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Las Ideologías Lingüísticas De Los Miskitus

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Las Ideologías Lingüísticas De Los Miskitus Las ideologías lingüísticas de los miskitus hacia la lengua indígena (el miskitu) y la lengua mayoritaria (el español) Whitney Chappell The University of Texas at San Antonio Resumen Con el fin de investigar cualitativamente las actitudes lingüísticas de los miskitus bilingües y la transmisión del español y miskitu a los niños, se llevaron a cabo 10 entrevistas sociolingüísticas y 27 encuestas escritas. Los resultados indican que el español se percibe como una lengua más universal que el miskitu y el orgullo miskitu se puede expresar de muchas formas aparte del idioma. Además, los hablantes de español como primera lengua suelen evocar la dinámica del poder entre las lenguas, aunque los hablantes de miskitu como primera lengua no crean en la misma relación jerárquica. Estas actitudes diferentes provocan consecuencias prácticas: es menos probable que el miskitu sea transmitido a los hijos si los padres adquirieron el español antes del miskitu, lo cual plantea una amenaza potencial para el futuro de la lengua miskitu en las ciudades de la Costa Atlántica. 1. Introducción La situación multicultural, multiétnica y multilingüe que existe en la Costa Atlántica de Nicaragua y Honduras diverge drásticamente de la tendencia monocultural, monoétnica y mo- nolingüe que ha ganado fuerza en la gran mayoría de Hispanoamérica. Durante siglos los mis- kitus han coexistido tanto con extranjeros (los ingleses, los moravas y los norteamericanos) y los grupos permanentes en la costa (los sumu-mayangna, los rama y los criollos). A lo largo de estas convivencias la lengua miskitu ha sido resistente, desarrollándose con el contacto pero manteniendo una transmisión del miskitu entre generaciones. Sin embargo, el contacto más ex- tenso con los hispanohablantes y el español en la Costa Atlántica en las últimas décadas podría amenazar esa resistencia de la comunidad por mantener el idioma miskitu dentro de las ciuda- des puesto que, con el tiempo, se le asigna más valor social y económico al español dentro del mercado lingüístico (Bourdieu, 1991). Este estudio explora cualitativamente las actitudes de los miskitus1 hacia el miskitu y el español para poder identificar los temas recurrentes que subyacen las conversaciones sobre las lenguas más utilizadas de la Costa Atlántica. Debido a razones de espacio, la introducción histórica a la comunidad miskitu que se pro- porciona en el apartado siguiente carece de detalles. Si el lector busca más información se le recomienda las obras de Hale (1987; 1994), Helms (1971) y Pineda (2006) para sondear los acon- tecimientos históricos. En la próxima sección se provee un resumen básico de las relaciones de poder entre los miskitus y otros grupos en la costa a lo largo de varios siglos y la situación 1 Este estudio mantiene un enfoque urbano porque no se observa la misma transición lingüística hacia el español en las comunidades más rurales. Sería interesante otro estudio explorando las actitudes lingüísticas de los miskitus en los pueblos más aislados de la costa. 117 - Hispanic Studies Review - Vol. 2, No. 2 (2017): 117-138 lingüística que surgió como resultado de estas relaciones con un enfoque en la situación ni- caragüense, dado que todos los participantes en este estudio son originalmente de Nicaragua (véase la sección 3.2). En las secciones 2.2 y 2.3, se explica el marco teórico que se incorporó en la recolección y análisis de los datos. En la tercera sección de este trabajo, se proporciona una introducción a los métodos que se utilizaron para poder investigar estas preguntas y la cuarta ofrece un análisis cualitativo de las respuestas de los participantes miskitus. La quinta sección analiza los resultados y finalmente, las conclusiones se presentan en la sexta sección. 2. Una reseña de la literatura 2.1. Una breve historia de las políticas lingüísticas y la alfabetización miskitus Los miskitus son un grupo étnico de aproximadamente 175.000 personas indígenas (Hob- son Herlihy, 2002) que residen en la Costa Atlántica de Nicaragua y Honduras. Históricamente, han sido una sociedad matrilineal y matrifocal. A pesar de que las mujeres miskitus se casan frecuentemente con extranjeros,2 siguen transmitiendo la lengua y la cultura miskitu a su des- cendencia. En general, los miskitus buscan preservar su propia identidad e históricamente han mostrado una preferencia por hablar miskitu a pesar de su fluidez en otros idiomas, p.ej. el inglés (Helms, 1971). Una historia multiétnica y multilingüe muy compleja es responsable de muchas de las diná- micas sociales en la Costa Atlántica hasta hoy (Baracco, 2011). El contacto miskitu con el inglés comenzó en el siglo XVII, cuando Inglaterra empezó a ocupar la Costa Atlántica. Más al oeste, España había comenzado a colonizar el lado pacífico de Nicaragua en el siglo XVI. Debido a las diferentes culturas emergentes, las hostilidades se desarrollaron entre las dos partes de Nicara- gua y los miskitus se aliaron con los británicos en contra de un enemigo común—los españoles. Una “afinidad anglo” (Hale, 1994) entre los miskitus surgió de esta alianza y los miskitus comen- zaron a sentirse orgullosos de su capacidad lingüística al hablar inglés, viéndola como un factor que los diferenció de los “indios salvajes” (Freeland, 1995), es decir los otros grupos indígenas de la costa. Después de asegurar el permiso de los británicos, los misioneros moravos llegaron a la Costa Atlántica en 1849 para “civilizar” a sus habitantes nativos (Freeland, 1995). Comenzaron a evange- lizar en miskitu, que era de importancia simbólica para los nativos, ya que el uso de su lengua les indicó que Dios se preocupaba por los miskitus tanto como se preocupaba por los angloparlan- tes. Esto también creó una jerarquía lingüística en la costa, de forma que el miskitu empezó a ser la lengua franca amerindia dominante de la costa sobre las otras lenguas indígenas (Holm, 1978, p. 62; Freeland, 1995). Alrededor de este periodo, los criollos de la región comenzaron a obtener más poder en la costa que fue dominada anteriormente por los miskitus (Gordon, 1998, pp. 40- 41). El uso del inglés en las escuelas británicas hizo que la cultura criolla se elevara y la expulsión de los británicos a mediados del siglo XIX contribuyó a la disminución del control político de los miskitus. Además, cuando los EE.UU. llegaron para explotar los recursos de la Costa Atlántica, los criollos recibieron mejores posiciones que los miskitus y los sumus dentro de las empresas estadounidenses debido a sus habilidades con el inglés (Freeland, 1995). Hacia el final del siglo XIX, las estrictas imposiciones del español como lengua oficial y la cultura hispana sobre los indígenas en la costa exacerbó las relaciones entre los miskitus y los 2 Algunos de los extranjeros que vinieron a la costa incluyen los españoles, los ingleses y sus esclavos afri- canos, los misioneros moravos, los norteamericanos y otros grupos viajeros (Freeland, 1995). 118 - Hispanic Studies Review - Vol. 2, No. 2 (2017): 117-138 mestizos, aumentando el estatus minoritario de los no mestizos. Aumentó también la presencia mestiza en la Costa Atlántica, con grandes oleadas de inmigración y la sustitución del poder económico y social de los estadounidenses por el poder mestizo. Los programas de educación bilingüe inglés-miskitu, que antes eran una fuente de orgullo en la costa, se declararon ilegales en 1894 por el gobierno del presidente José Santos Zelaya en la “Reincorporación de la Mos- quitia” (Gabbert, 2011, pp. 34-37) y toda la enseñanza en el país de Nicaragua se tuvo que llevar a cabo en español. Cuando se restablecieron los programas bilingües, el español reemplazó al inglés como la lengua de poder, pero en 1964 se prohibió de nuevo el miskitu en las aulas, una política que se rechazó por los miskitus como “asimilacionista y deculturadora” (Freeland, 1995, p. 251). Por último, el conflicto entre los sandinistas y los miskitus sobre los derechos territoria- les, lingüísticos e indígenas en el momento de la revolución sandinista provocó más tensión entre las costas. Según Freeland (1995, pp. 251-252), los sandinistas malentendieron la cultura de la Costa Atlántica, oprimiendo y ofendiendo a los miskitus con la imposición de sus políticas sobre los derechos indígenas en varias ocasiones. En 1980, todos los idiomas de la Costa Atlántica se reconocieron como lenguas oficiales de Nicaragua, pero la lucha contra el racismo profundo y bien arraigado continúa en toda Nicara- gua (Cunningham Kain, 2008). Ella escribe que el racismo del Estado “potencializa otras formas de discriminación basadas en género, edad, origen geográfico o nivel socioeconómico. La ideo- logía racista está institucionalizada por el Estado, y basada en ella otorga poder a determinados grupos por considerar que pertenecen a una cultura superior” (Cunningham Kain, 2008, p. 6). El racismo no solo se materializa en las ideologías, puesto que estas son “…las actitudes de quie- nes aprueban las leyes, definen políticas públicas y programas, por lo tanto se impone en las instituciones y las relaciones de la vida cotidiana” (Cunningham Kain, 2008, p. 6). Las ideas de la superioridad racial y cultural se reflejan en la práctica judicial, política y social y la misma rela- ción existe entre las actitudes lingüísticas y las consecuencias concretas en la Costa Atlántica. A continuación, se documentan las teorías más impactantes sobre las actitudes lingüísticas (2.2) y la pérdida lingüística (2.3) que guían el enfoque de este trabajo. 2.2. Las actitudes lingüísticas Dentro del complejo entorno social y lingüístico de la Costa Atlántica, donde las oportuni- dades sociales, el contacto lingüístico y un panorama político cambiante juegan un papel im- portante en la dinámica intragrupal, la utilización del marco de las ideologías lingüísticas nos ofrece una visión de las actitudes y evaluaciones lingüísticas tanto del individuo como del grupo (Fishman, 1989). Las ideologías lingüísticas abarcan una amplia gama de estudios, metodologías y perspectivas.3 Rumsey define estas ideologías como "cuerpos comunes de las nociones de sen- tido común sobre la naturaleza del lenguaje en el mundo" (1990, p.
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