Notes and References Introduction 1. Hans Sturmberger, Aufstand in Bbhmen. Der Beginn des dreifUgjahrigen Krieges (Munich/Vienna: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1959). 2. ]. V. Polisensky and Frederic Snider, War and Society in Europe, 1618-1648 (Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 55; see also Polisensky's The Thirty Years' War, trans. Robert Evans (London: Batsford, 1971). 3. Prominent among these is ]aroslav Panek, 'The Religious Question and the Political System of Bohemia before and after the Battle of the White Mountain', in R. ] . W. Evans and T. V. Thomas (eds), Crown, Church and Estates. Central European Politics in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), pp . 129-48. We still lack a recent monograph of the Bohemian side of the conflict. However, Christine van Eickels has made the Silesian participation in the Bohemian Confederation the topic of her book Schlesien im biihmischen Stiindestaat. Voraussetzung und Verlauf der bah ­ mischen Revolution von 1618 in Schlesien (Colonge: Bohlau Verlag, 1994); see also Josef Valka, 'Moravia and the Crisis of the Estates' System in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown', in Evans and Thomas, Crown, Church and Estates, pp . 149-57; Karolina Adamova, 'K otazce cesko-rakouskeho a cesko-uherskeho konfederacniho hnuti v letech 1619-1620' [The Question of the Bohemian-Austrian and Bohemian-Hungarian Confederation Movement of 1619-1620] .Pravnehistoricke studie, 29 (1989), pp. 79-90; and Vac lav Buzek, 'NiB i slechta v predbelohorskych cechach (Prameny, metody, stav a perspek­ tivy badani)', [The Lower Nobility of Bohemia at the time before the Battle of the White Mountain (Sources, Methods, State and Perspectives of Research)], Cesky casopis historicky, 1 (1993), pp. 37-53. 4. Myron P. Gutmann, 'The Origins of the Thirty Years' War', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, XVIII (Spring 1988), pp . 751-2. However , Gutmann also complains that the origin of the Thirty Years' War has not been discussed sufficiently in recent treatments of the war. The English literature on the Thirty Years' War is extensive; recent works include Stephen]. Lee, The Thirty Years' War (London: Routledge, 1991); Geoffrey Parker, The Thirty Years' War (Boston, Mass.: Routledge, 1984); and N. M. Sutherland, 'The Origins of the Thirty Years' War and the Structure of European Politics', English Historical Review, 107 (Iuly 1992), pp. 587-625. 5. In this book, the term'Austria' refers to the archduchy of Austria; that is, the hereditary lands of Lower and Upper Austria . Although at times I include the Inner Austrian territories of the Habsburgs, this will be made clear. The focus of the statistical data, however, is on Lower Austria. The sociopolitical structures of these lands were similar and their nobilities closely related. 6. I define 'elite' as the most powerful and wealthy groups in society. In the Austrian lands of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, this included the groups (landed nobles, highest Church officials, urban representatives) who were incorporated into the Estates or Stiinde. There were, in addition, nobles, clergy and burghers who were not members of the Stiinde, but who were sufficiently 214 Notes and References to Introduction 2 15 wealthy to be considered on an equal footing with those incorporated in th e Estates, but usually they were politically less influential. 7. Charles Tilly's important work provides a convincing chain of cumulative causation in which geopolitics and technological change brought about the expansion of armies, prompting greater efforts on th e part of rulers to extract resources from th eir subjects and to create central administrative institution s. In sho rt, war made the state, causing resistance from subjects and leading to furth er increases in the 'extrac­ tive bulk of th e state'. See his The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 73-5 ; and, more recentl y, Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 990-1992 (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992). Michael Mann, who supports Tilly's basic conclusion s in his The Sources of Social Power, vol. I: A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760 (2 vols) (Cambridge University Press, 1986), has stressed particularly that th e revenue-extrac­ tive strategies rulers were able to employ to meet geopolitical challenges determined th e size and character of th e infrastructure and type of regime a state developed. For example, 'absolutist states' developed where states depended on the difficult extrac­ tion of land taxes to finance armies, forcin g rulers to construct larger bureaucracies to coerce subjects. Critics of this appro ach have insisted, however, th at the size of administrations was connected rather with the practice of venal offices, and that the extraction of commercial revenue s in fact required larger and better-trained person­ nel; see Thomas Ertman, Birthofthe Leviathan. BuildingStates and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modem Europe (Cambridge University Press, 1997), ch. 1. 8. The recent lit erature on state-building by historians is extensive. For some national overviews, see Mich ael Braddi ck, State Formation in Early Modern England, c. 1550-1700 (Cambridge University Press, 2000 ); James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Julian Goo dare, State and Society in Early Modem Scotland (Oxford University Press, 1999); Hagen Schul ze, States, Nations and Nationalism. From the Middle Ages to the Present, trans . W. E. Yuill (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996); and Peter H. Wilson , Absolutism in Central Europe(Londo n/NewYork: Routledge, 2000). 9. Paul a Sutter-Fichtner, 'Habsburg State-Building in th e Early Modern Era: The Incom plete Sixteenth Century', Austrian History Yearbook, xxv (1994), pp . 139- 57. 10. Berthold Bretholz still emphasized th is aspect in the early twent ieth cen tury in Neuere Geschichte Biihmens (Gotha: F. A. Perthes, 1920). 11. Otto von Gierke was the major repr esentative of this view; Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht, Vol. I: Rechtsgeschichte der deutschen Genossenschaft (Berlin : Weidmann, 1868); see also Anton Gindely, History ofthe Thirty Years' War, tran s. Andrew Ten Brook (2 vols.) (Freepor t, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), and Petr Ch lume cky, Carl von Zierotin und seine Zeit, 1564-1615 (Brunn: A. Ritsch , 1862), who offer similar interpr etations for th e Habsburgs and th eir Estates. 12. A principal prepresentative of this historiography was Otto Hintze, 'Weltgeschi­ chtliche Bedingungen der Reprasentivverfassung', HistorischeZeitschrift, 143 (1931), pp . 1-47; and 'Typology der standischen Verfassung des Abendlandes', in Abhandlugen zur allgemeinen vertassungsgeschichte. 2nd ed. (G6ttingen : Vandern­ ho eck and Ruprecht, 1962), pp. 120-39. Marlene LeGates, 'Princes, Parliaments and Privilege: German Research in Europ ean Context', European Studies Review, 10 (1980), pp. 151-76, summarizes some of th ese debates among German scho lars. 13. Victor S. Mamatey, 'Th e Battle of th e White Mountain as Myth in Czech History', East European Quarterly, xv(3) (Sept. 1981) , pp . 335- 45, provides an overview of Czech hi stori ography. 216 Notes and References to Introduction 14. Brunner's Land und Herrschaft: Grundfragen der territorialen vertassungsgeschichte Siidostdeutschlands im Mittelalter, 1st edn. (Baden bei Wien , 1939); 3rd ed. (Brunn: R. M. Rohrer Verlag, 1943) has remained influential despite its Nationalist Socialist overtones and purpose, and has been translated recently; Otto Brunner, Land and Lordship. Structures ofGovernance in Medieval Austria, trans. from 4th, revd. ed. by Howard Kaminsky and James Van Horn Melton (Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992), p. 363. Hans Spangenberg had already considered the emergence of the estatist state in, Vom Lehnstaat zum Stiindestaat. Ein Beitragzur Entstehung der landstdndischen Verfassung (Munich/Berlin: R. Oldenbourg, 1912). 15. F. L. Carsten, Princes and Parliaments in Germany from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959 ); Fritz Hartung, Deutsche Yertassungsgcschichte vom 15. [ahrhundertbis zur Gegenwart, 5th edn. (Stuttgart: Koehler, 1950). 16. See, for example, Dietrich Gerhard, 'Sta ndische Vertr etungen und Land', Festschrift {iir Hermann Heimpl zum 70. Geburtstag am 19. September 1971 (Gottingen : Max Plan ck Institut fur Geschichte, 1971), pp. 447-72, wh o sug­ gested that this dualism was not overcome until the nineteenth century. 17. Sturmberger, Aufstand in Bohmen, p. 99. 18. See, for example, Grete Mecenseffy, Geschichte des Protestantismus in Osterreicn (Graz: Bohlaus, 1956) and Victor Bibl, 'Die katholischen und protestantischen Stande Nied erosterreichs im XVII. Iahrhundert . Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der standische n Verfassung', [ahrbuch [iirLandeskunde von Niederosterreicli GbLkNO) 2, NF (1903); pp . 167- 323. Gustav Rein grabner's, Adel und Reformation. Beitriige zur Geschichte des Protestantischen Adels im Lande unter der Enns wiihrend des 16. und 17. [ahrhunderts (Vienna: Verein fur Landeskunde von Niederosterreic h, 1976), offers no new interpr etation of th e conflict. 19. Like contemporaries, I apply 'court' to both the government and the ruler's household . 20. Robert Bireley, 'Ferdinand II : Founder of the Habsburg Monarch y', in R. J. W. Evans and T. V. Thomas (eds), Crown, Church and Estates. Central European Politics in the Sixteenth and Sevententh Centuries (New York: St. Martin's Press,