PURIFICATION AND RESISTANCE Glocal Meanings of Islamic Fundamentalism in the Netherlands © 2011 Fiore Geelhoed PURIFICATION AND RESISTANCE Glocal Meanings of Islamic Fundamentalism in the Netherlands ZUIVERING EN VERZET Glokale betekenissen van islamitisch fundamentalisme in Nederland Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam op gezag van de rector magnificus Prof.dr. H.G. Schmidt en volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties. De openbare verdediging zal plaatsvinden op Vrijdag 13 januari 2012 om 11.30 uur Fiore Geelhoed geboren te Haren (Groningen) Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof.dr. H.G. van de Bunt Overige leden: Prof.mr.dr. W. van der Burg Prof.dr. H.B. Entzinger Prof.dr. R. van Swaaningen Copromotor: Dr. D. Zaitch | 5 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 11 Introduction | CONSIDERING THE 'OTHERNESS' AND ATTRACTION OF ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM 13 The Perception of an Islamic Fundamentalist Threat 13 How ‘Other’ are Muslim Fundamentalists? 16 Fundamentalism, not Terrorism 18 Research Questions 19 The Added Value of a Criminological Study 20 Structure of the Book 22 1 | REMOVING THE VEIL 25 1.1 Islamic Fundamentalism in the West: The Dutch Case and a British Impression 26 1.2 Getting Started: Three Research Methods 26 1.2.1 Conducting Interviews 26 1.2.2 Getting in Place for Observation 29 1.2.3 Exploring Online Interactions 30 1.3 Ethical Issues when Entering the Field 32 1.3.1 Being an ‘Unveiled’ Non-Muslim Researcher 32 1.3.2 Anonimity and Confidentiality 32 1.3.3 Assuming Informed Consent 33 1.3.4 Acceptance of Closed Inner Doors 33 1.4 In the Field: Countering Obstacles and Limitations to Validity 33 1.4.1 Problems in Gaining Trust 33 1.4.2 Internal Validity: Social Desirability and Hidden Transcripts 36 1.4.3 Validity of Virtual Reality and Personalities 37 1.4.4 External Validity 38 1.5 Human Factors in Fieldwork 38 1.5.1 Reliability: Opening up to the Insider Perspective 38 1.5.2 Dealing with Expectations of Respondents 39 1.6 Registration of Observations and Interviews 40 1.6.1 Observations: Overt Researcher, Covert Notetaking 40 1.6.2 Interviews: No Recording Please! 41 1.7 Analysis of Data 42 1.8 Summary 43 6 | 2 | ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM AS A THREAT TO DUTCH SOCIETY? 45 2.1 Conceptualizing Islamic Fundamentalism 45 2.2 Global Sources, Local Manifestations of Islamic Fundamentalism 47 2.2.1 The Rise of Transnational Fundamentalism 47 2.2.2 The Resonance of Islamic Fundamentalism among Dutch Muslims 49 2.3 Anti-Western Beliefs and Behaviour? 52 2.3.1 The Islamic Way of Life: Islam is Everywhere and Everything 53 2.3.2 Contact between Believers and Unbelievers 54 2.3.3 (Western Liberal) Democracy versus Sharia 57 2.3.4 International Issues and Jihad 62 2.4 Moderate Muslims versus Orthodox, Radical, and Extremist Fundamentalists 67 2.4.1 Moderate 69 2.4.2 Orthodox 69 2.4.3 Radical and Extremist 71 2.5 Summary 73 3 | CONVERSION AND IDENTITY STRAIN 75 3.1 Conceptualizing Identity and Radical Conversion: Continuous Processes 75 3.2 Existing Explanations for Conversion to Orthodox, Radical and Extremist Islam 79 3.2.1 The Desire to Convert 79 3.2.2 The Temptation of Fundamentalist Interpretations 81 3.2.3 Explanatory Models and Links with (Criminological) Theories 82 3.3 Multiple Experiences Contributing to Identity Crisis 83 3.3.1 Being Adrift 84 3.3.2 Experiencing Personal Loss and Suffering 86 3.3.3 Experiencing Social Exclusion and Lack of Recognition 86 3.3.4 A Desire for Transcendence 89 3.3.5 The Common Factor: Identity Crisis and a Quest for Personal Meaning 92 3.4 Different Directions: A Role of Significant Others and ‘Identity Strain’? 93 3.4.1 Significant Others 93 3.4.2 Gradations of Identity Crisis and (Radical) Conversion 97 3.4.3 The Nature of the Crisis: Identity Strain 99 3.5 Summary 101 4 | AN ORTHODOX FOCUS ON POSITIVE SELF-IDENTIFICATION 103 4.1 Identity, Identification and Difference 103 4.2 Fundamentalist Meaning Systems as a Source of Secure Identities 105 4.2.1 Absolute Truth’s Promise of Stability 106 4.2.2 The Security of Relying on a Higher Power 108 4.3 The Security of Fundamentalist Boundaries in Everyday Life 112 4.3.1 Rules as Protection in the Pluralist Chaos of Modern Life 112 4.3.2 A Sense of Belonging 115 4.3.3 Islam as Master Status Determining Trait: Being Somebody Good 118 4.4 Summary 126 | 7 5 | A RADICAL AND EXTREMIST FOCUS ON RESISTANCE 129 5.1 Discourses of Resistance 130 5.1.1. Distancing from Former Life 130 5.1.2 Resistance to Western, Dutch Culture 131 5.1.3 Superiority to Other Religions 134 5.1.4 Resistance to External Labels 137 5.1.5 Criticism of Other Muslims 141 5.1.6 Criticism of Islamophobia 146 5.2 Resistance as Coping Strategy for Identity Strain? 148 5.2.1 The Orthodox Respondents: An Inward Focus 149 5.2.2 The Radical and Extremist Respondents: Resistance Identities 151 5.3 Summary 155 6 | REPRESENTING PURIFICATION AND RESISTANCE 157 6.1 Becoming a Fundamentalist Representative of Islam 157 6.1.1 Presentation of Self through Names 157 6.1.2 Linguistic Expression 158 6.1.3 Physical Appearances 161 6.1.4 Islamic Behaviour and Activities 167 6.2 Keeping the Community Together: Social Control and Impression Management 174 6.2.1 Introducing the Fundamentalist Communities 175 6.2.2 Confirmation and Stimulation 178 6.2.3 Critique 180 6.2.4 Impression Management: Ignoring Disagreement and Incorrect Behaviour 183 6.3 Internalizing Muslim Identities 185 6.4 Merits: Self-Identity, Belonging and Social Status 187 6.6 Summary 191 7 | A ‘LATE MODERN’ IDENTITY PROJECT UNDER STRAIN 193 7.1 ‘Late modern’ Fundamentalists 194 7.2 Bricolaging an Explanatory Model: A Modern Identity Project, Subcultures, and Strain 196 7.2.1 Dutch Fundamentalism and Late Modernity 196 7.2.2 Bricolaging a Theory of Identity Strain 199 7.3 Summary 209 8 | Conclusions | WESTERN FUNDAMENTALISTS: THE NEED FOR AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH 211 Fundamentalist Development, Reasons and Motives 211 Differential Experiences: An Orthodox Inward and Radical/Extremist Outward Focus 212 Dutch Fundamentalists as a Modern Phenomenon 212 Research Implications: A More Nuanced View of Dutch Muslim Fundamentalists 213 Nuancing the Image of Islamic Fundamentalism as a Threat 214 A Glocal Phenomenon: The Sameness of Dutch Fundamentalist Muslims 216 Theoretical Implications: Merits of Interdisciplinary Bricolaging 217 Policy Implications: A Narrower, More Inclusive Approach 218 Remaining Questions and Suggestions for Further Research 220 SAMENVATTING 223 BIBLIOGRAPHY 233 GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS 251 GLOSSARY OF ARABIC TERMS 253 Appendix | RESPONDENTS INTERVIEWS 255 CURRICULUM VITAE 261 | 9 FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURE 2.1 | Topic: How are we supposed to deal with unbelievers? .....................................57 FIGURE 2.2 | Categorization of the Respondents…………………………………………….70 FIGURE 2.3 | Political and religious dimensions of moderate, orthodox, radical and extremist viewpoints.....................................................................................................72 FIGURE 3.1 | Aarif’s conversion story ...................................................................................85 FIGURE 3.2 | Anna’s conversion story...................................................................................91 FIGURE 4.1 | Paths to an ‘Authentic’ Identity .....................................................................104 FIGURE 4.2 | Orthodox convert Naima..............................................................................107 FIGURE 4.3 | Islam as a Guideline.....................................................................................113 FIGURE 4.4 | Extremist born-again Nidal .........................................................................121 FIGURE 5.1 | ‘Liberation’..................................................................................................132 FIGURE 5.2 | Orthodox convert Summeeyah.......................................................................136 FIGURE 5.3 | Radical convert Hujjat.................................................................................139 FIGURE 5.4 | Extremist born-again Maysa .......................................................................143 FIGURE 6.1 | ‘Red Light Fashion Tour’ .............................................................................164 FIGURE 6.2 | Female Presentations of Self..........................................................................166 FIGURE 6.3 | Male Presentations of Self.............................................................................166 FIGURE 6.4 | Position of Converts .....................................................................................190 FIGURE 7.1 | Explanatory Model Identity Strain and Fundamentalist Responses ................208 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS At the start of this study in 2005, I did not foresee the challenges and struggles it would take to bring it to a successful end. Now that the final text lies before me, I feel more grateful than I could have imagined six years ago. From the bottom of my heart I thank all the people who have helped me to arrive at this point: a point that signifies an end and a new beginning. First and foremost I want to thank the people who helped me realize this project which I had wanted to do for so many years. These people are my supervisors and colleagues, some of whom have become my friends. First of all, I want to thank Henk van de Bunt, my promotor, for giving me the freedom that I needed. I am aware that I am one of the few lucky junior researchers who were given