02) 9320 6073 maintaining a population of EVER EXIST? Annual subscription (4 issues) goannas in a graveyard would The conditions are so right on Within Australia $A33 Other countries $A45 be dead easy, but it's not! Earth that life seems inevitable. Two-year subscription (8 issues) BY GRAHAM THOMPSON Yet Venus, Earth and Mars Within Australia $A63 Other countries $A83 all started out much the same. Three-year subscription (12 issues) 30 What made Earth different? Within Australia $A89 Other countries $A116 And was there ever New subscriptions can be made by credit card on the NATURE life on Mars? AUSTRALIAtoll-free hotline (1800) 028 558 or use U1e form in BY GEOFF McNAMARA this magazine. If it has been removed, send cheque, money order or credit card authorisation to the address above, made payable to the 'Australian Museum' in Australian currency. All 38 material appearing in NATURE AUSTRALIA is copyright. Reproduction in part or whole is not permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. Opinions expressed by U1e authors are their own and do not necessarily represent the policies or views of the Australian Museum. NATURE AUSTRALIA is printed on archival quality paper suitable for library collections. Published 1996 ISSN-1324-2598 @ NATURE AUSTRALIA (as ANH) is proud winner of the 1987, '88, '89, '90 , '91, '92 & '93 Whitley Awards for Best Periodical, and the 1988 & '90 Australian Heritage Awards. TREES OF THE FUTURE Front Cover Australia's eucalypts have been A close encounter planted extensively overseas. Fast growing and pest resistant, with one of the Sand they are thriving in many Monitors that inhabit countries. But are they miracle Karrakatta Cemetery, trees that should be welcomed, or demons that dry up and five kilometres west kill the land? of Perth's CBD. BY TIM LOW Photo by John Green. 46

2 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 VIEWSFROM THE FO U RTH DIMENSION TICKLING THE DULL OUT OF TAXONOMY What's wrong with a little humour in science? BY MICHAEL ARCHER 70 THE LAST WOR D

CENSORING SCIENCE Cost of Being Fat; Divining As funding dries up, science is Turtles; An Evolutionary Dead under threat, but this time it's End; Tent-pitching Bats; Quich from within. Quiz; Repellent and Sunbloch BY.IAN LOWE in One. 6 80 REVIEWS fishing apparatus stuch to the Columns Australian Birds of Prey; VAGRANTS top of its head. It also has the Mammals of the South-west IN THE DESERT dubious honour of being the Pacific and Moluccan Islands; In the struggle for survival first Australian marine fish to Mammals of New Guinea; in one of the driest places on be listed as 'endangered'. The Volcanic Earth; Attracting Frogs to your Garden. Earth, some of Australia's BY PETER R. LAST & small desert mammals have BARRY BRUCE adopted a simple but effective 72 strategy-when things get too 20 SOCIETY PAGE tough they leave. But how do Interested in nature but not they know where to go and just W I L D F O O D S sure what to do or where to go? how far are they capable of Nature Australia's Society Page travelling? THE AMAZING VOYAGES is a great place to start. OF SEA BEANS BY CHRIS R. DICKMAN The seeds of seashore plants 74 54 are among the world's most THE GUIDE remarhable travellers. These Nature Australia's hardy seafarers can set sail for marhet place. Regular Features up to two-and-a-half years and put down roots thousands of 76 hilometres from home. Q&A BY TIM LOW LETTERS Plant Laxatives; Nicotine Kills; 22 Cats Are a Problem; Avian Sex; PH OTOART Flora. 4 TASMANIA IN FOCUS Spectacular close-up photos of NATURE STRIPS a very special place- In a Flap Over Dinner; Lost Tasmania. and Lungless; Surfing Clams; BY JOE SHEMESH Hot Rex?; Careful Rex; Smohing or Non-smohing?; 64 Plants on the Warpath; The

THE BACKYARD NATU RA LIST WRENS THROUGH THE EYE OF A SCEPTIC Life around a septic tank may not suit everyone, but for a family of Superb Fairy-wrens it couldn't be sweeter. BY STEVE VAN DYCK 18

RARE & EN DANGERED SPOTTEDHANDFISH This curious bottom-dwelling When Wasps Meet; Tissue­ fishhas fins that resemble curling Spider; Pie Teaser. human hands, likes to 'walk' rather than swim and has a 78

NATUREAUSTRALIA SUM ME R 1996-97 3 tions the killing of small ani­ ting it for many years. I fin mals using tobacco juice the articles interesting a LETTERS (Nature Aust. Autumn 1996). appreciate the humour t Many years ago I was in the writers often show. And, The forum for readers to Kalahari catching snakes for course, it must be one of t air their views about their a museum so had to devise a highest quality magazine pr ductions anywhere in th concerns, past articles and method of killing them with­ out damaging them and also world. My grateful thanks fo interesting personal events. despatching them quickly many hours of pleasure. enough so they did not bite -Penelope Trusco me. As I thought about this Upper Beaconsfield, Vi problem I noticed my hus­ band puffing endlessly on his Cats Are a very smelly pipe and the Problem thought went through my I would like to comment o head that tobacco juice is the Last Word article title nicotine and is very poison­ "Cats: Scoundrels or Scap Plant Laxatives rather than clumping its ous stuff. Perhaps it could goats" by Tim Low in th seeds. I suspect that a laxa­ help. The very next snake I Autumn 1996 issue of Naturi In the Autumn 1996 issue Australia. of Nature Australia there was tive ingredient has evolved to caught I asked my bewil­ a Nature Strips article about produce this result. dered and somewhat put-out In his first paragraph Low a Costa Rican shrub that pro­ -Tim Low husband to give me his pre­ criticises campaigns against duces a laxative in its bird­ Chapel Hill, Qld cious pipe. I pulled it apart cats as wasting time and dispersed fruit, the first time and from the smelly icky encl aggravating cat owners. As such a phenomenon has Nicotine Kills I put a small drop of the for aggravating cat owners I been recorded. I have long I would like to comment on brown gunk on each of the say it's about time. As for believed that a southern your Nature Strips story snake's nostrils and waited to wasting time I say he could Australian shrub, the Nitre­ about the little Thorny Devil see what would happen. take a piece of his own advice. bush (Nitraria billardieri), (Nature Aust. Autumn 1996). Amazement! The snake was The article continues in the produces a laxative-laced Some years ago when I was dead! Instantly. After that, same vein, using illogical fruit. itrebush seeds are in the outback I was given killing snakes was a breeze logic to champion cats. One dispersed mainly by Emus one of them and kept it in a and it was no b·ouble getting would think the article was and at the beginning of the small box. The second day I the pipe from my husband as written by the President of r f uiting season as many as had her, she laid the biggest he knew it would be returned the Cat Society. 1,000 seeds may be excreted egg I have ever seen come unharmed in a few seconds. What about the statement in a single Emu dropping. out of so small a creature. I It is worth noting that, not "Enormous numbers of birds But as the fruiting season could not believe it possible even this dramatic demon­ are killed by pet cats in gar· advances, the Emus appear and she has earned my undy­ stration of the poisonous dens, it is true. But while this to develop diarrhoea, and ing admiration ever since. I nature of nicotine stopped may sound alarming, ecologi­ they leave a trail of individual still think of her egg-laying my husband from smoking cally there is nothing wrong seeds across the landscape. effort with amazement. or even slowed him clown. Nature Australia with it-predation is a fact of This must greatly benefit I was also most interested I love life"? Many birds and animals the Nitrebush, by scattering in the Q&A story that men- magazine and have been get- are just holding on in the urban environment and cats are just what is needed to fin· ish them off. There are many that will never return, such as fairy-wrens, pardalotes, shrike­ thrushes, yellow robins and ringtail possums. I speak from experience as this is what is happening in our area. It does not seem like much of a swap, fairy-wrens for cats. He is right about one thing, though. There is a lot of anger towards cats in the communi· ty and it will not go away until cat numbers are brought down to conb·ollable levels. It is a shame that your mag· ' azine gives comfort to cat owners when there are many reasonable people trying to do something about this enor· mous problem. -Norman Webb St Georges Basin, NSW

Whether or not cats are a , Do fruits of the Nitrebush contain a laxative to help Emus scatter their seeds? bigger problem than foxes Cane Toads or rabbits, is only

4 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 I Little Corellas (Cacatua sanguinea). Do they mate face to face?

of academic concern. The as a positive result, which have also been removed. I And members of a fact is, as a number of scien­ hopefully in the future will agree that biological controls fauna-flora club. tific surveys have shown, lead to acceptance for the use against cats would be desir­ they do prey on our native of biological controls for cats. able, but I don't believe politi­ My canopy would be fauna and therefore not only I therefore disagree with cians or the public will ever a cause for wonder compete with our native Tim Low's Last Word article condone this. And little light would predators but also threaten and urge that the negative -nm Low penetrate my door, species they prey on. It is campaign against cats (as Brisbane, Qld But following the flash conservatively estimated that well as other exotics) be and growl of thunder cats in Australia cull over 3.2 maintained. Governments I'd welcome rain to billion native animals per have been 'rabbiting' on for Avian Sex saturate my floor. year. many years about the prob­ New Zealand Stitchbirds One only has to compare lem of feral animals. It is time may not be the only birds to Eventually I'd be areas where cats, foxes and to stop 'pussy-footing' about copulate face to face (see an old growth forest rabbits have been excluded and develop good biological Nature Aust. Winter 1995). A flourish of the to observe the difference. controls that will 'out-fox' our While watching a mob of hun­ national estate, Reevesby Island, now free of feral pests. dreds of corellas on a sandy But in the meanwhile cats and rabbits, has a thriv­ -Peter Mirtschin bank adjacent to the Ord I supply the florist, ing population of the reintro­ Tanunda, SA River, I noticed numerous I've got a century or more duced endangered Greater occasions when one bird lay to wait! Stick-nest Rat. Both Warra­ I cannot understand how on its back with wings half -Len Green wong and Yookamurra sanc­ Norman Webb thinks cats kill extended while another bird Vaucluse, NSW tuaries, now free of cats, off tree-dwelling birds such as stood on top. After a short foxes and rabbits, have thriv­ shrike-thrushes. I hardly ever period, about 10-15 seconds, ing populations of small see cats high up in trees and, the top bird waddled off into NATURE AUSTRALIA welcomes endangered mammals such when I do, they look rather too the crowd while the lower letters for publication and clumsy to be stalking birds, bird righted itself and did the as bettongs, bandicoots, requests that they be limited to potoroos and Numbats and even sleeping birds. The idea same. Of course there may be are release sites for further is incomprehensible to me. some other explanation but it 250 words and typed if possible. introductions of other endan­ Aggressive currawongs or looked like they were mating Please supply a daytime tele­ Noisy Miners are more likely to me. gered species. phone number and type or print In contra� wifu our ind� to be the villains. There are -Robert Lethbridge ferent past, over recent years plenty of ringtails and Kununurra, WA your name and address clearly on we have seen vocal outrage pardalotes in my area, living the letter. The best letter in each among cats, and I know that expressed by many sections Flora issue will receive a $20.00 gift fairy-wrens do very well in When I grow up I want 1 of the community at the prob- some inner city suburbs. voucher from the Museum Shop 1 !ems caused by cats. This has to be a rainforest, resulted in a lowering of pub­ Peter Mirtschin does not Not just an ordinary catalogue. The winner this issue lic support for cats and a call provide a convincing case bush or scrub, is Penelope Truscott. against cats as he uses exam­ 1 for something to be done to My pride declared by control these pests. I see this ples where foxes (and rabbits) greens or some folk-lorist

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 5 for granted. It may come as surprise then to learn tha there are vertebrates (othe than fish, of course) that hav no lungs at all. One who! family of salamanders, th Plethodontidae, does com pletely without lungs, breath ing through their ski instead. COMPILED BY Now Ronald Nussbaum of the University of Michigan GEORGINA HICKEY and Mark Wilkinson of the University of Bristol have dis­ covered a new type of lung. less amphibian, and it's by far In a Flap Neumunster Zoo various that they must have caught the largest lungless tetrapod amounts of fish at 12° C, the around 100-200 grams of ever found. Atretochoana Over Dinner temperature they would be at fish. This figure turns out to eiselti is a caecilian, one of a ormorants and shags if caught in nature. He fed be the average catch for wild group of strange limbless (Phalacrocorax spp.) are other cormorants the same cormorants. amphibians found mainly in renownedC for their habit of amounts of fish warmed to So, how does the flapping the tropics. But A. eiselti is a holding out their wings and 40° C. He then observed the help digest cold fish? caeci!ian with a difference. flapping them as they perch post-feeding behaviour of the Gremillet suggests that, as Like snakes, most caecil­ on a rock or post. They do two groups. the birds flap, their wing ians have a well-developed this to dry their wings after a All the cold fish eaters muscles produce heat, which right lung and a left lung that swim, or so one line of think­ flapped but only 23 per cent in turn warms the fish in their may either be well developed, ing goes. Recent evidence of the warm fish eaters did. stomachs. Interestingly, flap­ smaller than the right lung or suggests, however, that this The cold fish eaters also ping also helps other cor­ absent altogether. Nussbaum behaviour has more to do flapped for longer-6.2 sec­ morants because it signals and Wilkinson decided to with digestion than drying. onds per gram of cold fish where the fish are. investigate the lungs of A. David Gremillet from the versus 1.8 seconds per gram -C.B. eiselti when they noticed that Institute for Marine Research of warm fish. the internal openings of the in Germany recognised that In a separate experiment, nostrils of the one known cormorants and shags flap Gremillet observed individ­ specimen were sealed. Most their wings afterfeeding. He ual wild cormorants spread­ Lost and caecilians inflate their lungs reasoned that flapping may ing and flapping their wings Lungless through their nostrils so the help a bird digest cold fish. for 10-20 minutes. He pre­ reathing is such an researchers knew something Gremillet tested the idea by dicted, using calculations Bunconscious act that we strange was going on. Sure feeding cormorants in based on his earlier findings, tend to take it, and our lungs, enough, it lacked lungs and

Wing-drying, or an aid to digestion? Why do perching cormorants, like this Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), flap their wings?

6 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 further study showed that it waves, these small clams comparing the motion of live A female caecilian (Schisto­ had a dense network of capil­ actively rode the waves and and dead clams after a falling metopum thomensis) from Sao laries close to the surface of even picked the biggest ones tide, however, Ellers showed Tome Island in the Gulf of Guinea the skin, a necessary feature to catch. that they were actively shortly after giving birth to three for animals that breathe With each tidal cycle migrating during both tides. young. This species, like all through their skin. Coquina Clams migrate up But how do they achieve other known caecilians (with the Unfortunately, the single and down the beach, main­ this movement? Ellers calls it exception of Atretochoana eiselt11 known museum specimen taining their position in the 'swash-riding'. As a wave has well-developed lungs. wasn't properly labelled so, region of the beach that is approaches, the clam jumps although they know it comes alternately exposed to air and out of the sand and into the clams were using the low-fre­ from somewhere in South inundated by the arriving flow, by pushing its shell quency sounds produced by America, Nussbaum and waves every few seconds. upwards with downward the collapsing waves to time Wilkinson don't know exactly Ellers wanted to know just thrusts of its foot. As the their jumps and that they where. The fact that it is very how much control the clams direction of the water jumped preferentially for the large (over 70 centimetres had over their migrations. changes, the clams dig in and loudest 20 per cent of the long), has a weird flattened Other workers had hypothes­ wait for another wave. They sounds. skull and lacks lungs sug­ ised that clams were eroded even know which waves to -G.T. gests that it lives in cool, fast­ from the sand by the falling catch, jumping out to ride flowing, well-oxygenated tide and had to ride the waves only the largest 20 per cent of upland streams, but as the of the rising tide to return to the waves. Experiments in specimen was probably col­ their preferred position. By the laboratory showed that Hot Rex? lected sometime in the sec­ dding fuel to the long­ ond half of last century and ,- ''-'ef Arunning debate about none has been collected whether Tyrannosaurus rex since, the chance of a living was hot or cold blooded, two specimen ever turning up is scientists have calculated slim. how heat was distributed -G.T. over the animal's body while it roamed the Earth. Using a near complete T Surfing Clams rex skeleton, Reese Barrick They may not wear lurid and William Showers from I shorts, nor speak an North Carolina State Uni­ impenetrable beach dialect, versity measured the relative nor even have arms for carry­ ratios of the oxygen-16 and � ing a board; but clams can oxygen-18 isotopes in the fos- - still surf. Olaf Ellers of Duke silised bones. From these '.3 University in North Carolina measurements they calculat- 1:; investigated the tidal migra­ ed which body parts were � tion of the Coquina Clam warmest: they found that T 8 (Donax variabilis) and found Millions of Coquina Clams jump out of the sand in advance of large rex had a fairly uniform body that, far from being passive incoming waves. A beach seemingly devoid of life one minute will be temperature, similar to a passengers on the tidal paved with clams a few seconds later. modern bird or mammal.

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 7 A fall for the king would have been lethal but at lower speeds T. rex would have had a chance to recover his footing.

This technique works on to be an active hunter inde­ Careful Rex researchers calculated that a the principle that the cooler pendent of outside tempera­ ver the decades the falling T rex would have hit the bone-water when the ture fluctuations. Oimage of Tyrannosaurus the ground with a force equal bones are formed, the more But just when you were rex has changed from a stupid to six times the acceleration oxygen-18 there is relative to finally convinced that T rex sluggish beast to a speedy due to gravity. The head, oxygen-16. This is because was warm blooded, resear­ terrorist. New research coming from a height of the atoms of oxygen-18 are chers in Oregon have looked demands this image be toned between three and five heavier and, as the phosphate up the snouts of some down however, because had metres, would have hit the is precipitated from the body ground even harder, with a fluids during growth, the less force over double that of the energetic oxygen-18 is The dinosaur would have had to rest of the body. It would have trapped. suffered further injuries from While this technique can­ trade off the benefits of running fast sliding along the ground, pro­ not reveal absolute body tem­ pelled by its own forward peratures because the water against the potentially lethal conse­ momentum. consumed by the animals Farlow says that a fall at affects the isotope ratios in any speed may have been the bone, the researchers say quences of falling at high speeds. lethal, but at high speeds that the overall body temper­ there would have been less ature variation for T rex time for T rex to recover its would have been less than dinosaur fossils and found the dinosaur fallen at high footing. He argues that the 4 ° C. Like modern mammals that they lack respiratory speed it would probably have dinosaur would have had to and birds, its feet were slight­ turbinates (or at least the been killed. trade off the benefits of run­ ly colder than its body core bony ridges to which they Palaeontologist James ning fast against the poten­ and the base of the tail slight­ would have been attached Farlow teamed up with physi­ tially lethal consequences of ly warmer than the end. to). Respiratory turbinates cist John Robinson (both £ailing at high speeds. Taking These results suggest that, are small scrolls of bone pos­ T rex's from Indiana-Purdue Uni­ calculations of leg bone while metabolism sessed by all warm-blooded versity) and Matt Smith, a strength and other factors may not have been as high as animals and used to eliminate specialist model-maker, to into consideration, Farlow that of modern birds or mam­ excess water loss. This sug­ T rex's mals, it was high enough to calculate the consequences of estimates top speed to gests that perhaps the a fall at high speeds. have been around 35 kilomet­ maintain body temperatures, dinosaurs, including T rex, T rex's unlike modern reptiles. This Estimating mass at res per hour, more than were cold-blooded after 6,000 kilograms and assum­ enough to catch most would have allowed T rex all...the debate continues. enough energy and stamina ing the tiny front legs could Cretaceous herbivores. -R.S. do little to break a fall, the -R.S.

8 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 FAR NORTH QUEENSLAND \BIRDWATCHING EXPERIENCE.

ase yourself at Silky Oaks ...... Day 1 D Lodge, the Daintree's Afrer being picked up at Cairns Ultimate Rainforest Resort" Airport in a chauffeur driven limousine, you'll have time to settle into your nd discover the birdlife and chalet at the Lodge, beforean early ,ildlife of theWet Tropics region evening briefing at the Lodge by our activities staff. f Far North Queensland. The _._ Day 2 eh diversityof habitatssurroundi ng Guided walk in search of the ie Lodge makes it the ideal base birdlife found aroundSilky Oaks Lodge. >r the birdwatching enthusiast Habitats inc. Rainforest, River, Open n.d we have sighted over 180 Eucalypt Woodland and the nearby Cane Fields. In the afternoon, Jecies within a 5km radius. ornithologist Del Richards will accompany you on your "Fine Feather" Tour of the Lowland Coastal areas �IRD SPECIE;i around Mossman. Day3 Southern Cassowary r� Join your Australian Natural Great-billed Heron History Safari to explore the secluded Mt Lewis World Heritage Region and Brahminy Kite the real Australian Outback of the Wompoo Fruit-Dove Mitchell River. This safari is lead by David Armbrust one of North Pied Imperial-Pigeon# Queensland's leading naturalist Guides. In the tradition of the world's great retreats, Silky Oaks has redefined the Daintree ex/Jerience. Double-eyed Fig-Parrot � Day4 Papuan Frogmouth Silky Oaks Lodge has won An early departure for Chris repeated acclaim as the Daimree's Buff-breasted Paradise­ Dahlberg's Morning River Cruise on ultimate rainforest resort. An the Daintree River. On this cruise idyllic retreat, where this rare Kingfisher # you'll see up to fifty different bird World Heritage wilderness is Atherton Scrubwren species as well as reptiles and the enjoyed in supreme comfort. occasional mammal. ilky Oaks is in the perfect Macleay's Honeyeater Q The Far North QueenslandBrrd Watching position to explore the tropical wonder of Far North ueensland. Pale-yellow Robin Experience really is a holiday with a From the oldest living rainforest on earth, to the Great Barrier difference. Packages are now available Reef, Port Douglas and the beauty of Cape Tribulation, it's all Pied Monarch fromjust $949* per person, twin share right here on your doorstep. Shining Flycatcher and feature all the following inclusions; Right now you can spend 3 nights at Silky Oaks for • 3 nights Chalet accommodation Yellow-breasted Boatbill $562.50* per person, twin at Silky Oaks Lodge. Victoria's Riflebird share, including a tropical • Tropical continental breakfasts. breakfast and a Wilderness Tooth-billed Bowerbird • Luxury Limousine transfersand to afari to Cape Tribulation The trip to Cape Tribulation features spectacularscenery. from Cairns Airport 1nc. I u d'111g a D a111tree . R'1ver C ru1se.. Golden Bowerbird • Lunch and Morning Tea on the For further information and bookings see your Travel Agent Blue-Faced Parrot-Finch# AustralianNatural History Safari. or call P&O Resorts on 132 469 or Silky Oaks direct on • All specialised birdwatching tours. 1-800-641363. *Offer valid to 1.4.96 to 31.3.97. • Reference books and binoculars supplied on loan for all specialised r------Please send me your free colour brochure. , tours. Name: ______01 (Tour sians in Cairns on Sunday and Thursday. We requ1re a minimum of 2 guests /Jer bookmg.) I Address ______� *Offer valid 1.4.96 IO 31.3.97. I : ______21 1------1 ____ P/Code: _____ For a full itinerary and booking I I S 5287 details, contact your Travel Agent DQ� � end to: GPO Box Sydney NSW 2001 or P&O Resort Holidays on I .J.-'-X.'--' � 1 132 469. I Resort Holidays The Daintree's ultimate I LP&O Resorts Pty Ltd A.C.N. 009 692 887 rainforest resort. .J -FROM P&O RESORTS ------Smoking or age germination in such Park and Botanic Gardens, The Red-and-Green Kangaroo Paw Non-smoking? species by simulating bush­ and Shauna Roche and (Anigozanthos manglesil) is one ushfires have been a fire heat in laboratories and John Pate from the Botany of many species whose seeds have recurring influence on glasshouses often fail. What Department of the University been shown to germinate in B response to 'cold' smoke. the evolution of the is it then about .fire that trig­ of Western Australia, reveal Australian flora for millions of gers development in the dor­ that, for many species, the years. In fact, the seeds of mant embryos of many answer is smoke. Further studies are needed to many native plants will ger­ Australian plants? In glasshouses, the re­ identify the chemical or minate only after a fire. Recent studies by Kingsley searcher exposed the seeds chemicals in smoke that trig­ Attempts, however, to encour- Dixon of West Perth's Kings of 94 species of Western ger germination. There are Australian plants to 'cold' indications already that smoke created by burning ammonia could be important. native vegetation. All of the -K.McG. plants tested had reputations for being difficult to grow from eed. However, smoke Plants on the treatment enhanced germi­ Warpath nation rates significantly in -rhe succulent plant 45 species used in the trial. I Bursera schlechtendalii Similar results were grow in arid and semi-arid achieved with other smoke parts of Mexico. This plant treatments. Germination doesn't give up its leaves to rates increased when seeds predators without a :fight. It were sown on filter paper squirts them with a sticky exposed to cold smoke or toxic concoction. Research by soaked with water through Judith Becerra of the which smoke had been bub­ University of Arizona shows bled. The re earchers also that the relationship between managed to b-igger germina­ this plant and one of its preda­ tion in some plants in the tors, the larvae of beetles in field by exposing small areas the genus Blepharida, is a of bushland to smoke with­ nail-biting adventure of attack out the heal of fire. and counterattack with losses The re ults of the on both sides. research will be critical for Plants use a number of nat­ the horticultural and nurs­ ural repellent chemicals to When a leaf from the succulent Mexican plant Bursera schlechtendalii ery production of many protect themselves from pre­ is broken, a high-pressure stream of toxic resin is squirted out. Australian native plants. dation. Some are well known,

10 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 REPTILE KEEPER'S •� HANDBOOK by Susan M. Barnar�� Orig.Ed. 1996 ::J � Trek ISBN 0-89464-933-7 264 pp. U.S. $64.35 Written by a professional zoo keeper, this handbook provides the reader with a practi­ cal, "hands-on" approach to the husbandry of reptiles, including venomous snakes. The wide variety of topics is presented concisely and in a manner that enables the reader to obtain the tropical information quickly. REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN VARIANTS: Colors, Patterns, and Scales by H. BernardBechtel summer. Orig. Ed. 1995 ISBN 0-89464-862-4 224 pp. U.S. $70.95 Dr. Bechtel's book is the first published on the subject of reptile and amphibian variations that occur naturally or through selective breeding. The text contains enough basic biology to help the reader understand the discussion of the storms, cozy rock shelters and the warm rains that make various mutations. bushwalking in the tropical summer such a delight. GECKOES: Biology, Husbandry, Kakadu and Reproduction by Friedrich-WilhelmHenkel & Join us on an 18-day Wolfgang Schmidt Orig. German Ed. 1991, expedition deep into the "-.Jo-....!"' translated by John Hackworth 1stEnglish Ed. 1995 wild heart of the park and ISBN 0-89464-919-1 252 pp. U.S. $54.45 This comprehensive survey of geckoes is the enjoy the incredible only book currently available in English views of Jim Jim and devoted exclusively to these unique and fascinating creatures. Geckoes, a rich and Twin Falls at their mon- diverse group of reptiles, have successfully adapted to a wide variety of climates and soonal best. habitats, and seldom present any problems if kept correctly. If that sounds too stren­ A GUIDE TO THE FROGS uous, join us on a series AND TOADS OF BELIZE of short 3-5 day walks, by John R. Meyer & Carol Farneti Foster Orig.Ed. 1996 highlighting beautiful ISBN 0-89464-963-9 96 pp. U.S. $26.95 The authors, both with extensive field experi­ areas that will remain ence in Belize and its environs, have com­ forever unknown to the piled the first guide to the frogs and toads of this region. This book describes species average tourist. encountered in Belize and nearby Mexico and Guatemala. Kimberley KALEIDOSCOPIC TREE BOAS: The Genus Coral/us of Tropical America by Peter J. Stafford & Robert W Henderson Orig.Ed. 1996 ISBN 0-89464-975-2 120 pp. U.S. $31.35 Kaleidoscopic Tree Boas covers the natural history and captive management of the ge­ nus Coral/us, a small group of highly adapted, typically tree-dwelling snakes from tropical America. Related to the "giants" of the snake world, such as the anacondas and pythons, their striking appearance and often exorbitant coloration have long made them popular sub­ Perhaps you'd like a variety of destinations. 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VIC: -R.S. mid-vein, the larvae get coat­ (Parus major) since 1950, a East Hawthorn R.A.O.U. 03-9882 2622 ed in the resin and are killed. period when the numbers of Melbourne · All Teds Camera Stores And even when the larvae its principal predator the 03-9600 0711 (Accipiter Divining · Melbourne Michaels Camera & Video are successful, the cost to Sparrowhawk 03-9670 0241 them is high. Becerra nisus) changed markedly. 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The freedom to see . prospect of their pond drying polarised light reflected from An Sleepy or Shingleback Lizard. up. Rebecca Yeomans of the a water body and orient Evolutionary Savannah River Ecology towards it, but such an ability Dead End (Tiliqua rugosa) attempting Laboratory in South Carolina has yet to be demonstrated. hile driving along to mate with a freshly road· decided to try to find out if Yeomans also suggested that Wthe South Australian killed female. Necrophilia is homeless turtles simply set the poor performance on wet coastline, not far from Arno rarely reported in reptiles, or out in a random direction in days may have been due to Bay, Robert Sharrad (Univer­ any other animals for that search of somewhere to live, rain interfering with other sity of South Australia) and matter. And not surprisingly, or whether they could some­ cues such as smell, sound or colleagues came across an since necrophilia is, quite lit· how detect water and would moisture gradients. unusual sight: a male Sleepy erally, an evolutionary dead orient towards it. -G.T. or Shingleback Lizard end. She released turtles at three sites to the north, south and west of a large pond­ well away from their home pond-with a spool of cotton thread attached to their shell. An hour later she followed the cotton trails to see which way the turtles had oriented. Yeomans found that on clear days a significant num­ ber of the turtles did in fact orient towards the water body. The release points were chosen such that vegetation or the terrain obscured the turtles' view of the pond, so what cues were they using to detect the water body? Orientation was found to be random on rainy or overcast days and Yeomans suggests that light may be an impor­ tant cue. When sunlight strikes a body of water the light waves tend to become oriented in one plane, an effect known as polarisation. Turtles may be able to detect Yellow-bellied Pond Sliders have a nose for water.

14 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 The internal temperature Kunz from Boston University of the dead female was in the United States, studied 34.5° C, which was within the tent construction by the normal temperature range of Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Cynop­ active individuals. It is thus terus sphinx). They found that reasonable to assume the these hard-working bats take male had not realised his between 30 and 50 days to partner was dead. And, construct their shelters, because Sleepy Lizards are which may consist of up to known to form strong lasting 300 severed stems. pairs year after year (see And why do they go to so Nature Aust. Spring 1996), much trouble? For the age­ perhaps the male was simply old reason of course: to reluctant to give his mate up attract females. Th e for dead. researcher� observations -G.H. support the idea that only sin­ gle males construct tents. Tent-pitching Tent building occurs twice a Bats year and coincides with the e've all heard of bats reproductive cycle of the Win the belfry but bats female bats. Soon after a tent in tents? In fact, 18 species of is built, pregnant females bats are known to construct move in. The males then various sorts of tents in defend these harems against leaves and other plant parts other males, especially just to roost in during the day. after the pups are born when Previous accounts of tent­ the females come into making were largely anec­ oestrus. dotal but now, for the first Some tents are apparently time, researchers have more attractive than others. caught one species of home­ Those with greater vertical makers in the act. length appear to be favoured Johnson Balasingh and by females, perhaps because John Koilraj from St John's these are easier for males to Short-nosed Fruit-bats in a tent shelter made from the severed stems of College in India, and Thomas defend. Females also like a Vernonia scandens.

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NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 15 Further Reading Balasingh, J., Koilraj,_ J. & Kunz, T.H 1995. Tent construction by the sh � nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sp;. · (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in south;nrn India. Ethology 100: 210-229.

Barrick, R.E. & Showers, W.J., 1994 Thermophysiology of Tyrannosaurus re· evidence from oxygen isotopes. Scien:e 265:222-224.

Becerra, J.X., 1994. Squirt-gun defense m Bursera and the chrysomelid co unter. ploy. Ecology75: 1991-1996. Dixon, K.W., Roche, S. & Pate J s 1995. The promotion effect of �m�k� derived from burnt native vegetation on seed germination of Western Australian plants. Oecologia 101:185-192. Ellers, 0., 1995. Behavioural control of swash-riding in the clam Donax vari­ abilis. Biol. Bull. 189: 120-127. Ellers, 0., 1995. Discrimination among wave-generated sounds by a swash-rid­ ing clam. Biol. Bull. 189: 128-137. Farlow, J.0., Smith, M.B. & Robinson, J.M., 1995. Body mass, bone "strength indicator," and cursorial potential of Tyrannosaurus rex. J. Vert. Paleonto/. 15(4): 713-725. Fischman, J., 1995. Were dinos cold­ blooded after all? The nose knows. Science 270: 735-736. An SEM photo of a five-millimetre Antarctic amphipod Hyperiella dilatata carrying the shell-less snail C/ione Gremillet, D., 1995. "Wing-drying" in antarctica. cormorants. J. Avian Biol. 16: 2. Gosier, A.G., Greenwood, J.J.D. & male that keeps his tent tidy, tents for several months. (Florida Institute of Tech­ Perrins, C., 1995. Predation risk and the pruning the new growth to Some of the tents had few nology) and Jim McClintock cost of being fat. Nature 377:621 -622. keep the enb·ance to the tent bats but one highly success­ (University of Alabama at clear. These insights came ful male actually had 19 Birmingham), first extracted Nussbaum, R.A. & Wilkinson, M., 1995. when researchers counted females living in his tent with the chemicals using solvents A new genus of lungless tetrapod:a rad­ the numbers of bats in six him, along with their pups. and, after mixing with fish ically divergent caecilian (Amphibia: Time to move to a bigger food, presented these Gymnophiona). Proc. R. Soc. Land. B 261: 331-335. QUICK QUIZ tent? 'seafood cocktails' to the amphipod's natural preda­ 1. What is a mihirung? -G.T. Sharrad, R.D., King, D.R. & Caimey, P.T., 2. How many years are tors. The solvent extract 1995. Necrophilia in Tiliqua rugosa: a there in a millenium? Repellent stopped the fish from feed­ dead end in evolution? West. Aust. 3. What happens during ing, indicating the presence Natur. 20(1): 33-34. a solar eclipse? and Sunblock of an anti-predatory agent. 4. Which has the biggest in One These compounds were Yeomans, S.R., 1995. Water-finding in testes: a Chimpanzee, everal )'.ea:s ago a five- to then purified using a tech­ adult turtles:random search or oriented Gorilla or Human? Sten-m 1111 metre-long nique called High Perform­ behaviour? Anim. Behav. 49:977 -987. 5. What do amphipod (Hyperiella dilata­ ance Liquid Chromatography, ta) was observed hijacking and the researchers were Yoshida, W.Y., Bryan, P.J., Baker, B.J. & myrmecophages eat? McClintock, J.B., 1995. Pteroenone: a 6. Name the sea between small shell-less snails (Clione able to identify the particular antarctica) defensive metabolite of the abducted New Zealand and and holding them chemical that caused the fish Antarctic pteropod Clione antarctica. f. Tasmania. firmly to its back. When the to stop feeding. The mole­ Org. Chem. 60: 780-782. 7. What are substances significance of this unusual cule, called pteroenone, was usually soaked in to relationship was investigated found to have a similar sb·uc­ form a tincture? it was found that amphipods ture to that of the ultra-violet Carrie Bengston (a science 8. Which geologist and carrying snails were rarely light-absorbing chemicals communicator for the CSIRO), Antarctic explorer is attacked by predatory fish, carried by some other plank­ Karen McGhee and Rachel depicted on Australia's while those that were snail­ tonic creatures. Sullivan (freelance science first $100 note? less, or that had dropped So, not only can the hijack­ theirs, were quickly eaten. ing amphipods zip through writers living in Sydney) and 9. Is a salamander a fish, Geordie Torr (a zoologist amphibian or reptile? Chemicals exuded by the the water column predator­ 10. What was Apatosaurus snail were analysed to deter­ free, but they don't even have at James Cook University) formerly known as? mine what made them so to worry about getting sun­ are regular contributors to (Answers in Q&A) unpalatable. The research burnt! Nature Strips. team, led by Bill Baker -R.S.

16 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 A Curious Natural History

TIMOTHY FRIDTJOF FLAN ERY

ROGER MARTIN

ALEXA DRA

Illustrated by PETER SCHOUTE breeding during the season has since been shown to be as large as abo THE BACKYARD NATURALIST ut on hectare), and in that space they wou[� chase insects, flutter across the clearing person fromone bush to another, and sit in long Not even the most despicably cold-hearted_ huddled rows where each would the sight and sound have a could fail to have his spirits lifted by gentle pick among its neighbour's feath. of a blue-bonneted male. ers. Not even the most despicably cold. hearted person in the street could fail to have his spirits lifted by the sight and THROUGH sound of a blue-bonneted male tinkling WRENS out his trilling call from the top of a frosty fence post in mid-winter. And in THE EYE OF the early spring when they went to nest it was the passionfruit growers wh� were rewarded with a bird's-eye vie w of A SCEPTIC all the nesting activities from one of their BY STEVEVAN DYCK back windows. In the past it was generally thought that the brilliantly coloured male Superb delights that the cock-tailed parties Fairy-wren lived the life of a sheik in a could bring, because when all the bl�ck­ harem of four to 12 homely looking berries were cleared, a rampant passion­ brown ladies. When it was demonstrated fruit vine was as close to heaven as a that each group actually contained but low-flying tom-tit could get. one reproductive female, pantheistic Each family of wrens patrolled over a nature-lovers breathed a collective sigh number of backyards (the area defended of relief...soon to be choked, however, by much more incriminating research CAN REMEMBER A TIME WHEN HAVING showing that adult males go on sneaky, Superb Fairy-wrens (Malurus cyaneus) sex-seeking sorties into adjacent terri­ in your Sydney backyard depended SUPERB FAIRY-WREN tories ('furgling raids'), carrying bright­ largely on what went into your septic Ma/urus cyaneus ly coloured flower petals to flummox the tank. This was during the housing boom soon-to-be cuckolded toms of other at the end of the '50s when Great Classification paddocks. Australian Dreams were becoming a Family Maluridae (Australo-Papuan In any group, those brown individuals, reality for many in the form of a £4,000, fairy-wrens, emu-wrens, grasswrens); apart from the one breeding female, are unpainted chamferboard home built on genus Malurus (fairy-wrens). none other than the pair's offspring of a mire-pit in the middle of a blackberry the previous year, or earlier in the cur­ patch. Identification rent season. This mixed-sex work force Depending on how level or rocky the Females always biscuit-brown with of uncoloured males and females is so block was, your state-of-the-art septic brownish white breast, brown tail, an ready to assist with their parents' efforts tank could be installed anywhere from orange ring around the eye, and red­ that, about three weeks after hatching 30 centimetres to an impressive three orange bill. Young males, during April to her eggs, the matriarch may actually metres out of the ground. Because they July, like females but with dark blue tail. move on to produce a new nest and a were all constructed by the same battle­ Males in breeding plumage (usually July new clutch in the knowledge that her fatigued builder, most backyards in our to March) have sky-blue cap, cheeks and wrenlets will be fed and protected by estate boasted a great exposed concrete saddle on a dark blue background; off­ their older siblings. In this way, two or silo churning with bugs unimaginable. white breast, black stripe through eye three nests of up tofour eggs each may From the top of the tank, a pipe as thick and no orange on shoulders; black bill. hatch out in a single breeding season. and stiff as a telegraph pole ran up to a Breeding plumage acquired earlier with The tolerance of the breeding female hole in the back of the house, where it age, some old males remaining blue for her teenage daughters is, however, connected within the bowels of the wall throughout the year. short-lived. The nesting jenny quickly to the WC. The span could be as much becomes jealous of her maturing female as four or five metres, and a view across Distribution and Habitat daughters at the beginning of the next the neighbours' backyards would show South-eastern Australia within 300 km breeding season. The old tom, which a whole garrison of tanks lined up for of the coast. Roughly from Brisbane to may be permanently blue after his war, their huge gun barrels propping up Adelaide and throughout Tasmania, in fourth year, is totally tolerant of his rela­ the houses-a monstrous collection of woodland, mangroves, grasslands, tively drab sons and, even when they flying buttresses rivalled only by the shrublands, parks and gardens. break into the more challenging full blue Cathedral of Notre Dame. breeding colours after their first year, he Some people, my parents included, Food is still long-suffering with their reluc· chose to leave their magnificent septic Insects and other small invertebrates. tance to leave the happy family. He does, arch unadorned. Others did a sensible however, quietly ensure his position of thing and covered the span with pas­ Life Cycle reproductive and hierarchical dominance sionfruit vines. Nurtured to an extent by Lays 3-4 eggs in small, neat by coming into breeding condition just a the fruity tricklings through which their domed/roofed nest of grasses, cobwebs, few weeks before the rest of the younger roots tiptoed, the vines grew and grew feathers etc. usually no higher than 1 m talent. until, in festoons, they covered both the from ground. Eggs hatch in 2 weeks, cauldron and the great pipe that fed it. So most of the daughters are driven young leave the nest at 2 weeks old, are away, and thereafter the sons, tolerated These were the backyards that got the independent after another 4-5 weeks. Superb Fairy-wrens, and these were the by both parents, form the body of the families to be rewarded with all the wet-nursing fraternity. The ousted females, hounded out of

18 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER !996-97 Members of a Superb Fairy-wren family southern cousin now appears to be feeding the young in the nest. creeping up along mangrove corridors and establishing itself in some Brisbane their mother's territory with as much A rampant passionfruit gardens. I sit among my geraniums twid­ vigour and flying spit as is meted out to dling my thumbs in nervous expectation those challenging reflections in car rear­ vine was as close to praying that, given the vagaries of fash­ vision mirrors, may fall prey to such ion and vogue living, the tide will turn predators as butcherbirds, snakes, cur­ heaven as a low-flying and above-ground septic tanks will again rawongs, goannas, kookaburras, rats become the in-thing. I, for one, will then and the occasional web-spinning spider. tom-tit could get. be ready to plant vines with a passion.• These same predators also take their share when the fledglings leave the nest Further Reading and begin their next phase of life flutter­ Rowley, I., 1965. The life history of the Superb Blue ing around on the ground. But the most Wren Ma/urus cyaneus. Emu 64: 251-297. infuriating and persistent suburban killer of Superb Fairy-wrens is the most significant predator on Wrens". Schodde, R., 1982. The fairy-wrens. Landsdowne domestic cat to which time and time Where I now live in south-eastern Editions: Melbourne. Queensland, Red-backed (Malurus again these Snugglepot-and-Cuddlepie Serventy, V.N. (ed.), 1982. The wrens and warblers of fairies lose their chicks. Ian Rowley, melanocephalus) and Variegated Fairy­ (M. Lamberti) Australia. Angus & Robertson and National responsible for so much of what is wrens are plentiful, Photographic Index: Sydney. known about wren behaviour from a although neither is as common to, or as long-term study at rural Gungahlin, tolerant of, suburbia as the Superb Steve Van Dyck is a Curator of Vertebrates Canberra, noted in 1965 "There is little Fairy-wren from a bit farther south. To at the Queensland Museum where he has doubt that the feral cat was by far the our great good fortune, however, the worked since 1975.

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 19 named and described in 1804, making i one of the earliest described fishes frorn Australia. There are only sporadic records of this handfish from the It was discovered by the French Derwent River in the 19th and early 20th explorer Peron, and formally centuries but, with the availability of SCUBA equipment in the 196Os, specj. named in 1804, making it one mens were recorded and the species of the earliest described fishes was considered common throughout its from Australia. range. During the last decade, however the Spotted Hand:fish has suffered a dra'. matic decline in distribution and abun. dance, and has only been reliably report­ ed from a few sites within the Derwent. SPOTTED The cause of the apparent reduction in Spotted Handfish numbers is uncertain however the timing and extent of th� HANDFISH decline coincides with the increase in abundance and spread of the introduced BY PETER R. LAST Northern Pacific Seastar (Asterias & BARRY BRUCE amurensis) into the Derwent system. This seastar (or 'starfish') was probably introduced from Japan via ships' ballast water, and is a voracious consumer of tion of the second dorsal fin above the invertebrates and anything else on the head. This fin is made up of two spines seabed, such as fish eggs. Although no connected by a membrane and, when direct evidence has been obtained, we raised, the handfish somewhat resem­ suspect the seastar has been decimating bles an American Indian chief in head­ Spotted Handfish numbers by eating the dress. eggs. Little is known about the biology of The female Spotted Handfish lays ANDFISHES BELONG TO THE handfishes. Indeed, all but three of the about 80-200 large eggs (approximately primitive anglerfish fam­ eight species are still formally undes­ four millimetres in diameter) that are ily (Brachionichthyidae) and are endem­ cribed. Handfishes mainly live on the held together in a bunch by fine threads ic to southern Australia. They are highly continental shelf, but some species live and attached to shells or small inverte­ unusual marine bottom-dwelling fishes only in deep water. Most of the inshore brates on the substrate. Spawning with a tadpole-shaped body and leg-like species have very restricted distribu­ appears to occur in late winter-early pectoral or side fins. The extremities of tions and are considered to be potential­ spring with the egg mass being guarded these fins resemble a human hand ly at risk due to their small population after spawning. Nothing is known about (hence their common name). Rather sizes. One such species, the Spotted the time of hatching, nor the dispersal than swim, handfishesprefer to 'walk' or Handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus), capabilities of the larvae. However, 'gallop' slowly over the bottom, using appears to have undergone a significant based on the low temperatures during these 'legs' and modified finger-like recent population decline and has the the spawning period and their large egg pelvic fins. dubious honour of being the first size, it is suspected that the period of Almost all of the anglerfishes have a Australian marine fish to be listed as incubation is drawn out, with larvae hatching at an advanced stage of devel­ opment and possibly with limited disper­ sal capabilities. Limited dispersal of lar­ vae is significant as it may restrict the ability of the species to repopulate its previous range without assistance, even if the cause of the decline (the seastar?) is removed. Research is needed to estab· lish the present range and numbers of the Spotted Handfish, evaluate the sus· pected cause of decline, and learn more of its reproductive requirements so that it can be bred in captivity. •

Further Reading Bruce, B.D. & Last, P.R., 1995. Threatened status of marine species: the spotted handfish (B. hirsutu�) and white shark ( Carcharodon carcharias) as case studies. In Proceedings of the 1995 Annual Conference of the Australian Society for Fish Biology. (Abstr.)

"' 'fishin� apparatus' or 'illicium' (actually 'endangered'. Last, P.R., Scott, E.O.G. & Talbot, F.H., 1983. Fishes of a modified dorsal-fin spine) with a fleshy The Tasmania. � _Spotted Hand:fish,which grows to Tasmanian Fisheries Development Authority. : 'lure' at the tip. This moveable structure a maximum length of 12 centimetres is Hobart. 15 is located on the snout and can be pro- confined to soft bottom habitats' of 152 jected forward over the mouth to attract !asmania's De,went River and adjoin­ Dr Peter R. Last is a fish taxonomist, an� � prey. Handfishes are distinguished from ing bays. It was discovered by the Barry Bruce a larval fish biologist, at th 1l: other anglerfishesby the form and posi- French explorer Peron, and formally CSJRO Division of Fisheries in Hobart.

20 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1995-97

sink Fruits bef�re �hey _. of the tree Parznarz glaberrzmum often fourn W I L D South acific from the P to northe�Yn Queensland, but never establish i Some kinds of seeds are so well Australia, probably because the seel die before completing their journey. s designed they can floatfor two­ :rropical beac� seed� soi:netimes ger. and-a-halfyears or more. mmate well outside their climatic range Sir Joseph Banks was once sent a draw: ing of a Nicker Nut plant grown in Ireland, and Matchbox Beans (Entada phaseoloides) cast up in New Zealand THE AMAZING have been germinated and grown in glasshouses. Nicker Nuts from the trop­ VOYAGES OF ics sometimes sprout on beaches in southern Queensland but the shrubs do not last long, probably because the tem. SEA BEANS perate winters are too cold. Because their seeds are such doughty travellers, seashore plants are often remarkably widespread. Many of the BY TIM LOW plants that characterise tropical

MONG THE MOST REMARK­ able of all world trav­ ellers are the seeds of seashore plants. Their voyages on the open oceans are the stuff of legends. Coconuts (Cocos nucifera) have found their way up to the fiords of chilly Norway, and Nicker Nuts (Caesalpinia bonduc) from the West Indies have crossed the North Atlantic Ocean to reach Spitzbergen, hundreds of kilometres inside the Arctic Circle. In Australia, tropical Nicker Nuts sometimes wash up on our southern shores, and one was collected on Macquarie Island in the sub-Antarctic. Coconuts have reached southern New South Wales and Western Victoria. Moreton Bay Chestnuts (Castanosper­ mum australe, produced by a riverine rainforest tree) have journeyed from eastern Australia to New Zealand. As well, our northern shores receive many international seed visitors from Asia and the South Pacific. Captains Cook and Bligh and other mariners found barna­ cle-encrusted Coconuts on northern beaches long before the palms were cul­ tivated here. Some of these Coconuts would have come from villages on the islands of Torres Strait, but others no doubt journeyed here from much fartheraway. Some kinds of seeds are so well designed they can float for two-and-a-half years or more, but eventually they lose ,. buoyancy. In deep-sea trenches near 3 Puerto Rico the sunken seeds of Sea � Almonds (Terminalia catappa) and man­ !§ groves have been found below 7,500 ii: metres of water. Seeds often die long

The largest pods in Australia are probably the enormous 'beans' of the Matchbox Bean, growing a metre or more long. The hard seeds were sometimes hollowed out to store matches, hence the name.

NATURE 1996-97 22 AUSTRALIA SUMMER ends. Columbus was supposedly driven Part of a prized collection of beach seeds, to discover America by the sight of sea­ gathered over a 12-month period at Cape borne Matchbox Beans. In 16th-century York. The smaller grey seeds are Nicker Nuts. Cornwall, sea seeds were attributed to underwater trees, and in the Hebrides in (Mucuna gigantea), Matchbox Bean and the 18th century, peasants wore Nicker Beach Bean (none of which is edible Nuts as amulets to ward off the evil eye. raw). Unripe Beach Beans were also a The Crucifixion Bean (Merremia dis­ food of Captain Cook during his sojourn coidesperma) was especially revered at Endeavour River, although tbe raw because of its cross-like pattern. seeds poisoned Governor Phillip near In Florida collection of beach seeds Botany Bay. became a serious hobby, and around the If you would like to know more about turn of the century some jewellers spec­ seashore seeds, consult the chapter on ialised in polishing the seeds-known flotsam in Alan and Joan Cribb's book as 'sea beans'-to a high lustre. In Plant life of the Great Barrier Reef and Australia, beachcombers often keep adjacent shores. These hardy travellers Matchbox Beans as souvenirs of tropical of the open oceans deserve our admira­ holidays. These giant beans, looking like tion and respect. Long may they sail the chocolate-coated biscuits, were the open seas.• remarkable oceanic travellers in David Attenborough's ''The Secret Life of Further Reading Plants". They are borne in dangling pods Cribb, A.B. & Cribb, J.W., 1985. Plant life of the Great So widely spread are the seeds of the up to 1.2 metres long. Barrier Reef and adjacent shores. University of Goat's-foot Convolvulus, it can be seen The floating seeds of seashore plants Queensland Press: Brisbane. growing on tropical and warm temperate are often very big-size being no barrier beaches throughout the world. The shoots to oceanic travel-and some contain Gunn, C.R. & Dennis, J.V., 1976. World guide to tropi­ and taproot of this creeper are edible. enough starch to be worth harvesting as cal drift seeds and fruits. Quadrangle/New York Times food. All around the tropics, Sea Book Co.: New York. Australian beaches, including Goat's­ Almonds and Coconuts are gathered and eaten. Coconuts, being one of the Mason, R., 1961. Dispersal of tropical seeds by ocean foot Convolvulus (Jpomoea pescaprae), currents. Nature 191: 408-409. Beach Bean (Canavalia rosea), Sea world's biggest seeds, are especially Fanflower (Scaevola taccada) and important, as a single seed is large Smith, J.M.B., 1991. Tropical drift disseminules on Nicker Nut can be seen on beaches enough for a meal. Aboriginal groups in southeast Australian beaches. Aust. Geograph. Studies throughout most of the tropics. The northern Australia exploited a wide 29: 355-369. tropical seashore flora is the most cos­ range of seashore seeds and pods, mopolitan in the world. including the Grey Mangrove Tim Low is a Brisbane-based environmental (Avicennia marina), Orange Mangrove writer and consultant with an interest in When such seeds appeared in Europe (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), seed dispersal. long ago, they inspired myths and leg- Velvet Bean

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 23 The favoured haunt of the adult Richmond Birdwing is the tree­ top canopy where they feed on the nectar of a variety offlowers.

EOPLE JN THE EASTERN STATES of Australia have become accustomed to seeing butter­ flies like the Orchard Swal- Blue lowtailP (Papilio aegeus) and t�e _ Triangle (Graphium sarpedon) m their gardens, but this wasn't always the cas�. Without exotic plants as food for their larvae, these butterflies would be far fewer, sustaining themselves only on native vegetation. However, many but­ terflies have not been so fortunate, hav­ d to ing caterpillars that are restricte_ native plants and bushland h_ab1tats. of Australian but­ Although no species _ terfly is known to be extmct, many local populations have disappeared and the survival of several is seriously threat­ ened. One such species, the Richmond Birdwing (Ornithoptera richmondia), has become much scarcer since European settlement, and particularly so during the last 15 years. This is the largest but­ terfly in subtropical eastern Australia, with the iridescent green and black males sporting wingspans of 13 cent­ imetres and the brown and white females up to 15 centimetres. In 1870, the Richmond Birdwing was reported to have occurred in large num­ bers in the streets of Brisbane but, by the 1920s, sightings near the city had become scarce. Today the Richmond Bird­ wing is only rarely seen in urban south­ eastern Queensland, RICHMOND and in national parks its numbers have declined markedly. Since the turn of the BIRDWING century its distribu- tion has shrunk by A male Richmond Birdwing butterfly. about two-thirds of its Richmond Birdwings are the largest BY DON SANDS & SUE SCOTT original range, with butterflies in subtropical eastern Australia only two areas con­ and males can have a wingspan of taining viable breed­ 13 centimetres. ing colonies. One occurs across the eastern border occurs either on steep slopes over between the Richmond River in New basaltic soils or on rich alluvial loams South Wales and Mount Tambourine in bordering rivers and streams. Area Queensland, and the other lies about 110 with such soils were eagerly sought for kilometres to the north between the agricultural purposes where most Glasshouse Mountains and Yandina in forests were cleared even on the Queensland. embankments of water courses, the The demise of the Richmond favoured sites for the vine and the Birdwing is mainly due to the decline in butterfly. abundance of the particular plants that At higher altitudes, mainly above 1, 000 provide food for the caterpillars. In metres, and only in the New South coastal regions and in ranges up to about Wales-Queensland Border Ranges, a 600 metres altitude, the Richmond second species of aristolochia vine, A Birdwing is dependent on Aristolochia deltantha var. laheyana, is an important praevenosa, a tough-leaved rainforest food plant for the caterpillars. This vine vine that can climb 20 metres into the is abundant on ridge tops where it is saf� canopy and originally occurred from from agricultural disturbance since it near Grafton in New South Wales to occurs mostly in national parks. It has Maryborough, Queensland. This vine slender stems that ramble in shrubs

7 24 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9 � � z 0 0

�::, 8

beneath the rainforest canopy and softer leaves than the coastal species. The tough leathery leaves of the coastal food plant, Aristolochia praevenosa, are unsuitable for feeding . by the newly hatched caterpillars. Only the first two or three leaves growing from the terminal shoot are soft enough for their minute mandibles. Starvation and even cannibalism among the cater­ pillars can be a common occurrence on A. praevenosa vines, especially during dry periods when the soft leaves are in short supply. By contrast the montane food plant, A. deltantha var. laheyana, although smaller, has softer leaves and can therefore support many more cater­ pillars. At Binna Burra Lodge, O'Reilly's "' Guest House and other localities in the 0 � Border Ranges, it is not uncommon to z 0 a: see ten or more adult birdwings in a day. 0 But the butterflies are not always abun­ � �::, dant in the mountains. Every three to 8 l seven years the mountain populations � disappear or become very scarce, A Richmond Birdwing in its pupal stage. \1

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 25 The favoured haunt of the adult Richmond Birdwing is the tree­ top canopy where they feed on the nectar of a variety offlowers.

EOPLE IN THE EASTERN STATES of Australia have become accustomed to seeing butter­ flies like the Orchard Swal- lowtail (Papilio aegeus) and t�e Blu_e Triangle (Graphium sarpedon) m their gardens, but this wasn't always the cas�. Without exotic plants as food for their larvae, these butterflies would be far fewer, sustaining themselves only on native vegetation. However, many but­ terflies have not been so fortunate, hav­ ing caterpillars that are restricted_ to native plants and bushland habitats. Although no species of Australian but­ terfly is known to be extinct, many local populations have di�appe�red and the survival of several 1s seriously threat­ ened. One such species, the Richmond Birdwing (Ornithoptera richmondia), has become much scarcer since European settlement, and particularly so during the last 15 years. This is the largest but­ terfly in subtropical eastern Australia, with the iridescent green and black males sporting wingspans of 13 cent­ imetres and the brown and white females up to 15 centimetres. In 1870, the Richmond Birdwing was reported to have occurred in large num­ bers in the streets of Brisbane but, by the 1920s, sightings near the city had become scarce. Today the Richmond Bird­ wing is only rarely seen in urban south­ eastern Queensland, RICHMOND and in national parks its numbers have declined markedly. Since the turn of the BIRDWING century its distribu­ tion has shrunk by A male Richmond Birdwing butterfly. about two-thirds of its Richmond Birdwings are the largest BY DON SANDS & SUE SCOTT original range, with butterflies in subtropical eastern Australia only two areas con­ and males can have a wingspan of taining viable breed­ 13 centimetres. ing colonies. One occurs across the eastern border occurs either on steep slopes over between the Richmond River in New basaltic soils or on rich alluvial loams South Wales and Mount Tambourine in bordering rivers and streams. Areas Queensland, and the other lies about 110 with such soils were eagerly sought for kilometres to the north between the agricultural purposes where most Glasshouse Mountains and Yandina in forests were cleared even on the Queensland. embankments of water courses, the The demise of the Richmond favoured sites for the vine and the Birdwing is mainly due to the decline in butterfly. abundance of the particular plants that At higher altitudes, mainly above l,00� provide food for the caterpillars. In metres, and only in the New Soutl coastal regions and in ranges up to about Wales-Queensland Border Ranges, a 600 metres altitude, the Richmond second species of aristolochia vine, A. Birdwing is dependent on Aristolochia deltantha var. laheyana, is an impor�nt praevenosa, a tough-leaved rainforest food plant for the caterpillars. T�i_s v�! vine that can climb 20 metres into the is abundant on ridge tops where 1� 1s s · canopy and originally occurred from from agricultural disturbance s111ce 1t h s near Grafton in New South Wales to occurs mostly in national parks. It � Maryborough, Queensland. This vine slender stems that ramble in shru s

24 7 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9

The Cairns Birdwing is the Richmond native vines, shrubs and trees, including the Sunshine Coast, and at Alstonville. Birdwing's closest relative but, unlike the Aristolochia Praevenosa, the Richmond School students are also assisting with Richmond Birdwing, it has not become scarce. Birdwing vine. These exotic vines need identifying insect pollinators from the to be removed from cultivation and dis­ flowers of aristolochias and in evaluating posed of carefully (not thrown into the a new version of the leaf penetrometer­ As HAS BEEN THE CASE WITH so bush!). a portable instrument for measuring leaf Mmuch of our native fauna, it is the The Richmond Birdwing Conser­ toughness, a critical factor affecting sur­ loss of habitat through clearing that has vation Project was set up to encourage vival of young caterpillars. Already a led to the butterfly's rarity, shrinking dis­ members of the community and school number of government departments and tribution and local extinction. But for the children to actively participate in arrest­ commercial organisations have indicat­ Richmond Birdwing another factor is ing the decline of the Richmond ed their willingness to help financially, threatening its survival: the introduced Birdwing. In 1992, the Balunyah recognising the importance of this pro­ Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia elegans). Nursery at Coraki, New South Wales, ject as a practical conservation project This vine, originally from South with the assistance of the New South for all members of the community.• America, is a popular garden climber. It Wales National Parks and Wildlife was cultivated for its large purple-veined, Service, began cultivating seedlings, cut­ Further Reading pipe-shaped flowers but has escaped to tings and seeds of A. praevenosa. To date Common, I.F.B.& Waterhouse, D.F., 1981. Butterflies of become a weed in forest reserves and more than 15,000 vines have been dis­ Australia. Angus & Robertson: Sydney. national parks. Female birdwings are tributed to retailers, community and con­ attracted by the plant's particularly servation groups, and schools for planti­ Sands, D.P.A., 1996. Birdwing blues. Wild/. Aust. strong odour and are stimulated to lay ng. Autumn 1996: 7-9. their eggs on its leaves. However, when The CSIRO's Double Helix Club the young caterpillars hatch and start to began coordinating the project in 1993. Sands, D.P.A., 1996. The threatened Richmond bird­ feed, they are poisoned by the plant's wing butterfly (Ornithopterarichmondia [Gray]): a com­ By combining the scientific and educa­ munity conservation project. Mem. Natl Mus. Vic. (in toxic compounds. The Dutchman's Pipe tional expertise of officers from the press). is also responsible for poisoning the CSIRO, New South Wales National caterpillars of the Cairns Birdwing as Parks and Wildlife Service and others, Dr Don Sands is a Senior Principal well as several other aristolochia-feeding school students and members of the Research Scientist with CSIRO's Division of butterflies in northern Queensland. community are now helping with Entomology in Brisbane where he studies Other exotic vines that threaten sur­ insect pests of tropical horticulture. He is research needed to ensure the survival also interested in taxonomy and conserva­ vival of the Birdwing Butterfly are morn­ of the Richmond Birdwing. More than tion of butterflies. Sue Scott is South-east ing glory (Ipomoea spp.), Madeira Vine 130 schools, hundreds of householders Queensland Double Helix Officer with (Anredera cordifolia) and Cat's Claw and many conservation groups are cur­ CSIRO's Education Programs. She is Creeper (Macfadyena unguis-cati). rently involved. Dispersing female bird­ involved in coordinating science activities These have also escaped from gardens, wings have already laid eggs on cultivat­ for local individual and school group mem­ become weeds and are now smothering ed vines near Brisbane, at Beerwah on bers of the club.

.,,C � z 0 C

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. . . invading the bush, the introduced Dutchman's Pipe vine threatens the Grown in gardens for its attractive purple pipe-shaped fl owers, and now survival of the Richmond Birdwing Butterfly.

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 29

F YOU SAW A PERSON WITH A THREE­ metre-long fishing rod crawling on hands and knees between the head stones in a metropolitan cemetery, youI could be excused for thinking some­ thing was seriously amiss. This, how­ ever, is the best way I know of catching large goannas in a graveyard. Catching goannas of any size, anywhere, is diffi­ cult and requires skill and cunning. These lizards are very wary, cryptic, have good eyesight, can run at great speed and are constantly vigilant against potential dangers. Twenty-four species of goannas (or monitor lizards, Varanus spp.) occur in Australia. Western Australia has 18 species, three of which-Rosenberg's Monitor CV. rosenbergi), the Black-head­ ed Monitor (V tristis) and Gould's Goanna or the Sand Monitor (V gouldii)-were apparently common on the Swan River coastal plain prior to settlement. Goannas still occur in the large urban conservation reserves in the Perth metropolitan area or in surround­ ing bushland but, with the development of roads, houses and formal parklands, sightings are becoming much less fre­ quent. If you are patient though, one place you can usually be guaranteed to see a goanna is in Karrakatta Cemetery. A sample of the 75 or so Sand Monitors that live in this area has been the subject of a four-year study of mine. Karrakatta Cemetery is located five kilometres west of the central business district of Perth. This 106-hectare site has been used as a burial ground since the late 19th century and, as a conse­ quence, almost all the original vegetation has been removed. Like most cemeter­ ies, graves are arranged in rectangular plots separated by bitumen or gravel tial prey or predators (humans, dogs, moves its head and neck slowly from roads. Before the cemetery was devel­ cats, raptors). The heat-absorbing, dark side to side, using its snout to shift the oped, it contained banksias and euca­ grey slabs also provide excellent sites on leaf litter while flicking its tongue in and lypts. Today, some areas have been land­ which to rest early in the morning while out. Like snakes, their very long forked scaped with a range of exotic shrubs and the lizards warm up. tongue is used to transfer odours into a trees, while others have been grassed Sand Monitors are seasonally active. sensory organ located in the roof of the and are surrounded by large and attrac­ They emerge from hibernation around mouth called the Jacobson's organ. The tive rose gardens. late September to early October, having front feet are used to scratch away the leaves or to dig into the ground for spi­ ders and small skinks, while their point· ed snout and sharp teeth are poised fora Sand Monitors were relatively abundant in the cemetery quick attack. In contrast to other large lizards, which are often herbivorous, Varanus in the late 1980s, although extremely difficult to find and most species are active pre_da· tors. Using a simple stomach-flushing technique I found that the Sand catch, given their wariness. Monitors at Karrakatta Cemetery feed largely on mole crickets (family Gryllotalpidae) with spiders and insect Sand Monitors were relatively abun­ spent the previous six months in a bur­ larvae being the next most abund�nt dant in the cemetery in the late 1980s, row some 70 or 80 centimetres under­ items on the menu. (No human remains although extremely difficult to find and ground. As you would expect, they are have been found in their diet!) catch, given their wariness. At the slight­ relatively thin, not having eaten since The number of goanna sightings �n est disturbance they retreat to holes that late March. During the first couple of Karrakatta Cemetery has decreased in they have dug under the stone grave cov­ days they remain near their holes, but recent years, suggesting that the overall ers, or into cracks in the slabs that have each day after that they move off in numbers decline. The rea· search of food and, presumably, mates. there are in resulted from soil subsidence. Grave son for this is unknown, but it may be covers provide excellent vantage points Sand Monitors exploit visual, olfactory due to the d grasses and auditory cues to detect prey. As a clearing of unwante from which these metre-long goannas and leaf the graves, can survey surrounding areas for poten- goanna approaches a patch of leaves, it litter from between which reduces the number of inverteb-

32 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 Sand Monitors in Karrakatta Cemetery dig their burrows under the broken stone or concrete grave covers on the loose sandy soil. Soil subsidence under these grave covers also provides a warm place where these goannas can locate prey items such as crickets, spiders and cockroaches.

rates available for foraging. The use of herbicide to kill unwanted plants may also directly affect goanna numbers, as a total of five adults have been found dead within one week of spraying oper­ ations over the last couple of years. To ensure the long-term survival of goannas in Karrakatta Cemetery requires a detailed knowledge of the species' biology. Apart from their diet, this includes information on such things as the size of their activity area, retreats, foraging sites, breeding behaviour and seasonal activity patterns. A series of studies has been undertaken since 1990 to collect data on these topics.

N THE FIRST STUDY, GOA AS WERE ,J I located early in the morning after � they had emerged from their overnight f- retreats and were basking in the sun on Karrakatta Cemetery, just five kilometres from Perth's CBD. )it NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 33 The exceedingly wary and generally unapproachable Sand Monitors in Karrakatta Cemetery use their excellent vision and an elevated position to detect the presence of people long before they themselves are observed.

the grave covers. During this perio d I SAND MONITOR found it easiest to stalk them by crawl­ Varanus gouldii ing on my hands and knees betweenthe graves. Once within noosing range, I Classification would gently place the noose over a Family Varanidae. Two recognised subspecies: V. g. gouldii (from continental Australia lizard's head and tighten it. Goannas ini­ except the arid interior) and V. g. flavirufus(arid interior of Australia). Also known as tially struggled but generally remained Gould's Goanna. calm and made no attempt to bite if held gently but firmly in two hands. Identification After being weighed, a fine spool of Large (up to 1.6 m) terrestrial lizard, with males generally larger than females. Colour white nylon thread was attached to the pattern and size vary across geographical range. Dorsal pattern a combination of black, base of each lizard's tail. At the point brown, yellow and greens making up numerous small circular patterns (ocelli), usually where the goanna was captured, the arranged in a transverse band. Dark temporal band extending back from behind eye. Tail free end of the thread was tied to a fixed laterally compressed, often with a yellow tip. object and the lizard released. I could determine the exact path the animal had Habitat and Distribution taken by following the unravelled nylon Widespread from coastal dunes to forests and sandy deserts. Found throughout most parts thread the following morning. These of continental Australia, except in the lower half of Vic., extreme southern section of NSW paths were then recorded onto a plan of and southern WA. Karrakatta Cemetery. During October and November, goan· Behaviour nas weighing less than 600 grams May dig own burrow, or shelter in hollow logs or burrows of other animals. Will retreat to travelled about 180 metres per day, trees if threatened or to forage. Eats lizards, small mammals and insects. while goannas (usually males) over 600 grams travelled much greater distances, Reproduction Breeding occurs during the wet season in northern Australia, and late spring and early The slope and east-facing orientation of most summer in southern Australia. Between 4 and 10 eggs laid once a year, either in a bur­ of the gravestones in Karrakatta Cemetery row or termite mound. Hatching occurs approximately 8-9 months after laying, depend­ provide an ideal basking site for Sand ing on incubation temperature. Body mass at hatching 15-20 grams. Monitors wanting to rapidly increase their body temperature when they first emerge from their burrows.

34 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97

lar season. By attaching a miniature radio-transmitter to the side of each goanna's tail just behind the back legs 1 was able to _monit?r the goa�n�s· loc'a. tions on a da1ly_bas1s. From this mforma­ tion I could estimate the total area occu. pied or visited over an .entire season. Four males with an average body mass of about 600 grams had activity ar eas of approximately 19 hectares, while six females with an average body mass of about 370 grams had activity areas of just two hectares. The difference between the size of activity areas may be related to either the sex or size of these goannas, or it could be a combination of both. The two largest males had activity areas of approximately 32 hectares. On a couple of days, these large males trav­ elled much greater distances than had been recorded during previous weeks of monitoring. This behaviour was proba­ bly associated with searching for mates, although females were never seen. During the spring--summer breeding season at Karrakatta Cemetery, male Sand Monitors follow scent trails released by females and probably ven­ ture well outside their normal activity area. Males also used a larger number of burrows than females during the breed­ ing season, which is probably associated with their larger activity areas. Activity areas overlapped and goannas were recorded retreating to overnight bur­ rows previously used by other goannas. On no occasion, however, did two goan­ nas use the same burrow overnight, although other researchers have found Rosenberg's Monitors sharing a burrow. The goannas at Karrakatta Cemetery appeared to have a good 'mental map' of their activity area. If, for example, they were swooped on by a Rainbow Bee­ eater (Merops ornatus) trying to protect its foraging site or nest hole dug into the sand, the goannas invariably took the shortest unobstructed route to a safe burrow. Similarly, goannas returned reg­ ularly to specific foraging sites used on previous days that, in some cases, were hundreds of metres from their burrow.

URI G SUMMER 1993-1994 MY D colleagues and I followed two goan­ nas over a period of six weeks to record To avoid detection, a basking Sand Monitor possibly in search of a mate. The goan­ their daily patterns of behaviour. will often quietly move around a headstone. nas each effectively foraged over an Goannas emerged in the morning, ge�­ average area of about 300 square metres erally between 6 and 9 a.m., poking their each day, focusing on areas that had an heads out from under a grave cover fo_r a accumulation of leaf litter on the ground. while before bringing their whole bo?1es The same one or two holes were used for out into the sun. They would then chmb thei� nightly retreats while foraging in a onto a grave cover, absorbing heat from particular area, but when the available the sun and from the dark coloured slab, source of prey was diminished, they to increase their body temperature fro1? would move off to a more productive around 15° C when they were in their area. burrow to about 37° C. This would nor­ Because their foraging areas changed every mally take between 15 and 30 minutes couple of days, it was important to depending on the ambient temperature. establish the total size of the area over which the Sand Monitors have a maximum body goannas foraged in a particu- temperature of around 44° C, but they

36 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 Sand Monitors show early signs of annoyance on their hind limbs and tail. Goannas foraging. A compromise has been adopt­ by inflating their neck (gular pouch) and also wag their tail like a dog. On one ed, whereby low-growing native shrubs abdomen and hissing. This is often followed occasion when a Sand Monitor was seen (such as bottlebrushes) are being plant­ by side-swipes of the tail, an erect posture or wagging its tail, it was busy chasing a ed in a number of areas and the leaf lit­ aggressive lunges with their mouth open. small skink in a patch of grass; on anoth­ ter underneath them is allowed to accu­ er occasion, a goanna approached to mulate. The shrubs, while being an within about three metres of an observ­ attractive addition to the cemetery, pro­ probably cannot sustain this tempera­ er, wagged its tail a couple of times and vide shelter for the goannas, and the leaf ture for an extended period. After warm­ moved off to forage. The purpose of this litter provides extra foraging sites. Also, ing up, they would move off in search of tail wagging is unknown. there are plans to minimise the weed­ prey. Many species of goanna also engage spraying program in those areas most These goannas like to maintain their in a combat ritual. Male Sand Monitors frequently used by goannas, and to erect body temperature within a narrow band have been observed wrestling while signs explaining to the public why leaf of about 36-39° C. To do this they use a standing belly to belly on their hind litter and weeds have been allowed to number of behavioural strategies. When limbs, using their tail as a prop, and with accumulate. With sensible and sensitive initially warming up in the morning or forelimbs wrapped around their oppon­ planning, based on the information after a period in the shade, they will flat­ ent. These struggles can last for many obtained from the studies at Karrakatta ten their bodies and direct the largest minutes with their sharp teeth occasion­ Cemetery, managers will not only be surface area toward the sun, while ally cutting through the skin of their enhancing the aesthetics of the ceme­ remaining ever vigilant. On days when opponent during the fight. The purpose tery but they will also be helping to ambient temperatures are in the high of these combat rituals is probably to maintain a very special population of 20s, grave covers can be over 40° C and defend territories or determine access goannas.• surface soil temperature in the high 30s. to females. However, although I have To avoid overheating, goannas will often observed goannas at Karrakatta Further Reading shift their foraging areas from full sun­ Cemetery over four summers and have King, D. & Green, B., 1993. Goanna: the biology of light to filtered sunlight or shaded areas. talked to many gardeners who work the varanid lizards. University of New South Wales Press: In the hottest part of summer, many area, no-one has ever seen any combat Sydney. ritual at this locality. goannas are active only in the early Thompson, G., 1992. Daily distance travelled and for­ morning and late afternoon, retreating General maintenance of the grave aging areas of Varanus gouldii (Reptilia: Varanidae) in to burrows during the heat of the day. sites, and maintenance of the goanna an urban environment. Wild/. Res. 19: 743-753. These goannas are not active at night. population at Karrakatta Cemetery, The goannas displayed a number of could be seen as a conflict of interest for Thompson, G., 1994. Activity area during the breeding interesting body postures. The most the management staff at the cemetery. season of Varanus gouldii (Reptilia: Varanidae) in an common was the vigilant posture, char­ On the one hand, people that visit the urban environment. Wild/. Res. 21: 633-641. acterised by a motionless body, the graves expect the grounds to be kept abdomen in a prone position, and with neat and tidy, with the soil around them Graham Thompson is a lecturer at Edith raked and removed of weeds. However, Cowan University in Western Australia. head and neck held high. The head is He has a long-standing interest in the slowly turned to obtain a clear view of goannas do not fare well in su�h a situa­ tion since they require_ a certam amount metabolism, ecology and shape variations the surrounding area. If the view is in goannas. obstructed, they stand erect, balancing of shelter and leaf litter for successful

37 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97

S THE LIGHTNING FLASHES OVER­ but just right to permit the existence of O HEI.P UNDERSTANDWHY THE EARl1! !SSO head, the thunder cracks deaf­ one of the essential ingredients for life: Teasy to live with, let's look �t why Aeningly, rolling over a barren running water. Any closer to the Sun and the others are not. Let's start with t�e wasteland that quivers in the clear, the oceans of the Earth would have innermost planet. Mercury is cons1d· dense atmosphere. The carbon dioxide boiled away, just as they've done on ered far too close to the Sun for life ever 'air' crushes down with a pressure 90 Venus. Any farther out and the Earth to have begun. It's not just the heat, or times that felt on Earth. Despite the lack might have frozen solid. So suited is this even the lack of an atmosphere that of sunlight, the rocks are almost plastic ° planet to life that, after several global makes Mercury an inhospitable place. in the searing 470 C heat. Around you a catastrophes leading to mass extinc­ Being so close to the Sun, Mercury's gentle breeze mocks your discomfort, tions, life in one form or another clings rotation is slowed by the Sun's trem�n; while overhead hang clouds of concen­ on. dous gravity pulling on slightly 'heavi�r trated sulphuric acid that whip around There are no demarcation lines identi­ regions of its crust. While MercUIY the globe at hundreds of kilometres an fying the limits of the habitable zone, orbits the Sun every 88 days, it t?kes �9 hour. Welcome to Venus. Goddess of however. It isn't just a planet's distance of those days to rotate once on its axis love; hell on another Earth. from the Sun that determines whether side 1 The same effect keeps the same �­ Life here? It's difficult to think of a or not it can support life. The geology, the Moon facing the Earth. After sp�n more inhospitable planet. Yet that's just atmosphere and climate of a planet also ing a month in shadow, Mercury's 01f�t what the Earth would have been like if it play key roles, just to name a few. The side temperature can drop to -1,80 : weren't for one simple fact: the Earth question is: can these factors compen­ During the following day, Mercury s sur 01 formed some 40 per cent farther from sate for a planet being just outside the face bakes under a furnace-like heat the Sun. Out here, in what's known as habitable zone? The truth is, while life up to ° extremes _tl�a1 450 C. It's these e the 'habitable zone', life not only began on Earth may appear to be uniquely make Mercury an unlikely place foi lif but seems difficult to stamp out. The alive, at least one other planet in our to begin. e habitable zone represents a range of dis­ solar system came close to spawning Farther out in the solar system are th tances from the Sun at which the tem­ life of its own ... maybe even close gas giants Uranus a d perature is not too hot and not too cold, Jupiter, Saturn, \ enough. Neptune. These four planets are muc 40 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 199G-97 Venus is the one place in the solar system where you could be simultaneously asphyxiated, crushed, roasted and dissolved.

the habitable zone-about the Sun. Astronomers in the last century specu­ lated Venus could support life, and for good reasons too. After all, Venus is about the same size as the Earth; it has a dense atmosphere; and it's not too much closer to the Sun, or so they thought. But, as we've seen, you're less likely to find life on the surface of Venus than you are in the depths of space itself. Venus is, as the late British astronomer David Allen was fond of saying, the one place in the solar system where you could be simultaneously asphyxiated, crushed, roasted and dissolved. So what about Mars? Like Venus, Mars has an atmosphere. In fact it has seasons, weather patterns, and polar ice caps that advance and recede with the local summer and winter. Mars has long been the host of fictional life forms, some less benevolent than others, but it hasn't been just fiction writers that wrote about intelligent Martians. In a famous case of wishful thinking persuading scientific objectivity, the American astronomer Percival Lowell recorded 'canals' on Mars built by a desperate Martian race in a bid to irrigate their desolate planet. But when astronomers took a closer look at this small world they found that, at least in terms of life, Mars hadn't fared much better than Venus. This time, however, instead of a An artist's impression of the Magellan global pressure cooker like Venus, spacecraft orbiting venus. By the end of its astronomers discovered a frozen world 243-day mission, Magellan had mapped 99 with an atmosphere a thousand times per cent of the planet using a high-resolution thinner than Earth's. About the only radar. The radar used bursts of microwave thing Mars has in common with Venus­ energy to cut through the dense atmosphere aside from a lack of life-is an atmos­ and illuminate the planet's surface. phere composed mainly of carbon dioxide. more massive than the Earth. Giant Despite the present differences spheres of gaseous and liquid hydrogen between the three planets Venus, Earth and helium, they have no solid surfaces and Mars, astronomers suspect they and are incapable of supporting any type began under almost identical conditions: of life that might remotely resemble that they each formed at the same time, at found on Earth. Their attendant moons comparable distances from the Sun and are inhospitable places, too: if they're not with roughly the same chemical make­ covered in active volcanoes and lava, up. With three planets so similar in the they're frozen spheres of ice. Even early days, the natural question is: could cloud-covered Titan-Saturn's largest life have begun on Venus or Mars as well moon-is a poor contender. Although as the Earth, only to be snuffed out at warmed by a small greenhouse effect, some later time? Perhaps more impor­ tantly, if life did develop, why did it the surface temperature on this distant An artist's portrayal of the terrestrial land­ world is 180° C below the freezing point perish there while persisting on Earth? of water. To answer these questions we need to go scapes of, from top to bottom, Mars, Venus, , That two back a few billion years to the birth of Mercury and Earth as they would appear with leaves Venus and Mars, the the sun 20° above the horizon . , planets that flank the Earth's orbit-and the solar system. • NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 41 This false-colour, high-resolution image of Venus Is the result of four years of hig hly detailed mapping by NASA's Magellan spacecraft.

system. Orbiting silently around the young Sun were large, rocky spheres that had condensed out of the dust in the sol ar nebula. These were the bodies that would evolve into the major planets. Clinging tenuously to these 'proto­ planets' was the leftover hydrogen and helium from the solar nebula. As the Sun began to shine, the excess hydrogen and helium was blown away by an intense stream of particles called the solar wind. The four inner planets were swept bare of any atmosphere, leaving them com­ pletely exposed to the light and heat of the Sun. Farther out in the solar system where the pressure of the solar wind was weaker, the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune retained their gaseous shrouds. It wasn't long, however, before secon­ dary atmospheres developed around the inner worlds of Venus, Earth and Mars. This occurred through out-gassing, where vast amounts of gases were belched out of huge volcanoes that dotted their surfaces. These secondary atmospheres were based on a mixture of nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour. Back then, the three plan­ ets all looked pretty much alike. All had carbon dioxide atmospheres and were inundated with water either from com­ plex chemical . reactions on their sur­ faces, or from the impact of icy co mets hurtling in from the outer solar system, a process that continues today. All three planets started out with plen­ ty of water, but only one hung on to its fair share. What happened to the other two? Being so close to the Sun, Venus The surface of the planet Mercury as revealed The Sun and its family of planets was so hot the water vapour in its atmos­ by Mariner 10. In 1974 the spacecraft made began some 4.5 billion years ago in a phere could never condense. In other three flybys and mapped about half the swirling disk-shaped words, it never planet's surface. cloud of gases and dust rained. Volcanoes known as the solar neb- added increasing ula. In the centre of the amounts of carbon cloud lay the embryonic dioxide to the pri­ Sun, a huge sphere of mordial atmos· hydrogen slowly collaps­ three planets phere increasing ing under its own Au its density. To make weight. But the crush­ started out with plenty matters worse, the ing weight of so much Sun slowly in creas­ material-over 330,000 ed in brightness times the mass of the of water, but only one as part of its natur· Earth-caused the al evolution as a atoms of hydrogen in hung on to its fair young star, raising the core to fuse into the Venus' surface heavier element helium. share. What happened temperature even This nuclear fusion gave more. The dense off tremendous amounts to the other two? carbon dioxide at· of energy, which pre­ \n· vented further collapse: mosphere and tense solar radia· the outward radiation tion run· pressure kept the Sun led to a away gree house inflated against the pull of gravity. With n effect. The planet's day-side would war01 enough hydrogen 'fuel' to last ten billion in the sunlight, infra-red years, the Sun began to warm the solar but at night the radiation was unable to penetrate the

42 7 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9

Is Earth the only planet capable of supporting life? carbon dioxide atmosphere, preventing certain amount of infra-red radiation to the planet from cooling. At dawn, with carry energy back into space. Too much Venus' surface still warm from the previ­ carbon dioxide in the air would prevent ous day, it would begin to get even hot­ this infra-red radiation from escaping ter, day after day, millennia after millen­ and the Earth would never cool down, nia. Venus' surface temperature levelled the so-called 'greenhouse effect'. Too lit­ out at just under the softening point of tle, and the Earth would cool so much formed and the rain fell. the rocks that litter its surface. With no that the oceans would freeze. This 'sili­ But in a sense Mars signed it's own running water and a noxious atmos­ cate-carbonate cycle' has a natural con­ death warrant: the torrential rain phere, life on Venus never stood a trol mechanism. If the temperature leached the carbon dioxide out of its chance. begins to fall, the rain tends to slow atmosphere. This wouldn't have been a One important question is what hap­ down, which allows the carbon dioxide problem if it weren't for the fact that pened to Venus' water? There are a num­ levels to go up. This in turn warms the Mars lacked the radioactive elements ber of possibilities, but each leads to the oceans and encourages more rain. Too needed to drive its volcanoes, and suffi. water rising high into the atmosphere much rain, on the other hand, depletes cient gravity to hold its atmosphere for where ultraviolet radiation dissociated the carbon dioxide levels and allows the long. The planet's geological life soon the molecules into hydrogen and planet to cool. This retards the evapora­ ended. With no more active volcanoes to oxygen. Being a lighter element, the tion and precipitation of water. In this replenish the carbon dioxide, the contin· hydrogen rose even higher, eventually way, volcanoes and the Earth's weather uing rain depleted the atmosphere of escaping into space. balance out on a global scale permitting carbon dioxide so that the planet soon On Earth, the story was different. The running water, life, and eventually the began to cool. Despite the brightening lower level of solar radiation allowed question: what happened to Mars? Sun, the water and remaining ca rbon water to condense in the early atmos­ Being farther out in the solar system, dioxide condensed at the poles and phere. While volcanoes added carbon Mars received only a fraction of the sun­ froze. As Mars died, any life forms that dioxide to the atmosphere, and continue light Venus and the Earth were exposed might have gained a foothold also per­ to do so, it was leached by the rain. to and so had a much colder global cli­ ished, or retreated into the subsurface When it rains, water reacts with the car­ mate. Nonetheless, there is ample evi­ environment. bon dioxide in the atmosphere to form dence that great rivers flooded the carbonic acid. This in turn reacts with Martian surface billions of years ago. silicates on the ground to form carbon­ Mars was able to trap the feeble solar HILE IT'S UNLIKELY THAT LIFE ate rocks. Over millions of years, the car­ energy in a dense carbon dioxide atmos­ Wexists on Mars today, is the1:e any bon dioxide is released from the sili­ phere, formed by its enormous vol­ hope of finding evidence for past !if� on the n s cates and vented back into the atmos­ canoes*. �ith giant volcanoes belching red planet? One scientist who thi � 1 phere through volcanoes. The evolution out volummous amounts of carbon diox­ so is Malcolm Walter, a Professorial of plant life decreased the carbon diox­ ide into the primordial Martian sky, the Fellow in the School of Earth Sciences at ide levels even further. In this way, the e planet was able to stay warm. Clouds Macquarie University near . Sydn Yf current level of atmospheric carbon According to Walter, finding eVJden�e? dio�de is 11:aintained by a natural cycle primordial life in the form of fossils 15 of ram, erosion and volcanic eruptions. *Mars' volcanoes were the biggest of them all. Olympus If th Mons, Mars' largest volcano, towers some 27 kilometres not only possible, but probable. J The correct balance of carbon dioxide early conditions on Mars and Ear above the s11,rroundingplains. For comparison, the peak ­ in the atmosphere is necessary for the of Mount Everest is nine kilometres above sea level were the same (sunlight, heat, an atrnos Earth to stay at the right temperature. ate�_ while Earth's tallest volcano, Mauna Kea in Hawai/ phere and, of course, running w j� At night, the planet cools by allowing a rises te11 kilometres above the sea floor. then there seems no reason why h

97 44 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996- Martian hunting? Places where there used to be hot springs, similar to this Earthly one in Rotorua, New Zealand, would be a good starting point.

should not have at least begun on Mars r to search for life. Beginning with remote human habitability. While it's unlikely beforeit eventually f oze. sensing by orbiting spacecraft,the scien­ the Earth would ever become truly bar­ Among the earliest life forms on tists will identify the most likely sites to ren within the lifetime of the Sun, it is Earth, 3.5 to 2.5 billion years ago, were search for Martians-either alive or fos­ the only planet capable of supporting bacteria-cyanobacteria, or blue-green silised. Later, robots will land near these human beings. Further, the Earth is sub­ algae. These have been found as fossils sites and analyse soil and rock samples ject to the same physical laws that left in many places, including Western in ways different from those done by the Venus and Mars desolate. While it is Australia. Walter thus proposes that we Viking landers on Mars in the 1970s. beyond current and foreseeable technol­ look for thef ossilised remains of similar The next step will be to go for a sample ogy to create a suitable planetary atmos­ primitive Martians and has even helped return so that Martian rocks can be phere, it is entirely possible to destroy choose the sites on Mars to look: places analysed for evidence of life using a one. And as we've seen from studying where there used to be hot springs; wider range of techniques than can be our neighbouring worlds, there's no­ places similar to Rotorua in New Zealand carried out on an unmanned spacecraft. where else to go.• or Yellowstone in Montana. According to Planning has started for a sample-return Walter, hot springs are good places to mission to be launched in 2005. Further Reading live if you're a bacterium: there's plenty A sample return may not be neces­ Bond, P., 1993. Mars on a shoestring. New Scientist 21 of water, the water is bringing up nutri­ sary, however. Recent NASA re­ August 1993: 25. ents leached out of the rocks and searchers David McKay and collegues there's sunlight Clark, S., 1994. Is there life on the red planet? as a source of e�ergy. analysed Martian rock samples that had Astronomy Now 8(1): 41. Bacterial life around hot springs on been biased from the Red Planet by a Earth is common because of the sources meteorite impact millions of years ago Pollack, J.B., 1981. Atmospheres of the terrestrial plan­ of nutrients and energy around them. and were found buried in the Earth's ets. In The new solar system, ed. by J.K. Beatty, B. Hot springs are also good places to Antarctic ice. These were found to con­ O'Leary and A. Chaikin. Cambridge University Press & m�ke fossils: the rapid precipitation of tain at least circumstantial evidence for Sky Publishing Corporation: Cambridge. minerals such as silica and calcium primative life. This 'discovery' of c :bonate � entomb the bacteria and fos­ Martian life will be debated over the Geoff McNamara is a freelance astronomy silise them fast and effectively. next few years while NASA's spacecraft The writer who contributes regularly to various possibility of fossilised life on takes a closer look at Mars itself. science and technology magazines. He is Mars is being taken seriously. If Mai·s turns out to be barren, will it n Over the Associate Editor for Sky & Space magazine e�t ten years, NASA is launching a mean life is unique to the Earth? ser es and a columnist for Garuda in-flight maga­ � of spacecraft towards the red plan­ 'Unique' is a hard word that exc)udes a\l zine. He would like to extend special thanks e m an attemp other possibilities, something_ 1mposs1- t 0 t to answer questions to Malcolm Walter for his assistance in W ut whether life ever began on Mars. ble to do in science. However, already preparing this article and for helping to find a1 ter was chosen both Mars and Venus point to the ·, res to work with a NASA out what we all want to !mow. earch team to select the best places uniqueness of the Earth in terms of NATURE AUS TRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 45

,. --:x-'f.l'. I U TRALIA'S EUCALYPTS HAVE crops. In southern Africa they have ff,.,� become weeds. Over-enthusiastic conquered the world. No I� � , other group of trees is grown foresters have felled native forests to i� so widely by so many people. grow them, with devastating results. On AcrossA Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean a more positive note, eucalypts provide region and South America, hundreds of nectar and nesting sites for an enormous millions of peasants grow eucalypts for range of overseas birds. Their ecological wood; and vast eucalypt plantations are impacts are intriguing. farmed by timber and mining compa­ nies. As the world grows hungrier for fuel, eucalypts look more and more like ROMOTION OF EUCALYPTS AS MIRACLE the trees of the future. Ptrees began in the mid 19th century, The statistics are staggering. Two when Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, the thousand million eucalypts are grown in Victorian Government botanist, enthusi­ Brazil, 60 million in Argentina, 200 astically promoted the Blue Gum species are cultivated in China, and even (Eucalyptus globulus) as 'The Prince of in tiny Guatemala 150 kinds are grown. Eucalypts". Eucalypts had been grown in Eucalypts have become important the early 1800s in Europe and Africa; because half the world's population still indeed the River Red Gum (E. carnaldu­ relies on wood for fuel. Wood supplies 15 lensis) is named after the Camalduli per cent of the world's energy, more than Gardens of Naples, from where it was nuclear and hydro-electric power com­ described in 1830. But the big push bined. Native forests have disappeared came after Frenchman Prosper Ramel from vast tracts of Africa, Asia and Latin visited Australia in 1854 and encouraged America, and Australian eucalypts are plantings in France, Algeria and Tunisia. taking their place. In Italy, Trappist monks planted 55,000 Eucalypts are preferred because they Blue Gums in the Pontine Marshes of grow very fast on degraded soils, pro­ Rome in a bid to eliminate malaria, and ducing strong, straight wood that burns the success of this venture led to plant­ well. They yield excellent sawn timber ings of the 'fever tree' in Spain and else­ and very strong poles, and they resprout where. The water-hungry Blue Gums from cut stumps to produce repeat har­ apparently drained the swamps where vests. They are low in maintenance and the malarial mosquitoes bred. their leaves yield aromatic oils valued in By the turn of the century Frenchman medicine. Henri Carreron had witnessed a botani­ But eucalypts have their critics. In cal transformation, writing: "A Provencal Thailand and India they stand accused of who has not seen the Cote d'Azure for lowering water tables and inhibiting the last forty years would not recognise it, so changed is the aspect of its vegeta­ tion. No more of those characteristic EUCALYPTS OVERSEAS stunted, greyish bushes. They have bee� replaced on at least one-fourth of the sur­ r The most widely planted eucalypts face of the land by cooling and f agrant overseas are the Tasmanian Blue Gum forests of huge Eucalypts, which tower (Eucalyptus globulus), River Red Gum high above the thousand-year-old Olive (E. camaldulensis), Flooded Gum (f. and m�stic trees. Australia is invading grandis) and Forest Red Gum (f. the ancient Provence; the antipodean for­ tereticornis). est is gradually taking the place of the The Blue Gum is especially important indigenous species of the Old World." in the Mediterranean region, East Africa, Similar claims could be made for southern India and Brazil. It is the major California, southern China sub-Saharan overseas source of eucalyptus oil. Africa and many other la�ds. Millions Regions dependent on the River Red more Blue Gums are grown overseas Gum include North and South Africa than in their native lands. They are even India, China, Brazil and Vietnam. credit�d with saving Ethiopia from cata­ The Flooded Gum is favoured at high clysmic deforestation. Dr Robert plantations of eucalypts are viable in Europe only in the Mediterranean · altitudes in the tropics, for example Zacharin writes: "Beyond question this ° ��anda, where it grows very rapidly, but tree, with its rapid growth rate and region, south of 45 latitude. In ' 1t 1s also grown in South Africa for mine remarkable powers of regeneration California, gum trees are so numerous 1 prop timber. Forest Red Gums are widely :,vhenlopped, has been one of the most that many Americans assume they are native, well farther grown in South Africa, China and Brazil. important factors permitting the devel­ but they do not fare 1 In Peru they line the sacred valley of the o ment of modern Ethiopia and the cre­ north. In equatorial regions of Asia, � 1 Meso-American Indians that leads to ation of a fixed capital city, Addis Ababa Africa and Latin America their cultiva· Machupicchu. ('ne:,vflower). This change in the living tion is confined mainly to highlands. Many other eucalypts are grown and habit of a n�tion [from nomadism] is due some are locally important. Eucalyptus almost entirely to the Tasmanian blue erythrocorys, for example, is a signifi­ gum, an� t�e influe_nce of this species /\ USTRALIA S OVERSEAS ARE OFTEN cant nectar source for Honey Bees in up�n Ethiopian survival is without paral­ �urprised to see eucalypts with , Israel, and the Narrow-leaved lronbark lel m the history of reafforestation." dense shady crowns, developed in the (E. crebra) is favoured for farm woodlots The only regions untouched by the absence of most of their native insect in South Africa. eucalypt revolution are the colder zones pests. Yet plantations overseas can be of th� _world. Tasmanian Cider Gums (E. plagued by an extraordinary variety of gunnii) do well in northern Scotland, but pests, mainly overseas insects adopting a

7 48 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9 -

A eucalypt-lined road in China. seedlings by attacking their roots. Other �ucalypt diet. In Brazil, where four mil- beetles, 1 10n ��ctar than 220 pests include moth larvae, · es are grown ' more snails, slugs, raz, 1 ,an insect species have become aphids, crickets, bugs, 8 bacteria, viruses and �u�alypt pests. China has recorded 96 nematodes, fungi, rnd1genous pest species and India 94 even monkeys. are Adding to these problems The pests include Brazilian leaf-cutting spread over­ n Atta Acromyrmex Australian insects that have s � and species) that species are known � � 1iate whole plantations. A 9 6 seas. More than 20 r: � 1 7 most of these are con­ P rt_ of_ the Food and Agricultural pests, although a fer­ 0 to New Zealand. They include a isati�n warned that: "Should euca­ fined that has 1/f 7a ment fly (Drosophila flavohirta) P �tat(ons be abandoned as produc­ Africa, where it tiin u�its m north central Brazil it is appeared in southern q the honey industry. It breeds uit ly that large sections of them threatens Gum wo the blossoms of the Flooded u1a1'��isappear as eucalypt stands within most impor­ because Atta (E. grandis), South Africa's the ants would destroy all the industry, and the regener tant nectar source for ation " from these tree� h�s Termites are p prob- the honey yield ·ro b ably the worst 28 kilograms per hive m lem ' k 1'II' m g up to 80 per cent of eucalypt slumped from 49 NATURE AU STRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 97 50 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 199G· l976 to 15 kilograms today. The Eucalyptus Weevil (Gonipterus scutellatus) and the Common Eucalypt ucalypts are very unusual among dominant trees Longicorn (Phoracantha semipunctata)_ are the worst of the pe�ts from in having flowers pollinated by birds as well as insects. Ausb·alia. Eucalyptus Weev!ls were found defoliating eucalypts m South Africa in 1916 and spread to northern When planted overseas they usually replace insect­ Africa andE urope; the longic rn ranges r � across Afica, E:urope, the Middle E�st or wind-pollinated trees. and the Americas. Eucalypt Weevils threatened the very viability of planta­ tions until brought under control by the In Argentina, ornithologist Noberto carbo). parasitic wasp Patasson n�t�ns from Another roost in three suburban Australia. Another parasitic wasp Montaldo found that Blue Gum nectar is gums was occupied by more than 5,000 (Bracon important to White-throated Humming­ red-footed kestrels (Falco amurensis and sp.) was released in New (Leucochloris albicollis) Zealand to control an outbreak of the birds and Gilded F. vespertinus). Elsewhere in Africa euca­ (Phylacteophaga frog­ Hummingbirds (Hylocharis chrysura). lypts provide nest sites for a wide range Leaf-mining Sawfly He suggests that flowering of these trees gatti) near Auckland. of raptors and other birds-124 species in winter may allow hummingbirds to were listed in one survey by K.D. Smith, With so many insects feeding on euca­ avoid migrating north. Similar findings lypts overseas, e tre s are oft n attrac­ including weavers, barbets and the tJ:i � � have been made in California. Common Paradise Flycatcher (Terp­ tive to parties of msectivorous birds. The Eucalypts grow taller than most trees siphone viridis). flowers also lure in nectar-feeding hum­ overseas, and birds of prey and water­ The Bat Hawk (Machaerhamphus mingbirds and sunbirds, and their tallest birds consistently prefer them for roost­ alcinus) branches are favoured by large birds of Africa and Asia prefers gum ing and nesting. Doug Laing, an trees, not only because they are tall, but such as vultures for roosting and nest­ Australian diplomat in Zimbabwe, also because they are white. This bird of ing. In all, eucalypt plantations with showed me a massive waterbird roost in prey hunts bats at dusk, returning to its native undergrowth can support a mod­ six Flooded Gums in Harare, occupied stick nest in the dark. It likes to nest on erately diverse range of birds. by Cattle Egrets (Ardea ibis), Black­ the pale horizontal branches of tall euca­ During a ten-week trip to Africa headed Herons (Ardea melanocephala), lypts because they are easy to see at recorded 28 bird species perching or Sacred Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) night. But birdwatchers in Africa have feeding in eucalypts. They included very and Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax told me its nests often fall off the smooth big birds such as the Grey:che�ked Horn bill (Ceratogymna subcyltndricus), Great Blue Turacos (Cor ythaeola crista­ ta) and Black Eagles (Aquila verreauxii, nesting in a Narrow-leaved Ironbark, E. crebra, in Zimbabwe), right down to tiny_ Yellow White-eyes (Zosterops senegalen­ sis) and sunbirds feeding at Flooded Gum blossoms. In Zimbabwe I watched Red-billed Wood-hoopoes (Phoeniculus purpureus) probing behind strips of curled bark with their long curved bills. Later I peeled back this bark and found tiny beetles, spiders, bugs, a scorpion, a Striped Skink (Mabuya striata) and Cape Dwarf Geckoes (Lygodactylus capensis). I saw Samango Monkeys (Cercopithecus albogularis) climbing high into Flooded Gums and Black-and-white Colobus Monkeys (Colobus guereza) chewing the bark. Eucalypt plantations are also a habitat of the Greater Bushbaby (Oto lemur crassicaudatus). My impression is that eucalypts over­ seas have become especially important for two groups of birds: nectar-feeders, and large birds that roost or nest in tall AFRICA: PAINTED WITH AN AUSTRALIAN BRUSH trees. Eucalypts are very unusual among Africa is one continent where eucalypts have 'Australianised' the land scap�. They c�n be regnans) a dominant trees in having flowers pollin­ seen a Imo t s everywhere · A 99-metre Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus m Tanz nia now a s al a . Flood ed ated by birds as well as insects. When takes the honours as Africa's talle�t tree, even �,v· i1·mg t h? t f oun d · A m u tr. i s road sid e weed s m the eastern h1ghlan_d s planted overseas they usually replace G_ums ( E grandis) have become vigorou ?! · fehmannil) a (f. gomphocephala) are s1gnif1cant insect- or wind-pollinated trees. Since a 1Zm ba bwe, and Spid er Gum (f. . and Tu rt variety of eucalypts is often grown, a new weed s in the Cape Province of South Africa. . . source of nectar may be available over At the Lion Park near Johannes burg, Lions can be seen slee�mg m the sha�� of euca- s s s watch trad 1t1onal much of the year. This is sought out by lyp�s and even pe h" in their lower branche In Harare touri t e l s a the sai sell_ gum nut sunbirds, hummingbirds and white­ African dances �e� o ��ed beneath massive uc� ypt , and in Keny Ma asa a leaves are harvested m Chad eyes. bracelets from 1l a on the ed e of the M i Mar . Gum es (Acacia spp.) have also to make tea an� ! �:�ce In Soufh Africa ten different wattl s a sation of the land scape. become wee d s , an d these· are contri buting to the Au trali ni A weevil (Gonipterus sp.) feeds on a eucalyp­ tus leaf.

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 51 River Red Gum seedlings. This species of eucalypt is one of the most widely planted overseas.

branches and that populations are suf­ feiing as a result. In southern Brazil,r Uruguay and north-eastern A gentina, the Monk Parrot (Myiopsitta monachus) has extended its range by nesting in euca­ lypts planted around ranches. Unique among parrots, it builds a large nest of sticks. In South Africa the Hadada Ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) and Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris) have also extended their range into previous­ ly treeless areas. Eucalypts in Africa may also be impor­ tant to some insectivorous birds because they are evergreen, providing a source of insects year round, unlike most African trees, which lose their leaves in the dry season, forcing birds to migrate. But birds overseas have not taken to nesting in the hollow limbs and trunks in eucalypts, because, as one Zimbabwean naturalist complained to me, eucalypts overseas do not develop hollows. Perhaps the trees are just too young-a Western Australian study found that par­ rots bred mainly in eucalypts more than 270 years old. If hollows do develop in future, the ecological implications will be enormous. But I suspect that termites overseas do not excavate suitable holes. I have seen massive eucalypts in Africa � showing no sign of decay at all. 0:ti:i � THE IMPACTS OF EUCALYPTS ON g WHILE i fauna overseas are of much inter­ � est, it is the impact of eucalypts on Third � World communities that has attracted 5 most attention. Eucalypts are widely � condemned for exacerbating land degra­ � dation. Much of the problem has arisen where overzealous foresters have felled native forest to plant gum trees. One proposal in Karnataka, India, provoked protests from half a million peasants in 120 vil· !ages until it was shelved. Another plan, in Ubon Ratchathani Province of Thailand, drew the ire of local monks, who ordained native trees with saffron robes to protect them from felling. The Bangkok Post of 21 March 1990 reported of this incident: "Villagers call eucalypts demon trees because of the way they suck up ground water harden the land, and kill other trees i� the vicinity with their strangling roots." The head monk complained: "Now the villagers are going hungry. The creeks have gone dry. The rains are scarce and irregular. It was never like this beforethe eucalyptus." These complaints should be heeded in The Common Eucalypt Longicorn is a major pest of eucalypts and has followed their spread overseas. It now ranges across Africa, Europe, the Middle East and the Americas.

7 52 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9 Australia where our government pro­ Samango Monkeys are very agile in the tall Further Reading branches of Flooded Gums in Zimbabwe. motes e�calypts as part of overseas aid. Anon., 1989. Blue Gums blossoming in Argentina. More effort should be put into finding Birds lntemat!1: 90. local alternatives, and to studying the impacts of eucalypts on hydrology and Metro, A., 1955. Eucalypts for planting. Food and ecology. Agricultural Organisation: Rome. That said, eucalypts will continue to play a major role in the future of the world. Having evolved on the most erod­ Ohmart, C.P. & Edwards, P.B., 1991. Insect herbivory ed and infertile soils on Earth, they are on eucalyptus. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 36: 637-657. perfectly adapted to lands degraded by farming overseas. In many Third World Shah, S.A., 1985. Eucalyptus-friend or foe. lntemat! countries they have become as impor­ Tree Crops J. 3: 191-195. tant to village economies as chickens Smith, K.D., 1974. The utilisation of gum trees by birds and goats. Although they behave like in Africa. Ibis 116: 155-164. weeds in some respects, especially in their thirst for water, they are often Zacharin, R.F., 1978. Emigrant eucalypts: gum trees as grown in landscapes that are so termi­ exotics. Melbourne University Press: Melbourne. nally degraded they are only fit for weeds; and a gum tree is better than no Tim Low is a nature writer and environ­ tree at all. As more and more soil is lost mental consultant. He has travelled wide y _ � by farmers around the world, our euca­ overseas, observing eucalypts growing zn lypts will assume even greater impor­ China, India, Hawaii, Honduras, Kenya, tance. They are truly the trees of the New Zealand and many other places. future.a

NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 53

MALL MAMMALS SUCCESSFULLY As with many findings in biology, the box). Indeed, of six species that have extraordinary mobility of small mam­ been captured regularly in this area exploit arid environments (Dasycer throughout Australia, combat­ mals in arid Australia was discovered by only one, the Mulgara cus cristi'. ing the extremes of the desert chance. In the late 1980s I was working cauda), appears to be sedentary. climateS with an array of specialised and in the Goldfields of WesternAustralia on Long-distance movements may have remarkable adaptations. Laboratory a long-term project that involved assess­ been overlooked in previous research studies show that native rodents such as ment of the number of small mammal partly because they are recorded infre­ hopping-mice thrive on a diet of dry seed species from independently spaced quently and partly because few studies with no water, producing· just a few sites. The aim of the study was to com­ have live-trapped at distant sites for long drops of concentrated urine each day. pare species richness with habitat struc­ periods. During our work in the Lactating females will even ingest the ture. The sites were separated by dis­ Goldfields and the Simpson Desert, for faeces and urine of their young, thereby tances of 0.4 to 10 kilometres, to avoid example, we recorded only 99 long-dis­ recovering about a third of the water lost any potential overlap of range. You can tance movements in 57,300 trap nights in milk production. Other studies have imagine our surprise when, 18 months over a period of five years. However, this shown that small carnivorous marsup­ ials (dasyurids) often store fat in their tails to help ride out periods of tempor­ ary food shortage. The smallest species also enter torpor on a daily basis, reduc­ As with many findings in biology, ing energy expenditure until times improve. the extraordinary mobility of small mammals in arid Impressive as these adaptations are, recent field research has revealed that Australia was discovered by chance. many small mammals respond to drought in a simple but dramatically effective way: they decamp and move to later, we discovered that five species does not mean that such movements are where conditions are better. Although (two dunnarts, two ningauis and one infrequent. In our studies the probability long-range movements are well known native mouse) had made frequent excur­ of intercepting a marked animal far from in larger marsupials such as Red and sions between the supposedly 'indepen­ its site of original capture was very small Grey Kangaroos, and in migratory ungu­ dent' trapping sites. Although startling to begin with Oess than three per cent if lates such as Wildebeest, the distances and quite unexpected at the time, the the nearest trapping site was 0.5 kilomet­ covered by small mammals in arid results from the Goldfields were not re away, and assuming that movement Australia appear unique. There is little aberrant. Since 1990, colleagues Fiona could occur equally in all directions). evidence of great mobility in small mam­ Downey, Paul Mahon, Martin Predavec Moreover, since recaptures could occur mals inhabiting temperate parts of and I have documented similar long-dis­ only when traps were open (up to a week Australia, and lifetime movements of the tance movements in a further four every two months), the chance of best-studied rodents in other deserts of species of small mammals, this time recording any long-distance movements the world appear never to exceed two to from the arid dune fields of the Simpson would have been much less than one per three kilometres. Desert in western Queensland (see cent for each individual handled. In contrast to many species of small mammals, we have found little evidence LONG-DISTANCE MOVEMENTS that movements in desert species are OF SMALL MAMMALS IN ARID AUSTRALIA associated with reproduction, nor that they represent dispersal events in juven­ Species Maximum Movement Location Recorded Size iles or adults. Instead, movements appear to increase during or after rain· fall, with distances increasing by a fifth Hairy-footed Dunnart 15g 2.1km WAG for the Sandy Inland Mouse (Pseudomys (Sminthopsis hirtipes) hermannsburgensis) and up to six-and-a· half-fold for the Lesser Hairy-footed Little Long-tailed Dunnart 12g 6.4km WAG (Sminthopsis do/ichura) Dunnart (Sminthopsis youngsoni'). Intriguingly, some three-quarters of all Lesser Hairy-footed Dunnart 10g 12.0km SD long-distance movements recorded with· (Sminthopsis youngsont) in a month of rain were directed toward the area of rainfall, even if this was 15 Wongai Ningaui 9g 3.3km WAG (Ningaui ride,) kilometres away. We do not yet know 2.0km SD how small mammals might detect and Southern Ningaui 9g 7.5km WAG respond to distant falls of rain, but sus· (Ningaui yvonneae) pect they may be sensitive to changes in atmospheric moisture or to the familiar Spinifex Hopping-mouse 30g 14.0km SD (Notomys alexis) 'rain smell' produced when the parched desert soils get wet. Ash-grey Mouse 30g 7.2km WAG Whichever way it is detected, rain can (Pseudomys albocinereus) be used readily as a source of freewater by small mammals, and should be Sandy Inland Mouse 12g 14.0km SD (Pseudomys hermanns- important also in promoting the avail· burgensis) ability of food. In the short term, rain

Long-haired Rat 120g 2.1km SD Pitfall traps with drift fences are the most (Rattus villosissimus) effective way to capture many species of small desert mammals. Here the author (WAG = WA Goldfields; SD = Simpson Desert) removes a dunnart from a pitfall trap set on a sand dune in the Simpson Desert.

56 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97

Described only in I 982, the Lesser Hairy­ hydrates buried seeds, apparently sen because it is one of the smallest of footed Dunnart is now known to occur widely increasing their smell and thus making the dasyurids but apparently also one of in sandy deserts across northern Australia. them easier to find by foraging rodents. the most mobile. Because of its small In the longer term, rain should promote size we were constrained to tracking growth of green plants, fungal fruiting only adults, and using the smallest bodies and invertebrates, and hence radio-tags commercially available. The provide an increased supply of food for tags, weighing only 0.5 gram, were both omnivorous rodents and insectivo­ glued to the nape fur of the dunnarts, rous dasyurids. If these interpretations and allowed us to follow animals for up are correct, long-distance movements to six days. The tracking results aston· may be crucial in allowing small mam­ ished us. mals to escape drought-stricken areas Within an hour of nightfall, dunnarts with diminished food, and to exploit new emerged from burrows in the valleys areas where resources are temporarily between sand dunes, and sprinted 1 enriched. 200-300 metres to the crest of the dunes to forage. After foraging for four to five hours the animals returned to a dune O OBTAJN MORE CRJTICAL INSIGHT INTO valley to 'rest in a burrow for an hour or the effect of food on patterns of T two, before sprinting again to anothe� movement in small mammals, we fol­ dune crest for a pre-dawn hour of fut· lowed the trails of one species in detail ther feeding. Males seldom returned to using radi?telemetry. This species, th� the same burrows by day and, over the Lesser Hairy-footed Dunnart, was cho- course of four to five nights, would cross

58 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-91 supplementary food in the dune valleys reduced vegetative cover and less stable (in the form of shredded beef), we found sand on dune crests probably make this that dunnarts could be persuaded to option unattractive. On the other, it has reduce the time spent on dune crests, become evident that dunnarts do not hence further confirming the impor­ construct their own burrows, but tance of food in dictating patterns of depend for shelter exclusively on the movement. burrows of other desert denizens. We These insights into the extraordinary have found radio-tagged dunnarts hid­ mobility of the Lesser Hairy-footed ing by day in the disused burrows of Dunnart raise a host of further bird-eating spiders, scorpions, rodents questions. Why, for example, do dun­ and dragons; these burrows are con­ narts not shelter on dune crests to structed mostly in the dune valleys. This reduce the commuting distance to casual exploitation of the burrows of where they forage? On the one hand, the other organisms probably facilitates

the crests of four to five different sand dunes. Their nightly movements ranged up to three kilometres. Females were only slightly less nomadic, returning to the same burrow on about 25 per cent of occasions and ranging up to 2.5 kilomet­ res per night. By watching the animals directly and bY. analysing droppings of captured individuals, we confirmed that dunnarts prefer large invertebrates such as beetles, cockroaches and spiders that are available mostly on dune crests, and that animals hunt most effectively in the open vegetation there. By providing

The Simpson Desert is characterised by long, parallel red sand dunes with broad valleys between the dune ridges. Here a pitfall trap and drift fence are set amid hummocks of spinifex grass ( Triodia basedowii), the dominant vegetation of the region. 59 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97

Lesser Hairy-footed Dunnarts shelter opportunistically in the burrows of large whistling spiders (Selenocosmia spp.). Empty burrows are preferred, as dunnarts that enter occupied burrows risk being killed by an invertebrate predator larger than themselves!

nomadism in the dunnarts, and other of invertebrates. However, unlike its of the small scale of most overseas stud­ small dasyurids, by freeing them of the smaller relatives, the Mulgara also preys ies. Our results might serve to stimulate costs of digging. upon lizards, birds and other small ver­ other desert ecologists to look more It is perhaps interesting to note that, in tebrates that may serve to buffer it dur­ closely at their small mammals to deter­ both the Lesser Hairy-footed Dunnart ing adverse conditions when inverteb­ mine if this is the case. and especially the bigger Hairy-footed rates are scarce. Mobility may also be Dunnart (Sminthopsis hirtipes), the hind directly disadvantageous for the feet are broad and the soles are covered Mulgara. As this species digs its own, aHE FINDlNG OF LONG-DISTANCE MOVE­ conspicuously with fine bristles. These often complex burrow systems, frequent I ments in the small mammals of arid features provide traction on loose sand movements to freshsites would dramat­ Australia has important implications, and increase the ability to move long dis­ ically increase energy expended in dig­ both for interpreting past patterns of fau­ tances. The forepaws are only slightly ging activity. nal loss and for guiding management for less hairy and the five fingers are strong but slender, allowing deft handling of prey but providing poor.,ability to dig burrows in soil. Animals experiencing drought overseas Given the evident advantages of mobil­ ity, a particularly perplexing question is: may do better to stay put than to move, why aren't all small desert mammals itinerant? In the Simpson Desert, the as their chances of getting local rain are greater Mulgara is conspicuously sedentary. We have captured some individuals repeat­ than for their counterparts in Australia. edly within areas of less than a hectare .,, and have recorded few movement� effective conservation in the future. -� between trapping sites. Radio-tracking Vagrancy in small mammals in other !8 has shown further that individuals move world deserts may be inhibited similarly Since European settlement in 1788 mam­ i no more than 900 metres on any one by its high costs and small benefits. Rain mals have fared poorly in Australia's arid � night, and that only three to four bur­ falls more predictably in other arid interior, with many small and medium­ � rows are used over extended periods. regions than in Australia; animals exper­ sized species (in a critical weight range � For the Mulgara, mobility may simply iencing drought overseas may do better of 35-5,500 grams) having declined or � c?nfer little benefit. Like dunnarts and to stay put than to move, as their become extinct. Although losses prob­ ID nmgauis, this species eats a wide range chances of getting local rain are greater ably have been caused by combinations than for their counterparts in Australia. of factors, degradation of refugesites by Carrying a small radio-tag, this Lesser Hairy­ It remains possible, of course, that small introduced herbivores is believed to footed Dunnart was found sheltering 15 mammals in other world deserts are have had particularly damaging effects. centimetres below the sand surface in the itinerant, but that long-range move­ At disturbed refugia mammals weighing spiral burrow of a scorpion. ments have not been detected because less than 35 grams may have been better

NATURE 61 AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 Unlike other small mammals of the Simpson ated after local rains. reserves of 10,000 hectares or more. Desert, the Mulgara seldom makes long­ For effective future conservation of Collectively these cover 33.9 million distance excursions. small mammals, and other biota in arid hectares, or six per cent of the arid zone. Australia, it is clear that permanent The larger part of the inland, which is able to persist than larger species (in the refugia must be identified and protected. dominated by the pastoral industry, also critical weight range) because their The importance of this action has been remains traversable by small mammals. meagre resource requirements could recognised recently with the publication However, large areas continue to be still be met. However, in view of the of a major document that has listed key degraded by ecologically unsustainable extraordinary mobility of small mam­ refugia throughout the arid inland. A fur­ practices such as clearing of woodlands mals, persistence may have been facili­ ther important conservation action is to and dry-land grain cropping, or worse, tated also by colonisation of distant, ensure that large tracts of land are avail­ rendered wholly sterile by new indus­ intact refugia scattered across the desert able, to permit small mammals to track tries such as cotton growing. The intro­ landscape. Such refugia could be perman­ transient oases that appear only after duced rabbit adds further to land degra· ent oases, or simply ephemeral patches local rain. Across the inland, protected dation throughout the southern and of increased productivity that are gener- land has been set aside in some 77 central arid zone. Careful stewardship of this vast area must therefore be seen as an essential complement to the protec· tion of small, permanent refugia that are sprinkled throughout it.•

Further Reading Denny, M., 1983. Animals-native and feral. Pp. 19-25 in What future for Australia's arid lands?, ed._by J. Messer and G. Mosley. Australian Conservation Foundation: Hawthorn, Victoria. Dickman, C.R., Predavec, M. & Downey, F.J.,_ 199�d Long-range movements of small mammals m an Australia: implications for land management. 1. M0 Environ. 31: 441-452. Morton, S.R., Short, J. & Barker, R.D., _19?5· Refui: for biological diversity in arid and semi-and Austr� : Department of the Environment, Sport and Temto es Canberra. d 1994. Gramvo· ry an Murray, B.R. & Dickman, C.R., eds micro habitat use in Australian desert rodents. are 5e important? Oecologia 99: 216-225. re Dr Chris Dickman is a Senior Lectu ; The Hairy-footed Dunnart es a occurs patchily throughout much of the sandy in the School of Biological Sci_enc · . . coun t ry o f ar1"d if Aus tra I.1a. Th e species ma de its first recorded appearance in the University of Sydney, and Dtrec( f Queensland in 1992 , apparently 1 f; li e h aving · m1gra · te d eastwar d in· response to W unusually high rainfall there since early 1991. the University's Institute of Research. 62 996-97 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1 Please tick membership category: D Single $ s s D Household $ 70 D Concession (Student/Pensioner) $40 Dsponsor $125 D Benefactor $2 50 Circles of Natural History: D Corporate/ Individual Membership. Please send me information (or call the Corporate Membership Manager)

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P H O T O A R T

TASMANIA IN FOCUS

BY JOE SHEMESH

hether photographing a rainforest scene in the tropics or an unusual rock forma­ tion on the south-western coast of Tasmania,W I am constantly reminded of nature's intrigu­ ing beauty and serenity. Nature's ability to impress should not be underestimated as it provides us with a special insight into our environment.

65 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 O A R T T'!, �- rq:.

TASMANIA IN FOCUS

66 6-91 MER l 99 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUM NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 67 TASMANIA IN FOCUS

68 97 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 199G- NATURE 69 AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 bone. When the first large Riversl ' l . eigh snake was discovered by colleague VIEWS FROM Montypythonoides s 1- 1 '" ·:::., was named in hon�u of the BBC's infamous circus of com r Like sugar-coating medicine, science served with dy. Sadly, this name bit the dust after� reviser concluded that the new spe humour can make a sometimes dreary Morelia, cie was bell:er placed i� a les: 1 _ ative ?ut earlier-n topic more appealing. imagin amed genus. When two kmds of strange, crescent­ shaped teeth dropped out of ou r acid from Riversleig vats h, the name 'Thingodonta' seemed inescapable TICKLING When we submitted our paper to th� international journal Science, we pro­ THE DULL OUT OF posed that they be placed in the new genus 'Thingodonta' and these in the new mammalian order 'Thingodontia'. TAXONOMY The basic substance of the paper was accepted by Science but the editor was BY MICHAEL ARCHER clearly worried about the name. Each of the referees' reports began with some version of "No, I do not think this is a hoax ... ", suggesting they had all been not all zoologists have heeded this warn­ asked to consider whether the whole ing! Australia's giant extinct horned tur­ thing might be a joke! At his urging, we tles include one recently named caved in (I wish we hadn't) and called Ninjamys the genus Yalkaparidon, a far less mem­ by a palaeontologist who w?s. a N ESTEEMED COLLEAGUE fan of the infamous Mutant NmJa orable name meaning 'moon-shaped of mine when first sight­ Turtles. Even among plant systematists, tooth', and the order Yalkaparidontia. ing a copy of Vertebrate zoogeography and Other Riversleigh names for radically evolution in Australasia, wit has worked its wicked ways such a student text­ as happened when the parasol­ distinct beasts survive as popular han­ book we stuffed with silly but relevant shaped alga was named Humm­ dles. For example, while we wanted to cartoons sternly remarked that humour brella. name another strange mammal had no place in the presentation of sci­ The names of several new creatures 'Bizzarodonta', we chickened out and ence. A reviewer of the same book from the fossil deposits of Riversleigh gave it the far less memorable name summed up with "Naughty, naughty; have similarly dared tickle the funny Yingabalanara which, to those intimate- never do it again!". And yet the first (and so far only) edition sold out within one year, several major overseas universities set it as a required textbook asking for far more copies than existed, and rare second-hand copies can now cost $300. So what is wrong with mixing humour and science if it makes the science more palatable? Apparently some scientists think mixing humour with science risks undermining the credibility of the sci­ ence. If that's true, the credibility of systematics (the study of the diversity, relationships and classification of creat­ ures) must be one of the highest because so many of its practitioners seem to work very hard to keep their writing free of wit; but fortunately not all! Titles of papers indicate that some otherwise serious biologists at times can't resist being just a bit naughty. Consider the title of a scientific paper written by one of my colleagues who had discov­ ered that penis shape in marsupials may provide useful information about rela­ tionships: "Phallic morphology of the Australian species of Antechinus (Dasy­ uridae, Marsupialia): a new taxonomic tool". One entomologist announced a z new butterflyas "A spectacular new Idea

50 from Celebes (Lepidoptera, Danaidae)", � and another described a new insect as � "Ohno, another new genus of sphecid "' wasps". � The International Code of Zoological � Nomenclature states that no zoologist !;: should give an animal a name with Riversleigh's extinct 'Thingodonta', m those � bizarre or comical so-named because its teeth are wildly different tro meaning. Fortunately, of any other Australian animal-live or dead. 996-91 70 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER I Jy familiar with t 1e Waanyi Ab iginal rejected. I � ?1: I language, means another moon m ref­ I Some scientific names that I have I Spend a fascinating holi­ erence to its dou hie-crescent-shaped achieved I notoriety were parts of hoaxes. I teeth. But there is still hope. A stunning­ For example, Brunus edwardii turned I day in the ly different kind of Riversleigh kangaroo out to be a scientific name for a teddy Snowy Mountains with huge wolf-like canines may yet hit bear, Tyrannonasus was a mammalian I 'Fangaroo'! fr°I the scientific arena as At the predator that walked on elongated, mus­ I Staying at beautiful: _ I very least, 'Fangaroo' will be a star char­ ul r flaps of its nose, Homo marsup­ I � � and I ialzs I "QUEENS COTTAGE" acter in the Australia-on-CD-ROM title (whose authors incidentally were I r I ''Tales f om the Kangaroo's Crypt: 4 Have, I KHANCOBAN NSW 2642 A.P. & Flush, A John) was sup­ I I Billion Years of Extraordinary Australia" posed to be a pouched primate found in I (Six twin and double rooms, ensuites, open fire I I place, stunning views, country-style hospitality now nearing completion. a remote region of central Australia. I I and home cooked meals) A similar case involved one of the And what of common names and their I I I weirdest monotremes ever found often curious origins? In the 1995 edition I I Phone (060)769511 (Nature Aust. Winter 1995). "\Vhen Tim of Ron Strahan's The mammals of I I I Fax (060)769496 Flannery described to me over the Australia, the common name for I I with phone the jaw of this Cretaceous crea­ Petrogale burbidgei, I a rock-wallaby from I I ture from Lightning Ridge, he said it had the Kimberley region of Western I teeth like a hot cross bun and we were Australia, had been changed without soon informally calling it 'Hotcrossbun­ explanation from its original 'Warabi' to 0 PHOTOGRAPHY odon'. When the time came to submit 'Monjon'. Why? Rumour has it that the Join the five-day course "Shadows on the the technical paper to the international original describers realised that, when Mountains". Work with renowned landscape pho­ journal Nature, we considered 'Hotcross­ they first asked the Aborigines of the tographer, Gordon Undy, and learn all the secrets bunodon' for the beast's generic name. region ''What is the name of this ani­ of making memorable photographic images. But again scientific conservatism pre­ mal?", the quick response "A warabi" FLY FISHING 0Three and five day courses by Australia's vailed! Abandoning what would have may not have been quite as specific as acknowledged leaders in teaching and guiding fly been a very memorable and descriptive they presumed ("Of course it's a warabi, fishers. Join local or overseas safaris - perhaps name, we eventually named the beast mate; we got lots of lands of warabies visit the Company's New Zealand base at Twizel Kollikodon, which means 'bun tooth'. I here!"). in the South Island. suppose that's a kind of compromise-at There are also curious names immor­ FOLK AR T 0Popular course of five days with Carol Swan. least for readers fluent in Greek. Finally, talising professional colleagues for per­ Learn from Carol's contemporary style - in com­ along these same lines, Glen Ingram haps dubious reasons. Harold Cogger pany with beginners and advanced folk artists (Queensland Museum) tells me that he Gohn Evans Memorial Fellow at the from all over Australia. and a colleague considered naming a Australian Museum) told me about QUILTING new frog species from the frog genus Apogonichthys coggeri, a Great Barrier D Exciting dimensions in threadcraft - a detailed Kyarranus, Kyarranus aurusrex (say it Reef fish evidently named in honour of insight into design, colour selection and assembly quickly). The species name would have his love of food when he was one of the techniques with Kerry Gadd. meant 'gold Jang' in reference to the members of the expedition on which it BIRDWATCHING Ocome and enjoy our growing list of rare and frog's distinctive colour, but was was caught-the fish belongs to a group unusual birds. Ramble across the western slopes dropped for the more conservative K. popularly known as 'gobbleguts'. of the Snowy Mountains exploring a range of dif­ kundagungan, which means 'mountain Unfortunately the species turned out not ferent habitats and locations with Dick Cooper, frog'. to be new and the name has now been Coordinator, NSW Bird Atlassers. Far more provocative names have sunk in favour of Neamia octospina. In NAT URAL HIS TORY D Fascinating overview of the flora, fauna, geog­ been the stock and trade of other my own case, I can cite Archerite, a new raphy and geology of the Snowy Mountains with systematists such as Richard Wells and mineral named after me by Perth miner­ Julie Gold. Ross Wellington. For example, in their alogist Peter Bridge. Knowing of Peter's revision of Australian reptile system­ interest in phosphate minerals, I sent EXECUTIVE TRAINING COURSES AND atics, they named one skink Eroticoscin­ him a strange piece of crystalline mater­ 0 INTIMATE CONFERENCE RE TREAT cus (the mind boggles why) and another ial I had found on the floor of a Nullarbor Write now for details, dates & prices Vaderscincus, said to be in honour of the cave. I was indeed honoured at having a PLEASE TICK ACTIVITY "Star Wars" villain Darth Vader. mineral named after me until Peter [ftlAT APPEALS TO YOU MOST The International Code of Zoological explained that it was almost certainly Nomenclature also states that no zoolo­ mutated bat poop. gist should create a name that "gives I guess my point in all this is that sure­ offence o ly very little is lost in lightening up the ui on any grounds". One reason f r Q) this curious warning may have been the professional as well as public face of sci­ naming by John Gray (former Keeper of ence. If we filter the fun out of science to ijCll Zoology at the British Museum) of a new preserve its dignity, we may even endan­ "'6 .0o- C zebra after its discoverer, the explorer ger its appeal to the scientists of tomor­ "'O � William Burchell. Disliking Burchell, row. Like sugar-coating medicine, sci­ roC �[l en- Q) Gray named it Asinus burchelli, saying ence served with humour can make a z Q) 0 <{ E <{ u_ 0 that it, like its discoverer, was an ass. sometimes dreary topic more appealing co- ·� Cl) I 0 <{_J 0-=- � Burchell promptly challenged Gray to a and its key messages more interesting to 0 en :J duel! learn. In most cases, the only price paid z a: Q) 0 There was also a colonial ichthy­ <{ tn iii >, �l I::> "'O ologist in the Museum who may be a wee bit of damage to personal i� of Victoria ::,:: <{ -o-0 C en was so infuriated at his treatment by the dignity, a loss most of us could well "(\J I r--"'" Q) � o I X

72 1 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-9 ecies of New Guinean south-west Pacific. new sp s�ecies or group of species, mammals, this work clearly We are then taken on a with the exception of the establishes him in the same guided tour of the volcanic Cane Toad and its control. league as t�e three _e�plore�s landscapes around Australia, The basic principles apply to and scientists-Lu1g1 Mana and the volcanic minerals and most species of frogs likely to D'Albertis, Michael Oldfield rocks that occur within them. be found in a garden. Thomas and George Tate­ The author reveals that this The book has 13 chapters whom he so obviously interval of quiescence in with titles such as ''Where admires. We are in his debt. Australia's volcanic history is Have all the Frogs Gone", -Ken Aplin just that, an interval, and that "Identifying your Frogs" there are many indications of "Life as Predator & Prey"' L I N S U T II E R L A N D future volcanic activity, espe­ A u $ T II A L I A :,I l>I U $ • U M "The Backyard Pond" and cially in the east. He even pre­ "Frogscaping". In addition it dicts likely areas for future covers some related but eruptions and their possible potentially useful areas too, effect upon our major cities. like "Attracting OtherWi ldlife" The book includes a unique and "Frog Photography". It trans-Tasman volcano spot­ has two appendices-one with ter's guide complete with "Additional Information Sources maps and including the spec­ and Useful Addresses" Oike tacular, currently active, the various frog societies) areas of New Zealand. and the other "Suggested The book is beautifully Further Reading". The book illustrated in colour through­ is 136 pages long and easily out, and the style and enthus­ read. It could have had more iasm of the writing reflect the colour photographs but that ..l t ,c. . . •.. U I. U I. -l �".. H author's love of the subject. would have increased its rea­ Much more than a 'coffee­ sonable $14.95 price tag. As it The Volcanic table' book, it is a must for is, there are 41 black-and­ Earth those people interested in white photos of good quality By Lin Sutherland. New South volcanoes and the part they and three line drawings to Wales University Press, NSW, have played in shaping the help explain aspects of the 1995, 248pp. $49.95rrp. landscape of our continent. text. PURCHASE -Brenda Franklin The book tries to list any a COPY of We tend to think of University of Technology, Sydney pitfalls that may occur; for THE VOLCANIC EARTH Australia as being devoid of example, it covers the legal by volcanoes and poor in exam­ aspects regarding the keep­ ples of volcanic phenomena; ing or transport of frogs and AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM far from it! Did you know that tadpoles, and gives the SCIENTIST LI there is a projected volcanic addresses of relevant State SUTHERLAND and ,'hotspot' now lying under authorities so people can the Newcastle-Blue Mount­ check (or indeed lobby if RECEIVE a ains-Wollongong area? Such they think the laws need COPY of changing). I don't know HIDDEN He even predicts whether I agree with the BY author's opinions on frogs in RAINFORESTS likely areas for captivity but frogs in the gar­ GEOFF WILLIAMS den are a better option for (VALUED AT $84.00) most people. It might also ABSOLUTELY FREE future eruptions have been useful to include a paragraph on what to do if a WHILE STOCKS LAST! and their possible frog turns up in your green groceries. This is more com­ effect upon our mon than you might think. Attra�ting Frogs Recently while in the Eyre major cities. to your Garden Peninsula, South Australia, I By Kevin Casey. Kimberley saw several specimens of the a hotspot could result in a Publications, Qld, 1996, 136pp. Dainty Green Tree Frog volcanic eruption of basaltic $14.95rrp. (Litoria gracilenta), also lava (but probably not in the known as the Banana Frog, Please post or fax orders to: next thousand years or so). It is surprising that a book that had arrived on the MAIL OllDER SHOP This book could effectively like this has not been written fruit of their choice from AUSTRALIAN " be_ subtitlted The life and sooner. The need and interest Queensland! MUSEUM times of volcanoes. It vividly was there, and frogs are cer­ All in all a recommended 6 COLLEGE ST outlines modern-day plate and useful book providing a SYDNEY NSW ffl tainly an animal group with a 2000 tectonic explanations of vol­ strong cult following. Thank­ variety of detail and aspects. canic distribution, describes fully with this book the need A good companion to the Fax: (02) 9320 6066 the volcanoes themselves explained in its title has been book from the RANA group, Phone: (02) 9320 6363 the dating of volcanic event� met. The book has tried to Raising native frogs by and the significance of volca­ make itself applicable to any­ Alistair Bax. Ideal for the noes to the Earth's environ­ where in Australia and has basis of a family project! Payment should be mnde in Auslralinn me1:t. The emphasis through­ succeeded very well. As a -Martyn Robinson dollarsby Vi�a. Bankcard, Mastercard, Australian Museum American Express. or by pcrionnl �hop­ out 1s on our own region-the result, it is not specific to any ping only. Postngc and packing (surface mail only):Up to $29.95 = $3.50 $30 NATURE 10 $49.95 = $5.00 $50 10 $69.95 = AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 $6.50 $70 10 S89. 95 = $8.00 $90 10 SI09.95 = $9.00S110 !O $150.00= S12.50 PAGE SOCIET to the h exist urther cause of d small local and national, whic f the subject that netwo of active s •e • 1 king or a particular group of animals there's a society :i.u hold dear. G volved! AcrossAust ralia the_ _re is a _ rk �J� ����n�;��=ional pa;ks,bushwal _ for Y et in p te est s conse d lp promote the following soC1et1es. Whether your s ecral in r r ;J�ii/�uSTRALIA is please to he National Parks Foundation The Waterhouse Club EDUCATION of SA Inc. SA Museum, AUST. PLANTS New North 1e rrace, (, ANZSES, Australian & Adelaide, Adelaide, SA Society for Growing GPO Box 759, 5000. Zealand Scientific Ph: (08) 2077 Australian Plants SA 5001. 389 Exploration Society Inc. 0016 Contact: Mary Hunter Region Ph: (08) 231 Lou Sim Pson, Exec. Coordi Close, PO Box 174, Contact: Helen Jaensch, nator 7 Glenurie I NSW 2321. Albert Park, Vic. 3206 Secretary of Council • • I I Woodville, 8699 Membership fee: $ (049) 305 564 Ph: (03) 9866 a 50 00 ( . Ph: Lazenby, $70.00 (family) · smg/e);) Contact: Mrs Sue Newman Contact: Ms Colleen •• • Executive Director Queensland Conservation Fee: $32.00 Council ===-=-=------N , Membership •• ATURAL HISTORY (individual or joint); MembershipFee: $30.00 PO Box 12046, Elizabeth Street, Field Natu ralist Assoc. $26.00 ( co ncession) Brisbane, Qld 4002. of Canberra Ph: (07) 221 0188 CSIRO's Double Helix GPO Box 249 Contact: Imogen Zethoven, BIRDS Science Club Canberra, ACT 2601. Coordinator Ph: (06) 247 4996 NSW Field PO Box 225, Dickson, Club Contact: Joyce Weeks, Secreiary1 Ornithologists ACT 2602. Membership Fee: $20.00 Box Q277, • • PO Ph: (06) 276 6643 M mbership � Office, NSW 2000. � _ Fee: $20.00 QVB Post Contact: Lynn Pulford, (single/family); Ph: (02) 807 6828 The Societyfor Growing $12.00 (conces- ) Membership Secretary sion) Contact: Sheila Witt, Australian Plants (NSW) Ltd Hon. Secretary Membership fee: $25.00 3 Currawang Place, ••• Como West, NSW 2226. Field Naturalists Society MembershipFee: $35.00 (adult); of SA Inc. Gould League of SA Ph: (02) 528 2683 $20.00 (17 & under) Contact: Allan Woollett, GPO Box 1594, PO Box 56, Adelaide, SA 5001. Modbury North, SA 5092. Secretary CONSERVATION Ph: (08) 272 9015 Ph: (08) 277 2851 •• • Australian Trust for Membership Fee: $32.00 Contact: Mr D. Kraehenbuehl, Contact: Mr Arthur M. Pratt, Conservation Volunteers President Treasurer PO Box 423, Ballarat, Vic. 3353. • • • FROGS Membership Fee: $20.00p.a. Ph: (008) 032 501 MembershipFee: $25.00 Tablelands Club Contact: Colin Jackson, Frog Inc. Exec. Director Mail Bag 71, Field Naturalists Club ofVlr. •• • ENVIRONMENTAL Yungaburra, Qld 4872. Locked Bag 3, Membership Fee: $30.00 Conservation Council of SE Contact: Lorrie Davison, Blackburn, Vic. 3130. Region & Canberra Secretary 1 Gardenia St, Blackburn, Victorian National Parks GPO Box 1875, • • Vic. 3130. MembershipFee: Association Inc. Canberra, ACT 2601. $10.0O(adult); Ph: (03) 9877 9860 10 Parliament Place, Ph: (06) 247 7808· $15.OO(/amily); $5.00(associ­ Contact: Geoffrey Paterson, Melbourne, Vic. 3002. Fax: (06) 248 5343 ate/child) Secretary Ph: (03) 9650 8296; Contact: Craig Darlington •• •• ' $40.00 (single): I Fax: (03) 9654 6843 Director GEOGRAPHIC MembershipFee: Contact: Doug Humann, • •• $30.00 (concession) I Director The Royal Geographical ' Membership Fee: $3O.OO (indi­ Society of Qld Inc •• •••• vidual); $15.00 (concessi . TAMS, The Australian MembershipFee: on) 112 Brookes St, $36.00 (single) Fortitude Valley Museum Society Qld 4006. Gould League Vic. Museum, Ph: (07) 3252 3856 Australian PO Street, Box 117 Contact: Ms Kath Berg, 6 College ' , NSW 2000. Moorabbin, Vic. 3189. Administrator Sydney Ph: (03) 9532 0909 Ph: (02) 320 6335; Are you a Fax • •• (02) 320 6051 : (03) 9532 2860 Membership Fee: $30.0 Fax: cutivr ( Club Secretary? 0 Carole Bibby, Exe Contact: Alan Mayberry' Contact: NATURE Manager Officer I AUSTRALIA's Associate MUSEUM • • ••• (si11g/1); Society Scheme is • Queensland rshipFe e: $5 5 00 ) designed to Membership Fee: $25.00 Museum Membe Association help your club or society Inc. with free �\n

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Tissue-curling Spider What is this spider and .• just what is it doing with thisQ tissue? -Edith M. Adler Mona Vale, NSW . This is a Leaf-curling A• Spider (Phonognatha graeffei). These spiders are out to attack any insects that Leaf-curling Spiders, it seems, are not too particu lar about what they harmless to humans and like become trapped in the snare. use to build their homes. This one has chosen to use a moist towelette most spiders are beneficial As they grow, Leaf-curling that was accidentally dropped in a Sydney garden. insectivores. They are com­ Spiders renew their retreats mon in the gardens, open to suit their increasing size. forests and woodlands of Adult spiders almost always home. Tissues are no excep­ larvae of other wasps may feed eastern Australia, including use a dead leaf, whereas tion and this spider has upon the 'resident' (mud-dauber) Tasmania (a closely related younger spiders often 'exper­ curled this tissue into a suit­ larvae and/or their spider pantry. species is also found in south­ iment' with green leaves still able retreat in the same man­ Enclosed is a photograph that I western Western Australia). attached to plants. However, ner as it would a leaf. believe shows modifications to a Normally the spider hauls a as you have discovered, Leaf­ -Michael Harvey mud-dauber's nest by another leaf up into its web and uses curling Spiders do not restrict Australian Museum much smaller wasp. I am not sure silk to draw it into a curled their activities to leaves. They whether it was a nest only shape. This curled leaf is then will opportunistically use recently constructed or from the lined with silk and used by whatever comes to hand. When Wasps Meet previous year, but the small the spider as its retreat. The There are records of them I enjoyed Steve Van black-and-gold wasp spent much spider builds an orb-shaped using tram tickets, cigarette .• Dyck's article on mud­ of its time going in and out of the web around this retreat as an cards and scraps of news­ dauberQ wasps in the Spring 1995 nest, whilst a larger black-and· insect snare. The spider nor­ paper. Even snail shells have issue of Nature Australia. Whilst white wasp scoured the outside. mally stays motionless inside been used as a pre-curled, if the mud-dauber larvae feed on its retreat but quickly darts somewhat heavy, spider spiders, I wonder whether the Just what are these wasps up to?

996-97 NATURE AUSTRALIA SUMMER 1 I see eit�er the nest occupied by the puddlemates. At no point did This extra ove anything little potter wasp. species of wasp rem protein results in larger what was -Ian Naumann from the nest. Just froglets sooner and at going on? Australian National metamorphosis they have a -Robert H. McNaught Insect Collection better chance of survival. If Bugaldie, NSW you want to increase the Frog Food for chances of survival of your The smaller wasp Thought tadpoles, the easiest diet is : with extensive red In my garden I have a small pieces of crushed or A •. number of containers in markings is a potter_ wasp, Q boiled lettuce supplemented Paralastor �lexandr!ae. Fe­ which frogs lay their eggs when it with a small amount of fish males of this species con­ rains. The tadpoles do not appear food or even grated dog sb·uct a tubular mud nest to survive, perhaps due to starva­ biscuit. But beware of inside the abandoned cells of tion. What is their natural food? overfeeding! Remember to 1 an old mud-dauber nest. The -R.M. Bellamy put in a few ramps and tube protrudes a little way Jannali, NSW islands of sticks and/ or and expands into the delicate rocks for the tadpoles when mud funnel seen in the A • I'm going to have to they develop legs, otherwise photo. The fe�ales provision • assume that the they may drown. You might their cells with paralysed "number of containers" in also consider putting in a caterpillars. The female pot- which the frogs are laying larger frog 'pond' some­ the their eggs are small and free where in your ' ter wasp is guarding garden as a entrance to her nest, which of debris as most places more self-maintaining alter­ , she probably imagines to be frogs lay their eggs are native for the frogs to breed under threat fromthe larger, generally suitable for the in. black wasp, Pison alex­ survival of the tadpoles that -Martyn Robinson andriae. Pison alexandriae is follow. Most frog tadpoles Australian Museum another widespread and fair­ are raspers of algae and wasp, !mown small organisms that encrust ly common Answers to Quiz in Nature from nor thern Western Aus­ rocks, sticks etc. that are Strips (page 16) tralia, the top end of the found in their ponds. Most

1 Northern Territory, Queens­ will also supplement this diet 1. An extinct giant bird land and New South Wales with drowned insects, dead 2. 1,000 south to about Sydney. leaves and fallen fruit that 3. The moon comes between The black Pison wasp may wash in. As they grow the Earth and the Sun, 1 preys on spiders, so the older, some species become momentarily blocking out po tter wasp's provisions are a little more predatory and the Sun's light. not at risk. However, the can catch mosquito larvae, 4. Chimpanzee black Pison would be con­ water fleas, worms and even 5. Ants and/or termites structing a mud nest in a the eggs and tadpoles of 6. Tasman Sea cavity nearby and may be other frogs. A few like 7. Alcohol , looking for building material. Fletcher's Frog (Lechriodus 8. Douglas Mawson , It is quite possible that it fletcherz) are decidedly 9. Amphibian would like to bite a few cannibalistic and will turn on 10. Brontosaurus chunks off the exterior of and devour their sibling

PIC TEASER

Do you recognise this? If you think you know what it is, then send your answer to Pie Teaser, Nature Australia Magazine. Please don't forget to include your name and address.The first correct entry will win a $20 gift voucher for the Museum Shop Book Catalogue.Spring's Pie Teaser was a scan­ ning electron micro­ graph of a spider's spinnerets.

NATURE A U STRALIA SUMMER 1996-97 79 ernment bodies. Much of the data col­ THE LAST WORD lected by State government agencies are not open to public scrutiny, nor to peer review. Instead, this 'grey literatu re' is Censorship by others is bad only reviewed internally and then enough; but self-censorshipis locked away in filing cabinets. This is part of a long tradition of government even more dangerous and secrecy. I recall being in the UK when threatens to undermine the there was a controversy about lead whole scientific process. emissions from the Avonmouth smelter. The inspectors had known about the problem for years. Instead of releasing the data to the public, they had negotiat­ ed behind closed doors for moderate CENSORING improvements to an unacceptable situa­ tion. CE Three years ago, a conservation SCIEN group released successive drafts of papers prepared by scientists working BY IAN LOWE for the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM). The process of 'internal peer review' had removed findings that exposed deficiencies in CALM's forest in them-intellectual excellence, free management. By suppressing this in for­ inquiry, scientific imagination." mation, CALM was guilty of misleading Government policy in recent years the public. Governments are often has undermined the independence of tempted to put short-term economic CSIRO and its capacityto do research in expediency before the long-term good; the public interest. Only about 70 per an informed public can restrain this ten­ cent of CSIRO's budget now comes from dency. its government allocation. Many com­ The issue came to a head when the US munity groups see a cosy relationship ecologist Paul Ehrlich (from Standford between areas of CSIRO and their indus­ University) was in Australia recently. At trial sponsors, with the direction of a forum held at the University of research being driven by the projects Technology Sydney, in a series intended that sponsors are prepared to fund. to raise public awareness of scientific HE RESULTS OF RESEARCH ARE Private funding also brings with it issues, he claimed that research on en­ usually published in scientific reduced freedom to pass on new knowl­ vironmental problems was systematical­ journals. This has two benefits: the work edge. A commercial sponsor, for exam­ ly suppressed by government agencies. is subject to peer review, so it is more ple, will often want publication of impor­ As if to prove his point, the forum organ­ likely to meet accepted standards; and tant results to be either suppressed or isers, after an unofficial discussion with the findings then become available to delayed for long enough to give a head­ a junior officer in the Commonwealth other scientists, science journalists and start in exploitation. Government's Environment Depart· the general public. However, this pro­ So, many areas will not be studied, and ment, decided not to release Ehrlich's cedure is now under threat. some of the findings will not be made paper to the media! Of course, Ehrli�h The increasing reluctance of govern­ public. This reduces the ability of scien­ couldn't resist telling the media of this ments to fund university research is driv- tists to serve the overall interests of the attempt to suppress his findings about research findings being suppressed! The real worry is that the pres�nt research climate has caused collective Those whose research is supported by industry self-censorship by scientists in public agencies. Censorship by others is bad are reluctant to bite the corporate hand that feeds them. enough; but self-censorship, where the scientists themselves are made to feel Others hesitate to risk future funding by public they must bite their tongue or p1:oduce results that fit the departmental 1deolo· gy, thr�at· criticism of large companies. is even more dangerous and _ ens to undermine the whole scientific process. Public funding of science is not ser�­ ing scientists to seek support elsewhere. community. Those whose research is ing the public interest in the way 11 There is a steady rise in the number of supported by industry are reluctant to should. If research comes from applied research projects and consultan­ funding of bite the corporate hand that feeds them. the public , the research findings-all. a cies, feeding on the scientific base built Others hesitate to risk future funding by them-s to the public. That is by public money. This yields economic hould go public criticism of large companies. fundamental principle. Those who ay benefits to particular companies, and � When a Tasmanian honours student the piper should at least hear the tune. 1 sometimes to the nation, but it affects recently documented unacceptable pol­ the integrity of universities. As former lution of the King River by mining oper­ UK minister Shirley Williams said, ations, university officials tried to keep Professor Jan Lowe is in the School f "Those who want to harness the univer­ Science at Griffith University, Queens/an · the findings under wraps. His research the broad ar sities to commercial objectives may Another disturbing practice is the sup­ interests are in ;� destroy the very qualities they observe of policy issues affecting science and tee pression of research carried out by gov- nology.

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