COMBINED AND INDIVIDUALIZED EFFECT OF CROSS TRAINING AND GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES ON SELECTED PHYSICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PERFORMANCE FACTORS OF FIELD HOCKEY PLAYERS

Thesis Submitted to the BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY, TIRUCHIRAPPALLI through the DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION A.V.V.M. SRI PUSHPAM COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), POONDI for the award of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

By V. SAMINATHAN

Under the Guidance of

Dr. C. ROBERT ALEXANDAR, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Head

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION A.V.V.M. SRI PUSHPAM COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS) POONDI-613 503, THANJAVUR DISTRICT

JUNE 2012

A. VEERIYA VANDAYAR MEMORIAL SRI PUSHPAM COLLEGE (Autonomous) POONDI-613 503, THANJAVUR – DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, INDIA.

Dr. C. ROBERT ALEXANDAR, Ph.D., Associate Professor & Head, Department of Physical Education. Mobile: 94431 26428 e-mail: [email protected]

Date :

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “COMBINED AND INDIVIDUALIZED EFFECT OF CROSS TRAINING AND GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES ON SELECTED PHYSICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PERFORMANCE FACTORS OF FIELD HOCKEY PLAYERS” submitted to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, for the award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, embodies the result of the bonafide research work carried out by V. SAMINATHAN, under my guidance and supervision in the Department of Physical Education, A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India.

I further certify that no part of the thesis has been submitted anywhere else for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or other similar titles to any candidate.

(C. ROBERT ALEXANDAR) Research Adviser

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DECLARATION

I do here by declare that the thesis entitled “Combined and Individualized effect of cross training and Game-Specific Exercises on Selected Physical, Physiological and Performance Factors of Field Hockey Players” submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Physical Education, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College, is the original work carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. C. ROBERT ALEXANDER, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Physical Education, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College, Poondi. I further declare that this work has not been submitted earlier in full or in parts to any university for the award of any other degree or diploma.

Place: Thanjavur (V. SAMINATHAN) Date:

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Dedicated to my Family Members, Friends & Teachers

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge and sincerely appreciate my guide Dr. C. Robert Alexander, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Physical Education, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur for his scholarly guidance, constant encouragement, continuous support and patience throughout the completion of this work. Without his valuable guidance this work would not be a successful one.

It gives me great pleasure to express my deep sense of gratitude to our revered Kalvikavalar Sreeman K. Thulasiah Vandayar, Secretary and Correspondence, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur for permitting me to do the work successfully complete this thesis.

I thank the Principal Prof. N. Rajendran, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur for providing the facilities offered to carry out my research activities.

I extend my feelings of gratitude to faculty members, Department of Physical Education, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi, Thanjavur for their help and encouragement.

I extend my deep heartfelt thanks to Dr. R. Joycy Jay Manoharam, Associate Professor, Dept. of Zoology, K.N Govt. Arts College for Women, Thanjavur without their technical assistance, this work would certainly not have been possible.

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I am eternally grateful to Dr. R. Kalidasan, Assistant Professor and Head i/c, Department of Physical Education Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli for his help rendered in the completion of this study.

I extend my feelings of gratitude to Dr. Vijayaragunathan, Director of Physical Education, Ganesan College of Arts and Science, Melaisivapuri, Pudukkottai for their kind help at various stages of this study.

I acknowledge with all humility and deep gratitude to Dr.V. S. T. Saikumar, Principal, Maruthi College of Physical Education, Coimbatore, for their kind help at various stages of this study.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr. S. Alagesan, Professor, FGAPEdY, Coimbatore, for his careful effort and fine tuning of language.

I thank the staff members of Maruthi College of Physical Education and FGAPEdY, Coimbatore for their timely help at various stages of this study.

I acknowledge with all humility and deep gratitude to Dr. V. Vallimurugan, Principal, Selvam College of Physical Education, Namakkal and Mr. M. Suresh Kumar, Assistant Professor, Selvam College of Physical Education, Namakkal for their help in statistics and encouragement throughout my doctoral program.

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I express my sincere thanks to Mr. N. Vijayakumar, Mr. K. Giridharan, Mr & Mrs R. Dinesh Kumar, Mr. S. Mahendaran, Dr. Udaya Shankar, Dr. A. Needhiraja and Dr. E. Saravanan for their help and encouragement throughout my doctoral program.

I express my sincere thanks to who actively involved as the subjects for this study. Finally, I wish to thank to everybody who participated directly or indirectly in the process of the completion of this work.

V. Saminathan

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LIST OF CONTENTS

Certificate by the Supervisor ii Declaration by the Scholar iii Dedication iv Acknowledgements v List of Contents viii List of Tables x List of Figures xiv Abstract xvi

Chapter I Introduction 1 - 23 Justification of the Study Statement of the Problem Objectives of the study Hypotheses Delimitations Limitations Definitions of the Terms

Chapter II Review of Related Literature 24 - 77 Studies on Cross Training Studies on Sports Specific Training Studies on Physical Variables Studies on Physiological Variables Studies on Performance Variables

Chapter III Methodology 78 - 93 Selection of Subjects Selection of Variables and Tests

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Experimental Design Reliability of Instruments Pilot Work Tester Competency and Reliability of the Tests Flow Chart Orientation of the Subjects Administration of the Test Items Administration of Training Programmes Collection of Data Statistical Techniques and its Justification

Chapter IV Analysis of Data and Results of the Study 94 - 172

Overview Test of Significance Level of Significance Results of T test Results of Analysis of Variance Discussion on Findings Discussion on Hypothesis

Chapter V Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 173 - 176 Summary Conclusions Recommendations for implication Recommendations for further Study

Bibliography 177 - 187

Appendix

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page Title No

I Reliability co-efficient of correlation of test-retest 82 scores

Significance of mean gains & losses between pre 96 and post test scores on selected variables of cross II training group

III Significance of mean gains & losses between pre 98 and post test scores on selected variables of game specific exercises group

IV Significance of mean gains & losses between pre 100 and post test scores on selected variables of combined cross training and game specific exercises group

V Computation of analysis of covariance of means of 102 cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training and game-specific exercises groups on speed

VI The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 105 adjusted post test paired means on speed

VII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 106 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on agility

VIII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 109 adjusted post test paired means on agility

IX Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 110 cross training, game-specific and combined cross and game specific exercises groups on grip strength

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X The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 113 adjusted post test paired means on grip strength

XI Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 114 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on endurance

XII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 117 adjusted post test paired means on endurance

XIII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 118 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on flexibility

XIV The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 121 adjusted post test paired means on flexibility

XV Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 122 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on vital capacity

XVI The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 125 adjusted post test paired means on vital capacity

XVII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 126 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on forced vital capacity

XVIII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 129 adjusted post test paired means on forced vital capacity

XIX Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 130 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on slow vital capacity

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XX The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 133 adjusted post test paired means on slow vital capacity

XXI Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 134 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on maximum voluntary ventilation

XXII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 137 adjusted post test paired means on maximum voluntary ventilation

XXIII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 138 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on resting pulse rate

XXIV The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 141 adjusted post test paired means on resting pulse rate

XXV Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 142 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on hitting

XXVI The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 145 adjusted post test paired means on hitting

XXVII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 146 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on pushing

XXVIII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 149 adjusted post test paired means on pushing

XXIX Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 150 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on dribbling

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XXX The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 153 adjusted post test paired means on dribbling

XXXI Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 154 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on scooping

XXXII The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 157 adjusted post test paired means on scooping

XXXIII Computation of analysis of covariance of mean of 158 cross training, game-specific and combined cross training with game-specific exercises groups on dodging

XXXIV The scheffe’s test for the differences between the 161 adjusted post test paired means on dodging

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure Title no

i Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 104 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on speed

ii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 108 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on agility

iii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 112 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on grip strength

iv Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 116 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on endurance

v Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 120 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on flexibility

vi Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 124 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on vital capacity

vii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 128 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on forced vital capacity

viii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 132 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on slow vital capacity

ix Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 136 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on maximum voluntary ventilation

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x Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 140 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on resting pulse rate

xi Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 144 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on hitting

xii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 148 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on pushing xiii Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 152 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on dribbling xiv Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 156 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on scooping

xv Bar diagram showing the pre post and adjusted 160 means of the CTG, GSEG and CCTWGSEG on dodging

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined and individualized effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players. To achieve the purpose of the present study, forty five field hockey players from Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Institutions (Maruthi College of Physical Education, and SRKV college of arts and science) Coimbatore. Tamilnadu state, India was selected as subjects at random and their ages ranged from 18 to 25 years. The subjects (N=45) were randomly assigned to three equal groups of fifteen subjects each. The groups were assigned as cross training group (CTG), game- specific exercises group (GSEG) and combined cross training with game-specific exercises Group (CCTWGSEG) in an equivalent manner. The selected variables were speed, grip strength, agility, flexibility, cardio respiratory endurance, vital capacity, forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, maximum voluntary ventilation, resting pulse rate, hit, push, dodging, dribbling and scoop. The three groups were participated the training for a period of twelve weeks. The collected data on criterion measures were treated by analysis of covariance and schefee’s post-hoc test was applied. The results revealed that the experimental group A, B, C had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors after undergoing their respective training for a period of twelve weeks. The cross training group had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical and physiological variables than the game-specific exercises group. The game-specific exercises group had shown significant improvement in all the performance variables than the cross training group. The combined cross training with game- specific exercises group had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors than the individualized groups.

xvi CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION

Sports performance mainly depends upon the innovative training methodsin this present scenario. The training methods have changed its structure purely on the results of research. One of the biggest misconceptions about exercise is that there is one program that works for someone all the time. People think that they need to get on a particular workout program and just keeping doing that program over and over again. Several sciences have contributed to the understanding of the effects of exercise on the body, and together have formed a science of training. The branch science focuses on sports performance and aims to understand measure and improve the effects of exercise on the body besides minimizing the provenance on injury. (Fleck, 1999).

High sports performances through sports training can be achieved by a scientific and systematic use of training means. Training means are various physical exercises and other objects, methods and procedures which are used for improvement maintenance and recovery of performance capacity and performance readiness. Any material or in material objects, method or measure which can be used to achieve the aims of training can be called a training means. Each training means has its own specific effect and the performance capacity-this effect may be direct and indirect. (Singh, 1991).

Introduction 2

TRAINING Training is the total process of preparation of sportsman, through different means and forms for better performance. Training aims at improving the fitness of persons. It is a programme of exercise designed to improve the skill and increase the energy capacities of an athlete for a particular event (Edward, 1981).The physical training brings about local changes in the muscles, improved, neuromuscular co-ordination of activities and a series of more general cardio respiratory changes well trained body remains in good condition (Thomas,2001). In sports the performance depends largely on physical fitness components. Each sports activity demands difference types and level of different motor abilities and when a sports man possesses these he is said to have the specific physical fitness of various motor abilities, regardless of any sport which this sportsman possesses. The contribution of physical fitness towards sports performance is indirect. But it never should be overlooked that specific physical fitness depends largely on general physical fitness (Singh, 1991).

CROSS TRAINING Cross training refers to the substitution of skills other than the skills directly involved in the performance of an event and helps sustain their aerobic and muscular strength. The main objective is to avoid injuries and maintain muscular balance throughout the period of intense sports training. Further cross training as the training program of aerobic and anaerobic in nature, its concurrent effect would be highly positive to the game that underlies speed and endurance.

Introduction 3

Cross training has been used in one form or another throughout the history of sport. Cross training is a great way to condition different muscle groups, develop a new set of skills, and reduce boredom that creeps in after months of the same exercise routines. Cross training also allows a person’s ability to vary the stress placed on specific muscles. After months of the same movements the body becomes extremely efficient performing those movements, and while that is great for competition, cross training is also necessary to reduce the risk of injury from repetitive strain or overuse.

The term cross training refers to a training routine that involves different forms of exercise. It is necessary for an athlete to train specifically in their sport, for elite performance. For most exercisers cross training is a beneficial training method for maintaining a high level of overall fitness. For example, both biking and swimming each week improves overall aerobic capacity, build overall muscle strength and reduce the chance of an overuse injury. Cross training limits the stress that occurs on a specific muscle group because different activities use muscles in slightly different ways.

Loy et al. (1995) opines that the cross training is likely to have marginal effects on lower level, less-than maximally fit individuals. It is a viable prescriptive possibility for individuals interested in general fitness. However, it has no founding research for showing benefits for elite athletes, although more research is warranted. An argument could be made that cross training has a

Introduction 4 greater potential to be detrimental to elite athlete performance than of benefit.

CROSS TRAINING IN SPORTS Loy et al. (1995) observed that with cross training the following modifying factors have to be considered.

1. The fitness level of the individual will alter training sensitivity and the nature of effects. Particularly for unfit individuals, any overload exercise experience is likely to increase physiological indices and performance in any activity. For moderately fit individuals, any overload exercise is likely to marginally increase central measures of cardiorespiratory fitness, but effects on performance are likely to be inconsistent. For extremely fit individuals, cross training overloads usually will not influence specific fitness because it already is likely to be maximal. In very demanding training programs, cross training experiences might be a respite from excessive overloads and stimulations and could act unwittingly as a safeguard activity. On the other hand, a case could be made to assert that target performance could be affected detrimentally by cross training because of fatigue and competition for resources.

2. The amount of muscle stimulated in the crosstraining activity has a moderating effect on transfer benefits. Marginal training effects in general adaptations (e.g., resting

heart rate, VO2max) sometimes occur when the

Introduction 5

crosstraining activity uses large muscle masses (e.g., running) and the principal activity is localized (e.g., swimming, cycling). However, transferred performance benefits in the target activity are not revealed once fitness in that activity approaches maximum. When the cross-trained muscle mass is limited, as in swimming, transfers of general adaptations or performance benefits to activities which use greater amounts of muscle are very unlikely.

3. When the modes of training are dissimilar (e.g., cycling - a legs-dominant activity, and kayaking - an arms-dominant activity) there generally is little benefit from one activity transferred to the other unless fitness levels are low and the cross training activity uses greater muscle mass than the target activity. For elite athletes, although the research is far from comprehensive, there does not seem to be any benefit to be gained from fitness or performance improvements demonstrated in dissimilar cross training modes.

4. When cross training employs similar modes of training to the target activity (e.g., rowing ergometer work with sweep- oar training) there usually is little derivable benefit once fitness reaches its ceiling level. There is every possibility that the technique features of one activity will migrate into the technique of the other and reduce skill efficiency. Generally it is conceded that if a cyclist wants to become maximally fit then cycling is the best and only activity that will produce that state. For example, trained runners will

Introduction 6

generally have higher treadmill VO2max levels than trained cyclists.

5. There are some potential uses for cross-training: (a) relief from boredom, (b) recovery from sport-specific injury, (c) prevention of injury, and (d) achievement of moderate levels of general fitness. Studies do support these uses but it must be remembered that only for injury rehabilitation and prevention are such activities likely to have potential use for elite athletes.

NEED AND IMPORTANCEOF CROSS – TRAINING Cross training can be a viable and appropriate means to increase overall daily physical activity and energy expenditure levels,if a chosen sport does not provide enough vigorous exercise to maintain the health due to the limited skill level of the participant. Complementary exercises, with an emphasis on progressively developing cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, balance and coordination, will increase functional and overall fitness and reduce the risk for incurring injury during sport participation and training. Suitable activities could include other sports or skill drills (Such as dribbling and passing drills or repeated shuttle runs), resistance training, running, bicycling and a variety of other exercises using the body and appropriate training devices, such as jump ropes, weighted balls, agility ladders, plyometric boxes and hurdles, and cones. In addition to ensuring that a young person is engaging in adequate levels of moderate and vigorous activities for health and fitness, appropriate and progressive supplemental cross training

Introduction 7 readily translates to sport – specific benefits, such as a child’s increased perceived and actual development and competence on the field or court and increased ability to participate for longer periods at a higher intensity and more effectively. These outcomes could potentially improve a youth’s perception of participating in the sport because it is more fun, engaging, and health enhancing. Cross training is appropriate and beneficial with skilled young athletes participating in high-activity sports as well (Gary and George, 1997).

SPORTS SPECIFIC TRAINING The Greek physician is generally accepted to be the originators, devised training drills to replicate movements from the arena, as seen in the functional training, that is, exercises consisting of movements that are specific to a particular sport.

Practicing exercises may get better performance but there is no conclusive evidence that this makes any difference to the sporting performance of normal everyday function of the muscles specifically targeted.

Many experts state that sports specific training must fulfill one or more of the following criteria ie, the exercise must duplicate the exercise movement witnessed in a certain segment of the sports skill. The exact must involve the same type of muscular contraction as used in the skill execution. The special exercises must have the same range of motion as in the skill action. So, perhaps the best sport specific exercises program, by

Introduction 8 definition, is playing own sport. The focus of training should be the quality of movement wanted.

NEED FOR SPORTS SPECIFIC TRAINING Sports specific training can help to improve strength, flexibility and stamina whereby the player can improve his performance in specific sports(Ananda Kumar, 2006). For this specific training is in need to know all about developing physical conditioning, to improve performance and skills at a particular sport. Also understanding the needs of the game at the correct pace in order to meet sports requirements. Sports specific is the new trend when it comes to strength and conditioning programs for athletes. Training that is specific to the demands of a particular sport does have merit at the higher levels, assuming the athlete is developmentally sound. A good athlete is a combination of raw athleticism (big, strong, fast, adaptable) and sport-specific skill (skill involved with a specific sport like hitting, kicking, or dribbling). Sport-skill coaches are specialist in developing the specific skill sets needed for that game. Athletic performance coaches or‘strength and conditioning’ coaches are specialists in making an athlete generally faster, stronger, more mobile, and more reactive. Unless either of these coaches has extensive, qualified experience in developing both factors of athleticism they can’t create a program that optimizes both. Besides, sports specific training improve the neuromuscular adaptations, athleticism and injury prevention and decreased rehabilitation time. To facilitate how a person delivers oxygen to

Introduction 9 the working muscles, they need to train or participate in activities that will build up the energy stores needed.

HISTORY OF FIELD HOCKEY The name hockey is thought to have originated from the French word ‘hocquet’, meaning a crooked stick or shepherd’s crook. Field hockey is a popular sport for men and women in many countries around the world. In most countries, especially those in which ice hockey is not very prominent, it is simply known as hockey. Field hockey has several regular and prestigious international tournaments for both men and women. These events include the Olympic Games, the quadrennial World Hockey Cups, the Annual Champions Trophies, and World Cups for juniors.

Though there may be an argument on the origin of hockey,there can be no doubt whatever as to how it came to India. It came to this country with the British; though no one has enough evidence that the game was played with great gust in army barracks and flourished there. The civilians might have played it. In due course, Indians also started to play it. Towards the end of the nineteenth century the game had established itself in all port towns soon after the Indians took over from the British. Indians participated in the 1928olympics and won the gold medal and kept winning till 1956. Dhyanchand came to be the wizard in the world at that time. With the advent of synthetic surface in modern hockey and major international tournament from 1976 onwards drastic changes have taken place. Men’s hockey entered

Introduction 10 the Olympics Games in the 1908 and has been an event continuously since 1920. Women have competed at the Olympic level since 1980.

NATURE OF THE GAME Dorthy and Landie, (1992)explains that the aim of hockey is quite simple to use sticks to dribble, pass, and shoot the ball along the pitch in an effort to score goals. The rules are very similar to those of football except that players use sticks instead of their feet to move the ball. A goal counts as one point and it scored when the ball, having been hit by a player inside the ‘striking circle’, completely crosses the opposing goal line. The 11 players on a team include: a goalkeeper, defenders, midfielders and attackers. The only player that is allowed to kick the ball with the feet or touch it with the hands is the goalkeeper. Hockey (or field hockey) is played on a 91.4m x 55m pitch and each player has a stick which is about a meter long, has a rounded head, and weighs about 340 to 790 grams. A hockey match usually lasts 70 minutes, two halves of 35 minutes each. In an Olympic competition, any match that ends in a draw goes to extra time (15 minutes in total if required). In extra time the first side to score a ‘golden goal’ wins, but if there is no goal within the extra 15 minutes, a penalty shoot-out results.

HOCKEY IN INDIA The game had been taken to India by British servicemen, and the first clubs formed there in Calcuttawere in 1885. The Beighton Cup and the Aga Khan tournament had commenced

Introduction 11 within ten years. Entering the Olympic Games in 1928, India won all five of its games without conceding a goal, and went on to win in 1932 until 1956, and then in 1964 and 1980 (Dureha and Akhil, 2003).

The Indian Hockey Federation was formed in the year 1925 in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh during the Scindia Gold Cup tournament. But it was not active after that. After the end of the World War I, the commander of the British Armed forces in India, Field Marshall Birdwood who was in charge of organizing the retreat of the combined Australian and New Zealand armies after the Gallipoli tragedy proposed a Hockey tour to New Zealand in 1926 as a friendship tour. The tour gave a chance for revival of the Federations and thus began the efforts of consolidating the Indian Hockey Federation as the Indian Army's Hockey team toured New Zealand.The Indian Hockey Federation gained global affiliation in 1927 and joined the International Hockey Federation. A national championship between provinces was organized in 1928 at Calcutta to select the Indian team for the Amsterdam Olympics (Dureha and Akhil, 2003).

CHARACTERISTICS OF HOCKEY PLAYERS PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS According to Taylor (1988), success in hockey like all sporting activities demands a level of commitment. Hockey involves an enormous amount of sprinting, turning, stopping, starting and back peddling, so, any physical training programme should certainly in co-operate all these movements. Flexibility is

Introduction 12 the key factor to produce the better players at level of the game. Muscles strength and stamina are both important to the hockey player, whether it’s the case of getting fit enough to last the game or develop the endurance over a short period of time to get through the number of games. Hockey is a fast moving game for the players and the ball – rarely, stationary. The ball is carried over a wide variety of ankles at a different height and speeds. To tackle thisthe player must be agile in nature. Hockey players need to be in toplevel cardiovascular condition to play the game effectively. Hockey players are known for their physical toughness, willingness to battle through injuries, dribbling ability and talent with the ball control. Players who can take the hits and keep on going forward need strong and resilient bodies.Hockey players tend to be well developed in muscularity, and possess good height.

Speed and quickness are essential to the game of hockey. Wrist quickness in shooting or intercepting a pass and for goal shooting, good hand and foot quickness are all assets that can be improved through training. Speed and agility training is very specific because the athlete is teaching certain muscles and nerve pathways to respond in a new way, quicker and faster. In hockey, the need of the agility and speed is quite obvious with ability to get past the defenders comparatively the goal keepers need to react quickly. The hockey players must manage both body and stick to move varied speed and direction. Barrow and McGee (1971) stated that acquisition of agility is not only important to the success in the sports and games requiring quick changes

Introduction 13 direction and dodging, but also for safety outside the player situation.

Aerobic conditioning supplies the energy for low intensity exercise over a long duration. Good aerobic conditioning allows a player to recover more completely between shifts. A player is relying upon aerobic capacity after the shift in hockey, while sitting on the bench breathing heavily, taking in more oxygen and then recovering to go back out on the next shift.

Building strong leg, arm and abdominal muscles along with other muscle groups will assist in the execution of hockey fundamentals and the enjoyment of the game. All strength training involves the microscopic tearing of the muscle fibers by exceeding their capacity to move a weight or resist a force. As the body rebuilds the fibers, strength increases. Strong leg and arm muscles will increase a player’s ability to maintain balance while moving. Barrow and McGee (1971) recommended that the best fitness programme for a player’s physical development should include both strength exercises and flexibility exercises.

Hockey players are in special need of flexibility (especially the lower back and legs). Due to the bent leg nature, many hockey players are unable to fully extend their hamstrings muscle which leads to tight hamstrings. Tight hamstrings can lead to their injury or injuries to the lower back and to the groin. Good flexibility in those areas will enhance a player’s ability to play hockey.

Introduction 14

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS The act of inspiration consists of an enlargement of the thorax with a resultant inrush of air down the trachea and into the lungs in order to equalize the pressures of the air outside the body and inside the lungs. The act of expiration, on the contrary, is accomplished by a diminution of the thorax, which in turn forces the air out of the lungs. The amount of air, therefore, which is taken in and given out with each act of respiration, under normal conditions, is regulated almost entirely by the extent to which the thorax enlarges itself. Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. It is equal to the inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume plus the expiratory reserve volume.Slow vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly after slow maximum inhalation. Forced vital capacity is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out after full inspiration, measured in liters and is the most basic maneuver in spirometry tests. Maximum voluntary ventilation is a measure of the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled within one minute. The studies on lung parameters have been valued at a high rate among sports trainers and coaches. Clarke (1975) explains that the trained individual is able to extract a greater proposition of oxygen from air he breathes compared to the untrained person. Resting pulse rate determines the level of cardio-vascular endurance. It has been observed by Johnson and Nelson (1988) that resting heart rate is indicative of physical fitness from the stand point that resting heart lowers the result of conditioning. The resting heart rate of a trained individual

Introduction 15 decreases reflecting a stronger contraction of the heart and more expulsion of blood with each contraction.

SKILL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS In the development of game of the hockey, skills have come in to play a vital role in the quest for victory. Top level teams perfect the skills and change them (in-to) a highly refined and sophisticated art and are constantly training better. There are a number of skills in hockey. There are many situations during a game when maximizing the speed of the ball is more important than disguising the intention to deliver it. Players use the hit to move the ball quickly over longer distances and to score simply because of the ball speed this technique generates. The hit beats more opponents with one ball touch in an instant. The hit is mainly used when changing the point of attack from sideline and backline to backline. The hit provides the power to direct the pace and speed of play, which is vital in transitional demands. The hit is used to score more often than any other Hockey passing technique. A competent player must be able to consistently hit the ball hard and accurate along the ground (Aggiss, 1984).

The push stroke is the work-horse of modern Hockey because, it enables a player travelling at any speed to deftly pass the ball in any desired direction instantly without prior indication of the direction or the timing of the pass. Although the stroke lacks the power possible with hit, good players at the senior level can easily push a ball seventy five metres. Pushing the ball at one side was the easiest to master, but players must be coached to

Introduction 16 play the stroke forward as well as at different angles (Aggiss, 1984).

Dribbling appears to be more spectacular. Dribbling is virtually stickwork on the run. It allows you to keep possession of the ball by moving play into open areas of the field away from opponents. It creates space for teammates to use and it leads to goal scoring opportunities. The most emphasized and effective element in dribbling is to cut the ball on a diagonal line to the open space, which moves the opponent laterally. The main objective is to run with the ball into open field to gain ground and move the opponent. A player’s performance is commonly judged by the dribbling skill. Depending upon the situations and opponents, flow of play the dribbling speed, control and deception varies. (Aggiss, 1984).

The scoop stroke is also used to raise the ball off the ground. Although the best Field Hockey is played on the ground an aerial ball is effective in some situations. When an opponent block the passing lane between the teammates who are away from the ball this skill can be used. One can also use a lifted pass to score a goal when the opposing goalkeeper drifts too forward from his goal line. On artificial surfaces, a low aerial ball is used more common to beat an opponent. Also, lofted ball can be useful on waterlogged grass fields (Aggiss, 1984).

Dodging is to beat or outwit an opponent or opponents having full control over the ball, before during and after the

Introduction 17 dodge, by applying some speedier skills with fake and feint movement of the body and the stick. Pass is the tactical application of the skills between the players of a team, whereas the dodge is an individual skill to beat 1 or 2 players. Dodging is an art which a player has an asset. Here the speed of the attacker should be controlled so as to maintain the proper control over the ball, controlled speed enables an attacker to make fake and feint movements because fake movements are not possible at maximum speed. Each skill has its own importance and application to different situations.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY An earlier sport was in the form of recreation, and then became competition, now in the present world sports has become extremely professional. To achieve top level performance in the international arena, one must have a fitness schedule and systematic execution (Schaafstal, 2008). Experts in the field of sports have put their minds into it and made tremendous efforts to find out ways and means to achieve top level performance. Training is the foundation of performance in sports (Bompa, 1999). Foreign records claim that cross training has been proven effective in enhancing performance and fitness levels of athletes, boxers, bowlers, and players of basketball, soccer and taekwondo (Gary and George, 1997).

Cross training is the training trend of the present and future. Sports specific training can help to improve strength, flexibility and stamina whereby the player can improve his

Introduction 18 performance in specific sports. Hence the present study aimed at developing different forms of training to enhance the performance at two folds; one aimed at developing physical and physiological conditioning; and second aimed at performance by enhancing technical and tactical aspects of field hockey players.So far, a few have investigated this training approach scientifically. Hence, this research may contribute to the sports person.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined and individualized effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To find out the individualized effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical components (speed, hand grip strength, flexibility, agility and cardio respiratory endurance), physiological (vital capacity, forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, maximum voluntary ventilation and resting pulse rate) and performance factors (hit, push, dodging, dribbling and scoop) of field hockey players.

2. To find out the combined effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical and physiological components (speed, hand grip strength, flexibility, agility and cardio respiratory endurance), physiological (vital

Introduction 19

capacity, forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, maximum voluntary ventilation and resting pulse rate) and performance factors (hit, push, dodging, dribbling and scoop) of field hockey players.

3. To find out the comparative effects of individualized and combined training of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical and physiological components (speed, hand grip strength, flexibility, agility and cardio respiratory endurance), physiological (vital capacity, forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, maximum voluntary ventilation and resting pulse rate) and performance factors (hit, push, dodging, dribbling and scoop) of field hockey players.

HYPOTHESES

1. It was hypothesized that there may be significant differences due to cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players from their baseline to post treatment.

2. It was also hypothesized that the combined group may show significant differences than the individual groups on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players.

Introduction 20

DELIMITATIONS

1. This study was confined to forty - five inter - collegiate male field hockey players only.

2. The subjects age ranged from 18 to 25 years.

3. The study was delimited to from Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Institutions (Maruthi College of Physical Education, and SRKV college of arts and science) Coimbatore. Tamilnadu state, India.

4. The training period was delimited to 12 weeks of training.

LIMITATIONS

1. The impact of training schedules, previous experiences, motivational factors and various physical activities on the subject’s playing ability were not taken into account.

2. Variations in performance due to diet, climatic conditions, ground conditions and other environmental factors that might affect the study, were not taken into consideration.

3. Since human elements are involved in the test administration even slight error in measurement and timings which might affect the results were also considered as limitations of the study.

4. The fatigue factors of the players and the carry-over knowledge of the skills which might affect the performance in the tests were considered as limitations of the study.

Introduction 21

5. The test location, players’ playing position and players experience in playing surfaces which might affect the study were also considered as limitations of the study.

DEFINITION OF THE TERMS Crosstraining The cross training is defined as using another sport, activity, or training technique to help improve performance in the primary sport or activity (Gary and George, 1997).

Sports-Specific training Sports specific training means a systematic scientific programme of conditioning exercises, physical activities, drills and tactical maneuvers designed to improve the physical fitness, techniques and playing ability of the players (Alagesan, 1997).

Speed Speed is an ability to perform a movement to cover a distance in a short time (Baumgartner, 2003).

Grip Strength Strength is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance (Baumgartner, 2003).

Agility Agility is the ability to move and change direction and position of the body quickly and effectively while under control (Baumgartner, 2003).

Introduction 22

Cardio Respiratory Endurance Cardiorespiratory endurance is defined as the ability of heart and lungs to provide an adequate supply of oxygen to the body over an extended period of time (Baumgartner, 2003).

Flexibility Flexibility is the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints and muscles that is attainable in a momentary effort (Baumgartner, 2003).

Vital Capacity Vital capacity is the amount of air expelled from the lungs after a deep inspiration. (Wilmore and Costill, 2004)

Forced Vital Capacity Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out after full inspiration, measured in liters. (Wilmore and Costill, 2004).

Slow Vital Capacity Slow vital capacity (SVC) is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly after slow maximum inhalation. (Wilmore and Costill, 2004)

Maximum Voluntary Ventilation Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is a measure of the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled within one minute. (Wilmore and Costill, 2004).

Introduction 23

Resting Pulse Rate Measurement of heart rate when an organism is under physical and mental rest can be resting pulse rate (Hale, 2005).

Hitting A hit involves a swinging movement of the stick towards the ball (Aggiss, 1984).

Pushing A push moves the ball along the ground by a pushing movement of the stick after the stick has been placed close to the ball. When a push is made, both the ball and the head of the stick are in contact with the pitch (Aggiss, 1984).

Dribbling The player can control the ball diagonally in front of him to the right or in front of the body; the position of the ball in relation to the player while dribbling, will depend first and foremost on the state of the play at given moment (Aggiss, 1984).

Scooping A scoop occurs when a ball is raised off the pitch by means of a shovel movement of the stick after the head of the stick is placed slightly under the ball (Aggiss, 1984).

Dodging

Beating the opponent successfully by taking the ball away from the opponent (Aggiss, 1984).

CHAPTER – II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area. It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, & what methods and methodologies are appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other findings.

The present reviews are based upon the available literature in respect to the study under investigation and therefore confined to the studies to which the investigator has accessed. All the relevant literature thus obtained by the researcher has been presented in this chapter to furnish necessary background material to evaluate the significance of the study. The research scholar has made every possible effort to go through the literatures related to the problem in the cross training and in the game of Field Hockey wherever available. The scholar has gleaned through almost every source like research quarterly, journals of various kinds, periodicals, encyclopedias, relevant book and e- resources on Field Hockey and other games to pick up related material.

Review of Related Literature 25

While going through the various sources of literature, it has been observed that very limited work has been carried out in this field. Since this cross training is an emerging trend in the modern sports arena and due to lack of literature available in the game of Field Hockey the scholar has framed this section within its limit. However the scholar has also gone through the literatures of allied studies that are related to other games and sports to collect the necessary information for making a proper shape of the study.

STUDIES ON CROSS TRAINING Ramesh (2010) conducted a study to find out the effect of cross training and complex training on strength and speed parameters of college students. Forty five men were selected random and their age ranged from 18 to 21 years. The selected speed and strength variables were tested before and after experimentation. He found that the cross training group improved the subjects arm strength, explosive strength, strength endurance, acceleration, speed and speed endurance.

Schaafstal et al. (2008) compared the three methods of cross training differ in information contents about the task, activities and informational needs of the other team members. They were developed with the aim of answering the following questions; (1) will practice in the tasks of other team members lead to better communication strategies and to an enhanced team performance? (2) Will an explicit training of the shared aspects of the task between different team members result in better performance than cross training in which the various team

Review of Related Literature 26 members are trained in each others’ total task? Apart from this the effects of time pressure on the various cross training methods was examined. The result shows that the communication between team members is of utmost importance for a good performance of the team. Analysis of the differences between the various methods for cross training shows that explicit attention for the shared aspects of the task of various team members will lead to better team performance and to the use of more efficient communication strategies, the manipulation of time pressure unfortunately did not result in interpretable results, and has possibly been overshadowed by a general practice effect. The effect of practice in the tasks of other team members is less clear and seems to result in performance improvement only after a short acquaintance period.

Faster et al. (2007) examined cross training (XT) hypothesis which suggested that despite the principle of specificity of training, athletes may improve performance in one mode of exercise by training using another mode. To test this hypothesis we studied 30 well-trained individuals (10 men, 20 women) in a randomized longitudinal trail. Subjects were evaluated before and after 8 weeks of enhanced training (+10%/week), accomplished by adding either running (R) or swimming (XT) to baseline running, versus continued baseline running (C). Both R ( – 26.4s) and XT (– 13.2s) improved time trial (3.2 km) performance, whereas C did not (– 5.4s). There were no significant changes during treadmill running in maximum oxygen uptake (VO2peak; – 0.2, – 6.0, and + 2.7%), steady state

Review of Related Literature 27

submaximal VO2at 2.68 m · s–1 ( – 1.2, – 3.3 and + 0.2 ml · kg–1 · min–1), velocity at VO2peak (+0.05, +0.25 and +0.09 m · s–1) or accumulated O2 deficit (+ 11.2, – 6.1 and + 9.4%) in the R, XT or C groups, respectively. There was a significant increase in velocity associated with a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol · l–1 in R but not in XT or C (+ 0.32, + 0.07 and + 0.08 m · s–1). There were significant changes in arm crank VO2peak (+ 5%) and arm crank

VO2 at 4 mmol · l–1 ( + 6.4%) in XT. There was no significant

changes in arm crank VO2peak (+ 1.3 and – 7.7%) or arm crank

VO2 at 4 mmol · l–1 ( + 0.8 and + 0.4%) in R or C, respectively. The data suggest that muscularly non-similar XT may contribute to improved running performance but not to the same degree as increased specific training.

White (2003) examined whether substituting 50% of run training volume with cycling ("cross training") would maintain

3,000 m race time and estimated VO2 max in competitive female distance runners during a 5 week recuperative phase. Eleven collegiate runners were randomly assigned to either the run training only (R) group (n = 6) or the cycle training (R/C) group (n = 5), which cross-trained on alternate days. The groups trained daily at a reduced intensity (75-80% of maximum heart rate). Training volume was similar to the competitive season (40-50 mi x wk(-1)) except that cycling represented 50% of volume for the R/C group. On follow-up, 3,000-m time was 1.4% (9 seconds) slower in the R group and 3.4% (22 seconds) slower in the R/C group. No important change in estimated VO2max was found for either group. It was concluded that cycle cross training adequately

Review of Related Literature 28 maintained aerobic performance during the recuperative phase between the cross-country and track seasons, comparable to the primary sport of running.

Millet (2002) investigated the effects of 40 weeks training in swimming, cycling and running on performances in swimming, running and triathlon competitions in four elite triathletes. The training stimulus was calculated using the exercise heart rate. The level of performance was measured in running by a submaximal 30 min run, in swimming by a 5 x 400 m all-out test and subjectively in triathlon competitions. A mathematical model using one to three first order transfer functions linked actual and modelled performances by minimizing the residual sum of squares between them. The relationships between training and performances were significant in running (tau(1) = 20; tau(2) = 10; r = 0.74; p < 0.001) and in swimming (tau(1) = 31; r = 0.37; p = 0.03), supporting the principle of specificity of the training loads. Cross-transfer training effects were identified between cycling and running (tau(1 = )42; r = 0.56; p < 0.001), but not with swimming performances. In addition, the training loads completed in running were shown to have a major effect on performances in triathlon competition (tau(1 = )52; tau(2 = ) 4; r = 0.52; p < 0.001), indicating that running training is an essential part of triathlon performance. Swimming appears to be a highly specific activity, which does not gain nor provide benefits to other activities (i. e. cycling and running). The present study shows that cross transfer training effects occur between cycling training and running performance in elite triathletes. A similar

Review of Related Literature 29 cross training effect does not seem to occur for swimming performance.

Fatouros (2000) compared the effects of three different training: plyometric training, weight training, and their combination on selected parameters of vertical jump performance and leg strength. Forty one men were randomly assigned to one of four groups; plyometric training (n=11). Weight training (n=10), plyometric plus weight training (n=10), and control (n=10). Vertical jump, mechanical power, flight time, and maximum leg strength were measured before and after 12 weeks of training. Subjects in each training group trained 3 days a week, whereas control group did not participate in any training activity. The results showed that all training treatments elicited significant (p < 0.05) improvements in vertical jump performance and leg strength that were significantly greater than improvements in the other two training groups, (plyometric training and weight training).

Tanaka et al. (1998) compared the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations. Endurance training, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial density. In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen). The training modalities

Review of Related Literature 30 do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power. Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals. Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production. In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined swim and swim- specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m. Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more

Review of Related Literature 31 specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.

Flynn (1998) compared twenty well trained runners (VO2 max 4.6+/-0.5 L x min[-1]) whose age and ability were matched and assigned to either a cross training (CT) or run only group (RT). All subjects maintained normal running distance and intensity for 6 wk and reported for three additional training sessions per week. These workouts were performed outdoors on a 400 m track or measured road course (RT) or on a bicycle ergometer (CT). The sessions were as follows: (work x rest(-1) ratio

= 1): 5 x 5 min at >95% VO2 max/peak (Monday), 50-60 min at

70% VO2 max/peak (Wednesday), and 3 x 2.5 min at >105% VO2 max/peak, plus 6 x 1.25 min at >115% VO2 max/peak (Friday). Subjects were tested before (PRE), after 3 wk (MID), and after 6 wk (POST) of intensified training. Blood samples were obtained from RT, CT, and ten controls (CON) at each time point (0600 h). Runners also completed a 10 min submaximal run at the same absolute intensity (velocity to elicit 75% of initial V02max) during which heart rate, RPE, and VO2 were measured. Each runner then completed a simulated 5 km race (time trial) on a treadmill. Total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), cortisol (C), and creatine kinase activity (CK) were determined. Running economy was similar between RT and CT; however, RPE decreased significantly at MID and POST compared with that at PRE (P < 0.05; time effect). There were no significant differences among groups for TT, FT, or CK, but C was significantly lower in CON than in RT and CT. Performance was significantly faster (P < 0.05;

Review of Related Literature 32 time effect) in the 5-km race at MID (1076.1+/-81.4 s) and POST (1068.6+/-83.9) compared with PRE (1096.6+/-79.5) but was not different between CT and RT. In conclusion, RT and CT responded similarly to 6 wk of increased training, and both groups improved 5 km performance to a similar extent.

Wallace (1997) examined through a randomized controlled trail, the effect of cross training (combined resistance and endurance exercise) on markers of insulin resistance, (eg. Dyslipidemia, intra-abdominal obesity, hyperinsulinemia, and hypertension), body composition, and performance in hyperinsulinemic (fasting insulin > 2 OuU.mL -1), randomly assigned to two groups (N = * each), completed 14 wk of training ast 3 d. wk -1. An endurance-only (e) group performed both continuous cycle exercise and walking (30 min each at 60-70 % heart rate reserve). A cross training (C) group performed both endurance and resistance exercises (8 exercises, 8-12 repetitions/set) in a single session. Both E and C groups demonstrated similar increases in VO2 max (25% and 27%) while only C demonstrated an increase in I RM bench press (19%) and leg press (25%). The changes induced by C training were significantly greater than those from E training alone in percent fat (6.9 ± 1.3 vs 1.4 ±1.4), insulin concentration (8.5 ±2.7 vs 3.0 ±1.3 uU.mL-1), glucose levels (11.1 ± 2.9 individuals.

Ruby (1996) examined the cross training response between running and cycling in untrained females. The following study involved a pretest, posttest, 3 x 3 factorial design. Training (4

Review of Related Literature 33 days-week-1, 10 weeks, 70-80% heart rate reserve) occurred at the Center for Exercise and Applied Human Physiology. Exercise testing occurred at the Veterans Hospital, Exercise Laboratory. Subjects included healthy, untrained females aged 18-25 years, (N = 18). Subjects were assigned to one of three (n = 6) training groups (run = R, cycle = C, both run and cycle = RC) matched on pre-training CE VO2 max results. Graded treadmill run (TR) and cycle ergometer (CE) tests were performed on each subject to determine a mode specific VO2 max and the lactate threshold (LT).

Graded arm ergometer (AE) was performed to determine VO2 max and heart rate and blood lactate at 20 and 40 Watts (W). Testing occurred prior to (0T), after 5 (5T) and after 10 weeks of training (10T). Body fat testing (hydrodensitometry at residual lung volume) was performed at 0T and 10T. TR and CE VO2 max as well as TR and CE VO2 at the LT improved throughout the 10 weeks, regardless of training group. Although there were no changes in VO2 max or blood lactate levels during AE, submaximal heart rates were significantly reduced over the 10 weeks, regardless of training group. These results indicate that the aerobic benefits of either run, cycle or combined run and cycle training are similar in untrained females. The LT and AE heart rate data demonstrate that improvements in VO2 max due to ten weeks of training are a result of pronounced peripheral and moderate central adaptations.

Sleivert (1996) concluded that the physiological demands of sequential exercise in swimming, cycling and running are unique and require the triathlete to develop physical and

Review of Related Literature 34 physiological characteristics that are a blend of those seen in endurance swimming, cycling and running specialists. Elite triathletes are generally tall, of average to light weight and have low levels of body fat, a physique which provides the advantages of large leverage and an optimal power to surface area or weight ratio. Triathletes have high maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) values, but VO2 max may be on average marginally lower than values previously observed in endurance specialists. Although

VO2 max is a predictor of performance in triathletes of mixed abilities, it cannot be used to predict performance within homogenous groups of elite performers. Nevertheless, elite triathletes have significantly higher VO2 max values than sub-elite triathletes and high VO2 max levels are required for success in triathlons. The ability of the triathlete to exercise at a lower percentage of VO2 max for a given submaximal workload may be especially important to triathlon success. This is influenced not only by VO2 max itself, but also by anaerobic threshold and economy of movement. Anaerobic threshold, as indicated by either ventilatory threshold or lactate threshold, improves with triathlon training and when measured in the appropriate exercise mode has been related to swim, cycle and run performance in the triathlon. Economy of movement in swimming, cycling and running is also related to triathlon performance, and swimming economy in particular appears to be an area where triathletes could make large improvements. Future research should utilise experimental methodologies to investigate triathlon physiology, in particular, the influence of sequential exercise in different exercise modes on physiological function and examine the

Review of Related Literature 35 influence of different training interventions on triathlon physiology and performance. Pizza et al. (1995) compared the changes in running economy, foot impact shock, run performance, and resting heart rate and blood pressure elicited by increases in training volume via run training (RT) and cross training (CT). After 30 d of normal training (NT), male runners (N = 11) completed two 10 d periods of increased training each preceded by 14 d of reduced training (80% NT). Subjects ran 10 consecutive days in the afternoon (100% of NT) and performed 8 additional workouts in the morning (100% of NT). The morning sessions were performed on a cycle ergometer (CT) or a treadmill (RT). Running economy, foot impact shock and lactate were assessed during submaximal running (3.9 +/- 0.06 m.sec-1) at D0 and D11. Following the submaximal run, subjects completed a simulated 5 km race on a treadmill. VO2 during the running economy test was significantly higher at D11 of CT (52.5 +/- 1.5) compared to RT (51.1 +/- 1.4 ml.kg-1.min-1). RER, carbohydrate oxidation, and lactate were significantly lower; whereas, foot impact shock was significantly higher following both training modes. No significant changes in run performance, resting heart rate and blood pressure occurred during the study. In summary, 10 d of increased training resulted in a reduced running economy for CT, and a lower carbohydrate oxidation and an increase in foot impact shock for both training modes.

Tanaka et al. (1994) concluded that the cross training is a widely used approach for structuring training programme to improve competitive performance in a specific sport by training in

Review of Related Literature 36 a variety of sports. Despite numerous anecdotal reports claiming benefits for cross training, very few scientific studies have investigated this particular type of training. It appears that some transfer of training effects on maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) exists from one mode to another. The non specific training effects seem to be more noticeable when running is performed as a cross training mode. Swim training, however, may result in minimum transfer of training effects on VO2 max. Cross training effects never exceed those induced by the sport-specific training mode. The principles of specificity of training tend to have greater significance, especially for highly trained athletes. For the general population, cross training may be highly beneficial in terms of overall fitness. Similarly, cross training may be an appropriate supplement during rehabilitation periods from physical injury and during periods of overtraining or psychological fatigue.

James et al. (1993) analysed nineteen competitive male endurance athletes (11 runners and 8 duathletes/triathletes) to determine what effects cross training might have on running performance. Subjects were evaluated for a difference in maximal

oxygen consumption (VO2max), running economy, running mechanics, and best 10 km performance time. The runners exhibited a significantly greater weekly training run mileage, a lower number of weekly training hours, a longer running step length, and a faster 10 km performance time compared with the multisport athletes (p ≤0.05). In addition, the runners exhibited a better running economy, requiring 6.20%, 6.13%, and 6.78% less utilization of VO2max at three standard velocities of submaximal

Review of Related Literature 37 treadmill running. These results suggest that enhancement of running performance might be best obtained by running-specific training activity rather than from cross training methods.

Mutton et al. (1993) investigated the effects of 5 wk of high intensity cross training (a combination of cycling and running) versus an equal intensity running only training program on 1609 m (one mile) and 5,000 m run performance, as well as the laboratory measure of maximal aerobic power (VO2 max). Twelve moderately-fit men who had been running up to 30 km/wk for the two months prior to the study acted as subjects. After 5 wk of training, there were improvements in both the run-only and the cross-trained athletes for one mile time (21 vs 18 s), 5000 m

performance (1.7 min for both groups) and VO2 max (5.2% vs 5.9%). Although there were no differences in any of the performance measures between the two groups and concluded that their results support the use of cross training as an alternative to increasing performance. It is difficult to see how such a conclusion was warranted, when the effects of cross training on performance never exceeded those induced by specific training. In addition, the principles of specificity of training are likely to have greater significance for well-conditioned competitive athletes compared to the moderately-trained recreational subjects who participated in this study.

Kritpet et al. (1989) conducted a study to determine the effect of 6 weeks strength training programme consisting of squat and plyometric exercises on vertical power jump performance,

Review of Related Literature 38 static and dynamic muscular strength and muscular power production in college adults. Fifteen male and two female college students in an advanced weight training class at the Oregon state University served as subjects of the study. Nine subjects trained only with squat exercise whereas eight subjects trained with combined squat and plyometric exercises. All subjects trained twice a week for six weeks. A pre-test and post-test randomized group design was utilised in this study. The statistical analysis was conducted using a paired ‘t’ test and a repeated measures ANOVA. A.05 level of significance was selected for rejection of null hypothesis (p<.05). The results of the training programme indicated a significant mean gain (p<.05) within both training programmes. However no difference existed between the gains achieved by the two training programmes. The result of the study will assist physical educationist and coaches in designing more effective training programme both at college and high school level.

Gray (1988) studied the effect of three modes of aerobic training on cardio vascular endurance, which were cycling, jogging and swimming. The subjects for this study were 102 college men and women 17 to 29 years of age. The subjects were allowed to select the mode to training on their own (Cycling, jogging and swimming). These three groups were further divided into two sub groups each of which divided into two sub groups each of which were designated and experimental and control sub groups, Experimental group exercised for forty minutes for thrice a week for seven consecutive weeks. Based on the findings of this study it was concluded that anaerobic exercise programme on

Review of Related Literature 39 cycling, jogging and on swimming produce a significant gain in cardio-vascular and it was further concluded that there was no significant differences in specific exercise, heart rate training method to produce a significant increase in cardio vascular endurance in the aerobic modes of cycling, jogging and swimming.

Germar (1987) conducted a study to determine if a plyometric exercise programme was better than a weight training exercise programme in improving leg power as measured by vertical jump, standing long jump and 40 mts sprint ability. The training protocol consisted of plyometric drills two times a week for an eight week period. Pre-test, mid test and post-test assessments were taken. Mean gains from the pre-test to the post-test for the weight training, plyometric and control groups respectively were standing long jump = 11.2 cm, 9.5 cm and 5 cm, vertical jump = 2.3 cm, 1.78 cm and 2 cm and 40 mts sprint = .21 sec .20 sec and .03 sec. The gains achieved by both treatment groups were significantly (p<.05) greater than those experienced by the control group, but no difference existed between the gains attained by the two treatment groups. It was concluded that under the delimitations of this study there is no difference between the two programmes in improving leg power.

Meyer (1987) conducted a study to investigate the effects of ten weeks of strength and flexibility training on the strength, flexibility, body composition and self-perception. Thirty one untrained women were selected and trained three times a week for ten weeks for strength and flexibility using Nautilus machines

Review of Related Literature 40 and static stretching. Significant difference was found for the total group between pre-test and post-test. The younger group had a better body cathexis score. No significant differences were found between groups in pre-test means. No significant differences were found in post-test means except in flexibility.

Kramer (1984) conducted a study to determine the effects of aerobic training on pulmonary function and submaximal work performance in subjects with preclinical chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Thirty seven subjects were assigned to one of four test groups, a control, aerobic training, ventilator training and a combination of aerobic/ventilator training. The subjects were given pre-training tests of pulmonary function and submaximal work performance. A training period of six weeks duration followed in which the subjects’ training programmes were strictly monitored. Aerobic trainers rode a bicycle ergometer three times a week for a prescribed period of time. Following the training period, identical post training tests of pulmonary function and submaximal work performance were administrated. The aerobic and aerobic/ventilator training groups demonstrated an improvement in submaximal work performance with reduction in post training heart rate at a given work load. The ventilator and aerobic/ventilator groups exhibited an increase in maximum voluntary ventilation and aerobic/ventilatory groups exhibited an increase in maximum voluntary ventilation for 10 sec. (MVV2) in their post training tests.

Review of Related Literature 41

STUDIES ON SPORTS SPECIFIC TRAINING Elferink et al. (2010) determined whether youth athletes with an "average" (regional), "high" (sub-elite), and "very high" (elite) level of performance differ with respect to their self-assessed tactical skills, 191 youth Field Hockey players (mean age 15.5 years, s = 1.6) completed the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports (TACSIS) with scales for declarative ("knowing what to do") and procedural ("doing it") knowledge. Multivariate analyses of covariance with age as covariate showed that elite and sub-elite players outscored regional players on all tactical skills (P < 0.05), whereas elite players had better scores than sub-elite players on "positioning and deciding" (P < 0.05) only. The sex of the athletes had no influence on the scores (P > 0.05). With increasing level of performance, scores on declarative and procedural knowledge were higher. Close to expert performance, declarative knowledge no longer differentiated between elite and sub-elite players (P > 0.05), in contrast to an aspect of procedural knowledge (i.e. positioning and deciding), where elite players outscored sub-elite players (P < 0.05). These results may have implications for the development of talented athletes.

Gabbett (2010) investigated the physiological demands of women's Field Hockey competition and compared these demands to those experienced during game-based training activities. Fourteen elite women Field Hockey players (mean ± SD; age, 23.3 ± 3.2 years; maximal oxygen consumption, 53.5 ± 4.3 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) participated in this study. Global positioning satellite (GPS) system analysis was completed during 19 training

Review of Related Literature 42 appearances and 32 Australian Hockey League (AHL) appearances. All training sessions consisted of game-based activities (i.e., small-sided training games) that were played on a reduced-sized pitch. Movement was recorded by a global positioning satellite unit sampling at 5 Hz. Data were categorized into discreet movement velocity bands, corresponding to low- intensity (0-1 m.s(-1)), moderate-intensity (1-3 m.s(-1) and 3-5 m.s(-1)), and high-intensity (5-7 m.s(-1) and >7 m.s(-1)) activities. Players covered 6.6 km (range: 3.4-9.5 km) over the course of the match. Midfielders spent more time and covered greater distances in high-intensity running (i.e., >5 m.s(-1)) than strikers and defenders. The number of high-velocity and high-acceleration efforts over the course of a match was greater in midfielders. In comparison to competition, game-based training sessions resulted in more time spent in low-intensity (i.e., 0-1 m.s(-1)) activities and less time spent in moderate (i.e., 1-3 m.s(-1) and 3-5 m.s(-1)) and high-intensity (i.e., 5-7 m.s(-1) and >7 m.s(-1)) activities. Although game-based training is likely to be useful for improving the skill levels of players, the skill activities used in the present study did not reflect the physiological demands of competition, with players spending more time in low-intensity activities and less time in high-intensity activities than competition. Modifications in training group size and drill design and complexity may better simulate the physiological demands of competition.

Indranil et al. (2010) investigated the effect of training on selected anthropometric, physiological and biochemical variables of elite field hockey players. A total of 30 Indian male field hockey

Review of Related Literature 43 players (age: 23.00-30.00 yrs) volunteered for this study. The training sessions were divided into 2 phases (a) Preparatory Phase (PP, 8 weeks) and (b) Competitive Phase (CP, 4 weeks). The training programme consisted of aerobic, anaerobic and skill development, and were completed 4 hrs/day; 5 days/week. Selected variables were measured at zero level (baseline data, BD) and at the end of PP and CP. A significant increase (P<0.05) in LBM, back and hand grip strength, serum level of urea, uric acid and HDLC; and a significant decrease (P<0.05) in body fat, sub- maximal exercise heart rate and recovery heart rate, hemoglobin, total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDLC were noted in PP and CP of training when compared to BD. No significant change was

noted in stature, body mass, HRmax, resting heart rate, VO2 max and anaerobic power of the players after the training. Since the data on field hockey players are limited in India, the present study may provide useful information to the coaches to develop their training programme.

Burr et al. (2007) conducted a study (a) to determine the measurement device and jumping protocol most appropriate for testing the leg power of elite Hockey players and (b) to assess the relationship of leg power measurements to Hockey playing ability as indicated by draft selection order. Comparisons were made of leg power measurements from the top 95 players entering the National Hockey League Entry Draft using 2 devices (Vertec and Just Jump) and 2 jump protocols (countermovement and squat). Players' leg powers were ranked from highest to lowest power using each device and protocol and were correlated with draft

Review of Related Literature 44 selection order. Vertec leg power measurements were highest (5,511-5,631 W), but there were no significant differences in power between the 2 jumping protocols on either device. Vertec squat jump provided the highest correlation (0.47) between leg power ranking and selection order and was judged to most closely approximate the full body coordinated movements involved in Hockey. The Vertec device using a squat jump protocol is most appropriate for coaches and fitness specialists to use when evaluating Hockey potential based on the off-ice leg power measurements of elite Hockey players.

Cumps et al. (2007) conducted a study to determine the efficacy of a 22 week prescribed sports specific balance training programme on the incidence of lateral ankle sprains in basket ball players. A controlled clinical trial was set up. In total 54 subjects of six teams participated and were assigned to either an intervention (IG) or a control group (CG). The IG performed a prescribed balance training programme on top of their normal training routine, using balance semi-globes. The programme consisted of 4 basket ball skills each session and its difficulty was progressively thought-out. The intervention lasted 22 weeks and was performed 3 times a week for 5 to 10 minutes. Efficacy of the intervention on the incidence of lateral ankle sprains was determined by calculating Relative Risks (RR, including their 95%Confidence Intervals or CI) and incidence of lateral ankle sprains in the IG compared to the CG for the total sample (RR=0.30[95%CI:0.11-0.84]) and in men (RR=0.29[95%CI:0.09- 0.93]). The difference in RR was not confirmed when examining

Review of Related Literature 45 the incidence rates and their 95%CI’s, which overlapped. The risk for new or recurrent ankle sprains was slightly lower in the IG (new: RR=0.76[95%CI: 0.17-3.40]; re-injury; RR=0.21 [95% CI: 0.03-1.44]). Based on these pilot results, the use of balance training in recommended as a routine during basket ball activities for the prevention of ankles sprains.

Drinkwater et al. (2007) suggested that strength improvements are greater when resistance training continues to the point at which the individual cannot perform additional repetitions (i,e., repetition failure). Performing additional forced repetitions after the point of repetition failure and thus further increasing the set volume is a common resistance training practice. However, whether short-term use of this practise increases the magnitude of strength development with resistance training is unknown and was investigated here. Twelve basketball and 10 volleyball players trained 3 sessions per week for 6 weeks, completing either 4x 6, 8x3, or 12x3 (sets x repetitions) of bench press per training session. Compared with the 8x3 group, the 4x6 protocol involved a longer work interval and the 12x3 protocol involved higher training volume, so each group was purposefully designed to elicit a difference number of forced repetitions per training session. Subjects were tested on 3 and 6 repetition maximum (RM) bench press (81.5 + 9.8 and 75.9+ 9.0 kg, respectively, mean +SD), and 40-kg Smith Machine bench press throw power (589 + 100W). The 4x6 and 12x3 groups had more forced repetitions per session (P<0.01) than did the 8x3 group (4.1 + 2.6, 3.5, and 1.2 + 1.8 repetitions, respectively), whereas the

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12x3 group performed approximately 40% greater work and had 30% greater concentric time. As expected, all groups improved 3RM (4.5 kg, 95% confidence limits, 3.1-6.0), 6RM (4.7kg, 3.1- 6.3), bench press throw peak power (57 W, 22-92), and mean power (23 W, 4-42) (all p< or = 0.02). There were no significant differences in strength or power gains between groups. In conclusion, when repetition failure was reached, neither additional forced repetitions nor additional set volume further improved the magnitude of strength gains. This finding questions the efficacy of adding additional volume by use of forced repetitions in young athletes with moderate strength training experience.

McManus et al. (2007) quantified the physical demands of non-elite field hockey to develop training guidelines that minimize injury through adequate preparation. In a field hockey game players need a high level of energy and analytical skill to fulfill the requirements. Sports-specific physical training is paramount in field hockey. The study has focused on the demands placed on participants at non-elite level. With the view to develop guidelines to test player’s preparedness to compete this study quantified the positional demands of both male and female non-elite competitors. There were few significant differences between the demands placed on players by position or gender with players performing between 510 and 520 separate movements per game, changing movements every 8-11 seconds. Both genders were existed differences between the number and utility movements. When compared to the female attack players male defenders have

Review of Related Literature 47 completed significantly more high intensity movements. Players on average in both genders were completed up to 300 moderately high or high intensity movements over a game with more intense anaerobic efforts required towards the end of playing periods. The findings of this study indicate the need for gender-specific basic skills and fitness programs with two additional components addressing the differing needs of midfielders and defences (similar) and the attacks. The tests can be used to assess player preparedness to compete, if ready to return to play following injury or if fatigued during the season.

Stone (2007) conducted a study on physiological response to sport-specific aerobic interval training in high school male basket ball players. The Aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a basketball specific endurance circuit on improving measures of aerobic fitness. Methods: Ten male high school basketball players, age 16.4 + 1.2 years, ranked by fitness level and randomly assigned to a training group (N=6) or control group (N=4) participated in the study. The sport-specific aerobic endurance training replaced the fitness component of regular training and was performed during the competitive season. The sport specific training consisted of interval training using a basketball specific endurance circuit, four times 4 min at 90-95% HR peak with a 3 min recovery at 60-70% HR peak, twice per week for 6 weeks. During this time the control group performed regular basketball training. for both the training and control groups the mental training intensity for total training duration were 77.1+ 2.9% HR peak and 74.1+ 6.7% Hr peak, respectively.

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The actual mean intensity during the work intervals in the training group was 84.1 + 2.3% HR peak. There were no clear differences between effects of the two training approaches for measures of maximal oxygen uptake (3.3%; 90% confidence limits, + 19.3%), running economy (-3.3%; 90% confidence limits, +14.2%), repeated sprint ability (0.6%; 90% confidence limits +5.7%) and anaerobic power maintenance during the repeated sprints (-13.7%: 90% confidence limits, + 49.0%). However, a clear non-trivial effect on sub-maximal hearts rate was observed (-7.3%; 90% confidence limits, 2.0%) suggesting a beneficial training effect after training. Some evidence for attenuation of speed (-1.8 to -2.8%; 90% confidence limits + 3.4 to 5.7%) and power (-1.7%; 90% confidence limits + 17.1%) was apparent. Conclusion: Although clear changes in sub-maximal HR responses were observed in the training group, the data in the present study suggests that a basketball specific endurance circuit has little effect on the other laboratory and field based measures of aerobic fitness. In fact, the basketball specific endurance circuit may lead to reduced improvements in jumping and sprinting performances. Further research is required to clarify the effect of aerobic training approaches on basketball specific fitness and performance.

Verrall et al. (2005) examined the effect of a specific intervention program on the incidence and consequence of hamstring muscle strain injuries. A prospective study was performed with a single team being followed for four playing seasons for hamstring injury. Magnetic resonance imaging was

Review of Related Literature 49 used to confirm the diagnosis of hamstring muscle injury. After two playing seasons, an intervention program was implemented with the number of athletes with hamstring match injuries per 1000 h of playing time being compared pre and post intervention. The intervention program involved stretching whilst fatigued, sport specific training drills and an emphasis on increasing the amount of high intensity anaerobic interval training. In the seasons prior to the intervention, nine and 11 athletes sustained hamstring injury compared to two and four following intervention. Competition days missed reduced from 31 and 38 to 5 and 16 following intervention and match incidence decreased from 4.7 to 1.3 per 1000 h of playing time. A beneficial effect was demonstrated with a smaller number of players having hamstring injuries (p=0.05), a lower number of competition games missed being recorded (p<0.001), and a decrease in hamstring strain incidence per 1000 h of playing time (p=0.01) following the intervention program. In conclusion it was observed that increasing the amount of anaerobic interval training, stretching whilst the muscle is fatigued and implementing sport specific training drills resulted in a significant reduction in the number and consequences of hamstring muscle strain injuries.

Alagesan (1997) examined the effects of specific pre- season training package on selected physical fitness and cardio pulmonary variables and skill performance of football players. Forty five men were selected at random and their age ranged from 18 to 25 years. The selected physical fitness and cardio pulmonary variables and skill performance were tested before and

Review of Related Literature 50 after 12 weeks of experimentation. He found that the specific pre- season training improved speed, endurance, agility, flexibility, explosive power, leg strength, maximum voluntary ventilation, forced expiratory volume, dribbling, ball control, kicking and general playing ability.

Joshi (1986) conducted a study to investigate the effects of warm-up exercises on physical fitness and skilled performance of basketball players. 15 boys and 15 girls in the age group of 15 to 19 years were given intense advanced coaching for a duration of two months. There is no significant increase in cardio-pulmonary reserve, Harvard’s Fatigue index and anaerobic capacity. Due to the exercises there is improvement in the skilled performance which is indicated as decrease in the number of miss passes, decrease in the number of mistakes, decrease in the number of fouls and increase in the percentage shooting.

STUDIES ON PHYSICAL VARIABLES Bloomfield et al. (2007) compared the effectiveness of 2 methodologies for speed and agility conditioning for random, intermittent, and dynamic activity sports (e.g., soccer, tennis, hockey, basketball, rugby, and netball) and the necessity for specialized coaching equipment. Two groups were delivered either a programmed method (PC) or a random method (RC) of conditioning with a third group receiving no conditioning (NC). PC participants used the speed, agility, quickness (SAQ) conditioning method, and RC participants played supervised small-sided soccer games. PC was also subdivided into 2 groups where

Review of Related Literature 51 participants either used specialized SAQ equipment or no equipment. 46 (25 males and 21 females) untrained participants were received (mean +/- SD) 12.2 +/- 2.1 hours of physical conditioning over 6 weeks between a battery of speed and agility parameter field tests. The two-way analysis of variance results indicated that both conditioning groups showed a significant decrease in body mass and body mass index, although PC achieved significantly greater improvements on acceleration, deceleration, leg power, dynamic balance, and the overall summation of % increases when compared to RC and NC (p < = 0.05). PC in the form of SAQ exercises appears to be a superior method for improving speed and agility parameters. This study found that specialized SAQ equipment was not a requirement to observe significant improvements. Further research is required to establish whether these benefits transfer to sport-specific tasks as well as to the underlying mechanisms resulting in improved performance.

Lemmink et al. (2006) explained the energetic of two intermittent field tests in women field hockey players. The energetic of a field tests that reflects physical performance in intermittent sports (i.e., the Interval Shuttle Sprint Test) and the Interval Shuttle Run Test were examined in 21 women field hockey players. The ISST required the players to perform 10 shuttle sprints starting every 20 seconds during ISRT, players alternatively ran 20m shuttles for 30 seconds and walked for 15 seconds with increasing speed. Anaerobic and aerobic power tests

included Wingate cycle sprints and a VO2 max cycle test,

Review of Related Literature 52 respectively. It was concluded that for ISST, anaerobic energetic pathways contribute mainly to energy supply for peak sprint time, while aerobic energetic pathways also contribute to energy supply for total sprint time. During the ISRT energy is supplied mainly by the aerobic energy system.

Astorino et al. (2004) conducted a study on changes in physical fitness parameter during a competitive field hockey season which requires a substantial amount of muscular strength, speed, and cardiovascular endurance. The Division III female field hockey athletes (n = 13) completed tests of muscular

strength, body composition, and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) during each phase of their season. Muscular strength was assessed using 1 repetition maximum (RM) leg and bench press tests. Body composition was assessed by anthropometry (skinfolds [SKF]), circumferences ([CC]), and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Incremental treadmill testing was administered to assess VO2 max. VO2 max was unchanged during the season. A higher VO2 max (p > 0.05) is shown during and after the season vs before the season. Significant decrease (p>0.05) was seen in upper (10%) and lower-body strength (14%) during the season. There were significant lower percent body fat (%BF) from BIA, fat mass (FM) from CC, and body mass index (BMI) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in inseason and postseason vs preseason. The preseason training was effective in decreasing

%BF and increasing VO2 max, yet muscular strength was lost. These data support the superior levels of muscular strength and leanness in these athletes compared with age-matched peers.

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Boddington et al. (2004) worked on a study to establish validity of a 5-m multiple shuttle test using indirect (criterion and construct) and direct measures of performance. The comparisons were made between data from established fitness tests and a 5-m MST with subjects of different playing abilities. Direct validity was determined by comparing values from a 5-m MST with data from a time-motion study of field hockey. For criterion validity, the strongest relationship existed between the 20m MST (42.7 +/- 7.1 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) and total distance from the 5-m MST (650.9 +/- 59.2 m; r = 0.92). For construct validity, regional representative players covered more distance than club-level players (689.9 +/- 46.6 m vs. 661.1 +/- 31.0 m; p < 0.01). For direct validity, the highest correlation was found between total distance from the 5-m MST (706.0 +/- 37.5 m) and mean displacement during matches (61.0 +/- 6.0 m; r = 0.74). It was concluded that the 5-m MST had both indirect and direct validity for the fitness assessment of field hockey players. The data obtained from the 5- m MST directly relates to the physical fitness of the players during competition.

Spencer et al. (2004) conducted a study on the longitudinal assessment of the effects of field-hockey training on repeated sprint ability. Repeated sprint ability is thought to be an important fitness component of team sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of field-hockey specific training on repeated-sprint ability, Plasma hypoxanthine (Hx) concentration and other blood parameters in 18 elite female field- hockey players. The players performed a repeated-sprint ability

Review of Related Literature 54 test on a cycle ergometer (5 x 6-sec maximal sprints every 30 secs) before and after seven weeks of training, which was designed to improve repeated-sprint ability. There was a significant (P< 0.05) increase in absolute total work (20.73+/-2.00 to 21.15+/-2.07 kJ, mean+/-SD). There was no significant change in total work when expressed per kg of body mass (341.3+/-16.4 to 345.5+/-18.8 J x kg (-1)). In addition, training resulted in a significant (P< 0.05) decrease in change values (peak-rest values) for Hx (8.2+/-3.8 to 5.5+/-2.7 micromol x L(-1)) and hydrogen ion concentration (22.8+/-5.2 to 19.1+/-5.1 nmol x L(-1)). Seven weeks of field-hockey training significantly increase in absolute total work due to an increase in lean muscle mass whereas significant decrease in plasma Hx concentration (post-test minus rest values) following seven weeks of field hockey specific training provides evidence that Hx production and/or efflux from the muscle are reduced. Therefore, one adaptation of sport-specific repeated-sprint training may be to conserve the purine nucleotide pool.

Hennessy et al. (1994) compared the effects of three preseason training programs on endurance, strength, power, and speed. In this study the subjects were divided into four groups: the endurance (E) group who were completed a running endurance program 4 days [middle dot] week-1; the strength (S) group were trained 3 days [middle dot] week-1; the S+E group combined S and E training programs 5 days [middle dot] week-1; the control (C) group did not train. After 8 weeks, the E and S+E groups had similar gains in endurance running performance.

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The S group had no change, while the C group showed a decline. There were no strength gains noted in the C or E groups, but strength gains were made in the S+E and S groups. Power (vertical jump performance) and speed (20-m sprint time) gains were noted only for the S group. These findings show that training for strength alone results in gains in strength, power, and speed while maintaining endurance. S+E training, while producing gains in endurance and upper body strength, compromises gains in lower body strength and does not improve power or speed.

Anindra et al. (1990) investigated the effects of specific conditioning programme on selected performance variables among tribal students. By random sampling, 17 tribal school students of 14-16 years of age were selected from a residential school of West Bengal. All the subjects had undergone a 6 weeks conditioning programme specially designed for developing speed, endurance, strength and other fitness components. Standard tests were conducted before the six weeks of training programme and after its completion. From the findings, the following conclusions were drawn. Speed, endurance, strength and agility increased significantly after training. There were no significant changes in blood sugar level after training. Hemoglobin concentration, systolic and diastolic pressure decreased significantly after training.

Kenney (1986) investigated changes in cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and body fat in male

Review of Related Literature 56 and female after three months of circuit weight training and variable resistance training. All subjects trained on the same equipments, hip and back, leg extension, leg curl, pull over, lateral raise, overhead press, arm cross and declined press.

Testing was done for max VO2 for arm erogometer, crunking and treadmill running for exhaustion, maximum lift 1 RM on Nautilus machine, flexibility for shoulder extension and trunk flexion and percent body fat from sum of skin folds and muscular endurance on cybex II. A significant difference existed in cardio vascular

endurance between VRT and CWT group for VO2 max on trade mill run. No significant difference existed in muscular strength between CWT and VRT groups on the cybex II. The changes in muscular endurance were not significant for either of the training groups. No significant difference existed in flexibility between CWT and VRT groups. Within the scopes, limitation and procedures of the study the following conclusions appear justified: High intensity training is better than lower intensity training for improving VO2 max. On trade mill, Males were significantly different from females for body fat reduction. No difference existed between the CWT and URT groups for muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility and body fat.

Anderson and Kearney (1982) have conducted a study on resistance training. Three sets of a high resistance, low repetition (HL) group (N=15) performed three sets of 6-8 RM per session: b) medium resistance, medium repetition (MM) group (N=16) performed two sets of 30-40 RM per session: and c) low resistance, high repetition (LH) group (N=12) performed one set of

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100-150 RM, trained three per week for nine weeks. Strength (1 RM) absolute and relative endurance were assessed before and after the training period. Low repetitions and high resistances favour strength, whereas moderate to high repetitions using a moderate weight that can be accommodated produce endurance and minor strength changes. It is anticipated that the specificity of these effects will be more evident in the higher levels and training states of athletes who engage in this type of exercise.

Hickson (1980) showed a 10 week combined strength and

endurance training program result in similar gains in VO2 max compared to an endurance only group, but there was some interference with the gains in strength. The only group increased strength throughout the entire ten weeks, but the combined strength and endurance group showed a levelling off and a decrease in strength at 10 weeks. In contest to this when a 10- weeks (3day per week) strength training program was added to a run and cycle training program after the group and levelled off in endurance performance, the group experienced a 30% gain in

strength, but without hypertrophy VO2 max was unaffected, but

cycle time in exhaustion at 80% VO2 max was increased from 71 to 85 minutes. This suggests that strength training can improve the performance of prolonged heavy endurance exercise.

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STUDIES ON PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES Lennart et al. (2007) compared the diagnosis of COPD among smokers according to different international guidelines and to compare the outcome when using slow (SVC) and forced vital capacity (FVC). In order to find current smokers a questionnaire was sent to persons who had been on sick leave for more than two weeks. Those who smoked more than 8 cigarettes per day were invited to perform a spirometry. Totally 3,887 spirometries were performed. In this sample 10.2% fulfilled the NICE COPD-criteria, 14.0% the GOLD COPD-criteria and 21.7% the ERS COPD criteria. The diagnosis according to NICE and GOLD guidelines is based on FVC and in the ERS guidelines the best value of either SVC or FVC is used. Thus, substantially more subjects with COPD were found when the best of either SVC or FVC was used. Forced VC tended to be higher than SVC when lung function was normal and in those with mild obstruction prior to bronchodilatation whereas SVC exceeded FVC after bronchodilatation in those who had severe bronchial obstruction. The diagnosis of COPD is highly depending on which guidelines are used for defining the disease. If FVC and not the best of SVC and FVC is used when defining COPD the diagnosis will be missed in a substantial number of patients.

Mishra et al. (2007) evaluated the effect of four week yoga training on selected morpho-physiological variables of adult women. The subjects were 20 women students, who had undergone the certificate course at SAI NSNIS, Patiala. They undertook a total of four hours of yoga exercises, six days a week,

Review of Related Literature 59 for four weeks before the training programme started. The women students were physiologically assessed for their weight, body fat percentage, resting heart rate, resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure, lung function test, involving measurement of vital capacity (VC), forced expiratory volume, in one second (FEV1): pear expiratory flow (PEF): and maximum oxygen uptake capacity (V02max) was assessed by a computerized metabolic analyzer, by graded cycle ergometry. A two test battery involving lying to standing test and cold pressure test were used to assess the functional status of their autonomic nervous system. The same measurements were repeated after four weeks of yoga training. It was observed that body fat percentage was reduced significantly: and so did the resting heart rate and resting (Standing) systolic blood pressure The V02max exhibited significant improvement, and the PEF was also found to improve, significantly. Our findings strongly suggest, among others, that although significant changes and alterations have been effected in four weeks yoga training in some of the parameters, but possibly a greater time period is required to affect the physiology of major body systems and to cause a significant generalized change in the physiological status.

Gerrard et al. (1999) examined the effects of acute hypercapnia and fatigue in seven subjects by measuring changes in transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdi) elicited by cervical magnetic stimulation after 2 min maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV) while

breathing air and also with the inspired PCO2 increased to 8% for 12 min before and during the MVV. Diaphragm strength was

Review of Related Literature 60 assessed before and at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 90 min after the MVV in both studies with the subjects breathing air. There was no difference in the level of ventilation for each run. Mean (± SD) twitch Pdi (TwPdi) fell significantly (p < 0.01) at 20 min after the control and hypercapnic MVV; (30.4 [7.8] to 27.0 [8.1] cm H2O control and 30.3 [4.1] to 27.3 [5.0] cm H2O CO2) and remained significantly (p < 0.01) below baseline. The changes in TwPdi at 20 to 90 min were not significantly different between the control and CO2 runs. The decrease in TwPdi at 0 min after MVV, however, was greater (15%) in the hypercapnic run than in the control run (8.1%) (p < 0.05) when compared with baseline valves. Hypercapnia does not intensify long lasting fatigue but may reduce diaphragm contractility immediately after MVV.

Boyle et al. (1994) analyzed the competitive demands of elite male field hockey players. To establish the energy cost of competitive field hockey, nine international hockey players wore a modified Sport Tester PE3000 telemetric heart rate monitor during match play and also completed a laboratory based incremental treadmill test to establish maximal oxygen uptake

(VO2max). The heart rate data from competition were compared with heart rate and oxygen uptake data measured in the laboratory. Individual regression equations were established from these data to estimate the energy expenditure during competitive match play. The mean heart rate during competition was 159 ± 8 beats/min (mean ± SD). The mean estimated oxygen uptake during competition was 48.2 ± 5.2 ml/kg/min, which is commensurate with 78% of the group's mean maximal oxygen

Review of Related Literature 61 uptake of 61.8 ± 1.8 ml/kg/min. The mean estimated energy expenditure throughout an entire match was 5.19 MJ and rate of energy expenditure ranged from 83 kJ/min for the centre midfield position to 61.1 kJ/min for the left corner forward position. This study has shown the feasibility of heart rate monitoring as a means of estimating energy expenditure in elite hockey. Competitive matches place a heavy demand on the aerobic system and require players to expend energy at relatively high levels.

Lakhera et al. (1994) conducted a study to evaluate the lung function in Indian athletes and non athletes during adolescence. For the lung function on 40 boys (20 athletes and 20 non-athletes) with ages 13 to 16 years, were evaluated annually for over a period of two years. The variables studied were forced vital capacity (FVC) forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory capacity (IC) and maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV). The results suggested that the development of the lung during adolescence under proper nutritional and health conditions was governed by the process of growth with no or negligible additional effects of physical activity. It was summarized that physical activity during growth may increase endurance in respiratory muscles. However the findings of this study did not reject the possibility that lungs size increased by a straneous and prolonged strength training regimen, during adolescence.

Singh and Singh, (1993) studied the Anthropometric and physiological profiles of active blind Malaysia males. In this study

Review of Related Literature 62 the Cardiopulmonary capacity of twelve adult (age from 14 to 44) with varying degree of blindness engaged in regular recreational activities were compared with twelve age matched normal sighted healthy males (control group) who were also involved in regular recreational activities. Maximum Oxygen consumption (VO2max) was measured directly during exhaustive exercise test on cycle ergo meter. Forced vital capacity, leg strength and power were determined by spirometry, standing long jump and vertical jump respectively. No significant difference was evident between the two groups. No anthropometric differences were evident between two groups. Therefore the visually handicapped who are active can have a similar level of physical fitness, lung function and explosive leg strength as those of their active sighted counterpart.

Wekesa et al. (1993) reported the preparation and medical care of the Kenyan national hockey team at fifth Africa cup of nation’s championships. A team of 25 top Kenyan male hockey players were selected. Before and after seven weeks of training test was taken. At the end of the training, 16 of them were selected into the National team. The illnesses and injuries of the team members were documented using the Wekesa Protocol Sheet. The Asembo Hockey Fitness test was used to evaluate fitness. There was a significant decrease in the heart rate after training (p < 0.01). The sum of the recovery pulse decreased from 550.92 ± 46.90 to 498.88 ± 44.06 (p < 0.001). A significant (p < 0.01) improvement in the time taken to perform the test (before: 814.08 ± 126.08 sec; after: 715.0 ± 92.78 sec) was established. There are 7 illnesses occurred during training and

Review of Related Literature 63 the championship matches. The commonest beings are contusions (70%) and lacerations (15%). The lower part of the body (below the hips) was more affected by injuries (60%) than the upper parts of the body. The results of the fitness test confirmed the commonly held view in sports medicine regarding morphological and functional adaptations due to training. The injuries recorded appear to be characteristic of hockey.

Nava et al (1992) conducted a study to determine the occurrence of respiratory muscles impairment. He studied on 6 well trained athletes, before, during (middle of the run) and after 17 km run. They were all asked to produce the maximum effort they could do during the race. Strength was assessed by measuring maximal inspiratory mouth pressure against close airways (MIP), dynamic lung volumes were monitored using a spirometer. No changes in forced vital capacity (FVC), maximal expiratory flow (MEF) and forced expiratory volume in 1 sec

(FEV1), were observed throughout the experiment. This suggested that functional residual capacity and subsequently the initial length of respiratory muscles were changed. Respiratory muscle strength did not significantly vary at the different times of measurements (154.8 ± 20.9 cm H2O at the beginning, 157.5 ±

23.7 cm H2O after 7.5 km 155.8 ± 22.5 cm H2O at the end and

152.3 ± 17.6 cm H2O after 30 min of recovery. It was concluded that respiratory muscle fatigue does not impair the exercise performance of well trained athletes relatively and other reported in literature could be explained by the different degree of training of the subjects performing the race.

Review of Related Literature 64

Cordain et al. (1990) determined the respiratory muscle strength in relation to pulmonary volume differences in athletes and non-athletes. 11 intercollegiate female swimmers, 11 female cross country runners and two non athletic control groups matched the athletes in height and age. They were evaluated for pulmonary parameters including maximal inspiratory pressure and maximal expiratory pressure. The data suggest that an adaptational growth may be responsible, in part for the argumental static lung volumes demonstrated in swimmers.

Mokha et al. (1990) studied the effect of training on weight and certain physiological parameters of Indian female hockey players with respect to their field hockey positions. 18 female players of the Punjabi University hockey team were selected during their camp held at Punjabi University. For this investigation the study was conducted before their participation in the inter-varsity competition, held at Ranchi. Weight, heart rate and blood pressure of each subject were taken before doing the exercise on the treadmill. The players ran on the treadmill for four minutes at the speed of 10 km/hr. Recovery heart rate and blood pressure were taken. These tests were taken twice on each player, i.e. initially at the commencement of the training and finally at the completion of the training camp. It is observed that there is a reduction of body weight in all the categories of players, the maximum being in halves (2.5 kg). There is an improvement in the percentage recovery in the heart rate of all the categories of players except the halves. The recovery is much less at the end of

Review of Related Literature 65 the training camp as compared to the values in the beginning of the camp.

Kraemer (1986) studied the effect of marathon running on blood components and pulmonary function. In this study the SS were 23 male and 3 female marathon runners, CA’s of 23 to 50, who were tested before and after the 1985 Hogeye marathon in payetteville, AR. Tests for pulmonary function consisted of FVC and FEV1. Blood samples were analysed for sodium, Potassium, glucose, LDH, creatine, cpk, triglycerides, cholesterol, Hematocrit, haemoglobin, Protein, white blood cell number, uric acid, carbon dioxide, and iron. All the blood parameters increased significant in concentration with the exception of glucose and carbon dioxide, after accounting for plasma volume loss, there were significant increases in blood serum LDH, cpk, creatine, white blood cell number, uric acid, and iron; and significant decrease in FVC. No strong relationships were found between performance time and blood chemistry and pulmonary function.

De et al. (1982) conducted a study in which the participants of inter-university "Kabaddi" competition showed higher values of height, weight and surface area than average Indian population, indicating better attainment of growth in them. Further, the values of respiratory efficiency tests like, FEV1, MEFR and PEFR were also observed to be more in these players, probably due to training effect. The grip strength values were high in comparison to those of Indian football goalkeepers and hockey players.

Review of Related Literature 66

STUDIES ON PERFORMANCE VARIABLES Chapman et al. (2009) examined the effectiveness of a time- limited and distance-regulated interval training program on sub- elite field hockey players. This study comprised 22 women (26.1 ± 4.5 years, 62.8 ± 7.4 kg, 1.7 ± 0.9 m) and 22 men (22.1 ± 3.2 years, 74.9 ± 5.4 kg, 1.8 ± 0.5 m) field hockey players. The research performance tests was included a standard 20-m multiple-stage shuttle run (MSSR), a 1000-m repeated-effort (x3) time trial (RTT), and a 100-m repeated-effort (x3) shuttle run (RSR) in an ascending pyramid order. The training program was administered separately to the women and men after a traditional, singlepeak, 4-week mesocycle, with the fourth week for recovery. The training consisted of an average total sprint distance of 3000 m per session during a 20-week data collection period, with testing administered pre and post. A significant (p < 0.05) gender difference on all performance tests shown by initial athlete profiling. The MSSR results were 8.6 ± 2.5 (range 6.7-10.7) and 12.1 ± 2.4 (10.2-13.5) women and men, respectively. The RTT and RSR times for women and men were 5:34 ± 0:30 seconds (4:31- 6:21), 5:14 ± 0:30 seconds (4:27-6:02), 4:12 ± 0:13 seconds (3:50- 4:36), and 4:06 ± 0:13 seconds (3:47-6:02), respectively. A small to moderate effect size (ES) was calculated for the women's (n = 12) MSSR (ES = 0.74) and RSR (ES = 0.50) results after 20 weeks of training. A distinct improvement in the MSSR resulted after training for men (n = 16), with a moderate ES (1.34). In contrast, completion times in RSR were marginally reduced, with a small ES (0.49). The findings demonstrate that a 3000-m interval-based conditioning program, when conducted in conjunction with

Review of Related Literature 67 normal-skill game play training, can lead to significant improvements in player conditioning during a competitive season.

Franke et al. (2007) studied the position specific physiologic demands in elite female field hockey. 18 elite female field hockey players (2 goal keepers (G), 4 defenders (D), 5 forwards (F), and 7 midfielder players (M)) were selected. Heart rate was monitored continuously during 4 matches of an international tournament using the Polar Team System. Prior to the tournament, lactate threshold velocity (v4) and the corresponding heart rate (HRv4) was examined in an incremental field test and denned as the running velocity. The heart rate was corresponding to 4 mmol/l lactate. The individual maximal heart rates (HRmax) and the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) were measured during an incremental treadmill test. VO2 max for the different groups of players were: G 47.0 ± 1.9 ml/kg, D 49.8 ± 7.0 ml/kg; F 48.9 ± 7.3 ml/kg, M 47.1 ± 0.3 ml/kg. The mean heart rates of all matches of G were lower compared to D, F and M (p<0.05). Absolute heart rates and percent heart rates from HRmax or from HRv4 of the other players were quite high and did not differ significantly between the groups or between the 1st and 2nd half of the matches. It was concluded that modern international female field hockey is a fascinating sport with similar high physiologic demands for the field players of all different positions. The intensity of the game is on a consistently high level over the whole period of 70 min. A reduction of individual demands might only be achieved if individual endurance performance will be developed towards a higher level.

Review of Related Literature 68

Macleod et al. (2007) evaluated a study on reliability and validity of a global positioning system for measuring movement patterns during field hockey. Global positioning systems (GPS) have the potential to further our understanding of the physiological demands of competitive sport through the process of tracking player movement patterns. Nine subjects were selected. A predetermined circuit, painted onto an Astroturf surface, was designed to replicate the movement patterns and time spent in each motion category (stand, walk, jog, cruise, sprint), with that performed during a game of field hockey. Each subject has completed 14 laps of the circuit to replicate the average distance covered in a match (6818 m). Four timing gates were positioned at various stages of each lap to accurately measure time over a known distance. A calibrated trundle wheel pedometer was used to measure the exact length of the circuit. The players were tracked throughout the duration of the circuit using a GPS athlete-tracking device (SPI Elite, GPSports, Canberra, Australia). The data was edited to establish GPS and actual time, speed and distance at each timing gate, lap and whole circuit. Triplicate repeat trials were conducted at 9am, 1pm and 4pm to assess satellite positioning on reliability of the system. The mean (± SD) total distance covered was 6818.7 ± 5.2m, 6818.7 ± 4.3m and 6819.0 ± 5.4m during the 9am, 1pm and 4pm trial respectively. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed no significant difference (p>0.05) between time of day and the ICC. It shows significant (r=0.809) for total distance covered. Paired ‘t’ tests indicated no systematic bias relative to random error. The Pearson correlation

Review of Related Literature 69 for the total distance covered and speed was r = 1 (p<0.01) and r = 0.998 (p<0.001) respectively. A typical error of 4.77 m for total distance covered and 0.01 m/s for speed was observed. Bland and Altman plots for total distance covered and speed shows a mean difference and limits of agreement of 2.2 ± 13.2m and 0.0 ± 0.9 m/s respectively. It was concluded GPS is a reliable and valid measurement tool for assessing the movement patterns of field hockey players.

Memmert et al. (2007) examined the efficacy of various training approaches in team ball sports for the development of tactical creativity. They selected 135 children aged about 7 years took part in a 15 month field based study. They participated either in non-specific treatment groups, a specific handball, soccer or field hockey group, or a control group. General and game-oriented tactical creativity were chosen as outcome measures. The analysis of treatment-related effects showed that the non specific groups displayed improvements in general creativity, whereas the specific groups shows improvements in the game-oriented creativity in which they were trained. Clear transfer-related effects were observed. The analysis of group related effects were indicated no differences between the approaches. Only the soccer specific group performed better in nearly all values. It was concluded a non-specific concept appears to be a promising alternative to traditional specific treatments. This is further substantiated by several pedagogical, psychological, and medical arguments.

Review of Related Literature 70

Mosquera et al. (2007) studied the differences between international men’s and women’s teams in the strategic action of the penalty corner in field hockey. The penalty corner is one of the strategic actions that determine the result in a match in field hockey. This study exhibits differences exist between international men's and women's teams in the development of this strategy when it is successful. This study proposes the following aims to see if a relationship exists between gender and the following variables: used skill, number of players who intervene, number of passes, zone of shot and direction of the successful shot at the goal in the penalty corner. The sample is formed by 59 games of international level of top level female (n=21) and male (n=38). In these games 128 penalty corners were registered which was finished in goals. The researchers used the database notational "OBANGOFH" for the capture of information. The analysis of the data was carried out through cross tabs, and Chi- square (p<0,05), where the statistical SPSS package was used. The obtained results determines that the action of the goal in the penalty corner. This study suggests significant differences between men and women, in the skill of use, the number of players who intervene, the number of passes and the zone of shot.

Ananda (2006) conducted a study to find out the effect of specific drills on selected skill related fitness variables and skill performance among hockey players. In order to achieve the purpose of this study the researcher has selected 30 hockey players at random and their ages ranged from 18 to 22 years. The subjects were divided into two equal groups. The study was

Review of Related Literature 71 formulated as a true random group design, consisting of a pre- test and post-test. The subjects (n=15) were randomly assigned to single group of fifteen students. The performance in 50 meters dash was used to measure the speed. The unit of measurement was in seconds. The performance in shuttle run was used to measure the agility. The performance in 600 yards run was used to measure the endurance. The unit of measurement was in total duration. The Henry-Friedal field hockey test was conducted to measure the shooting accuracy and dribbling ability of the subjects. The unit of measurement was in scores. Paired‘t’ test was used to test the mean difference between the two groups. It was observed that there was significant improvement in the selected variables of the experimental group with the specific drills. The results reveal that there was significant improvement in the shooting, and dribbling ability of the experimental group with the specific drills. There was no significant improvement in the selected variables of the control group. There was no significant improvement in the shooting, passing and dribbling ability of the control group.

Sunderland et al. (2006) explained the physiological demands of elite female field hockey players. Fourteen female field hockey players (2 goalkeepers, 4 defenders, 4 midfield players and 4 forwards) were selected from the English National league. They were assessed for over two seasons. Heart rate (HR) was recorded during competitive matches. At each season players completed a

speed-lactate test and VO2 max test on a treadmill. Totally 271 HR profiles were collected and analysed. During matches, exercise

Review of Related Literature 72 intensity was expressed relative to heart rate zones (>90% max HR, 75% to 90% max HR and <75% max HR) and lactate threshold (> lactate turnpoint, between lactate threshold and lactate turnpoint and lactate threshold). The collected data were analysed using 2-way ANOVA (group x time). They were presented as mean ± SD. During games goalkeepers had lower mean HR. They spent more time in the <75% HR zone, than outfield players (both P<0.01). Compared with either midfield or forward players, defenders maintained a higher mean HR, and spent longer in the >90% HR zone (both P<0.01). Midfield players spent a greater percentage of time in the <75% HR zone than defenders or forwards (P<0.01). When the second half of game was compared with the first the mean HR was lower for all players, and players spent a shorter time in the >90% HR zone and a greater time in the <75%HR zone (all P<0.01). Mean heart rate (beats.min-1) and the percentage time (%) spent in heart rate zones. The majority of the playing time is spent at above 75% of heart rate maximum. Defenders maintain the highest exercise intensities, while goalkeepers reach high heart rates only intermittently. Fatigue seems to develop in the second half of games as mean HR are lower and the proportion of time spent in the >90% HR zone is shorter.

Sunderland et al. (2006) investigated the patterns of play resulting in goals. Totally 70 women's international field hockey matches were observed. Only the goals scored from open play, a total of 130, were considered in the study. Three phases of play leading up to the goal being scored were evaluated: repossession

Review of Related Literature 73 of the ball, passing into the D and the D phase. The pitch was divided into zones. The specific hockey movements were defined so that movement actions during each phase and time to complete each phase could be analysed. Most repossession occurred in the attacking half of the field outside the D (68%) by a free-hit (42%) or interception (38%). Goals were scored faster if the ball was repossessed in the attacking 25 yard (22.9m) area compared with the other areas of the pitch. More balls were dribbled into the D (50%) than were hit (21%), pushed (28%) or swept (1%) with more D entries from the right hand (45%) side of the pitch than the left (32%). The majority of the goals were scored from a hit (24%), deflection (25%) or push (22%). More goals were scored from the areas nearest the goal. The results suggest that a higher proportion of goals arise from right hand offensive plays that target the bottom left hand side of the goal.

Rendell et al. (2005) conducted a study on the skill and roll-specific differences in eye moment behaviour between goalkeepers and field players in field hockey. Contradictory evidence has been presented contending that differences in the way expert and novice groups process visual information is not necessarily evident in their overt visual search behaviour. The aim of this research is to explore the subtle gradations of elite visual behaviour that may be evident as an athlete progress from elite level junior competition to elite level open age competition. Twenty six hockey players participated in the study from 3 national competition levels Under18s (n=9, x− =18.1±0.7 years), Under 21s (n=9, x− =19.0±1.3 years) and Australian Hockey League (AHL)

Review of Related Literature 74 players (n=8, − x =21.3±2.6 years). 120 action sequences consisting of 40 drag flicks, 40 slaps and 40 pushes, were recorded in stereoscopic video format using two PAL DV progressive scan cameras (720x576; 25 f.p.s.). No differences in response accuracy (RA) between skill groups (AHL, U21, U18) by occlusion time (OT) were found (F (2, 25) = 0.65; p > 0.05). The result indicates that RA was not a function of playing experience. No differences in RA by player position groups (GK, FP) were found (F (1,25) = 0.02; p > 0.05), indicating the hypothesis that goal keepers had a task specific advantage in the anticipation of drag flicks compared to slaps or pushes should be rejected. The data supports the hypothesis that the rate of saccadic eye movements is related to the playing experience, and specific expertise of the hockey players in our cohort.

Boddington et al. (2003) analyzed the skilled performance and game parameters during league field hockey matches. The performance profiles of field hockey were determined by quantifying match descriptors (n = 20) during league matches (n = 10). All data were analyzed where appropriate, using Chi-square to determine if consistency within any of the match descriptors existed. Graphical methods were used to estimate consistency where there were low frequencies or Chi square showed non- significant differences. Consistency was defined as minimum number of matches that could be analyzed to establish a consistent profile. There were significant differences between 11 of the 20 match descriptors during the 10 matches (P<0.05). Normative or consistent profiles were established for 2 of the 20

Review of Related Literature 75 match descriptors after only 1 match, and for 7 after 7 to 9 matches. The remaining 15 match descriptors did not profile before the 10th match. The ratio of shots to goals was stable after 2 games. Comparison of the matches against the same opposition in which the results differed significantly in only 2 areas; 1. the number of attacking short corners and 2. the number of shots against. It suggests that more predictive comparisons can be made when the opponents are consistent. It was concluded that many match descriptors do not have stable profiles before 10 matches and are therefore of little use when trying to predict performance.

Keogh et al (2003) developed an effective testing battery for female field hockey by using anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related tests to distinguish between regional representative (Rep, n = 35) and local club level (Club, n = 39) female field hockey players. Rep players were significantly leaner and recorded faster times for the 10-m and 40-m sprints as well as the Illinois Agility Run (with and without dribbling a hockey ball). Rep players also had greater aerobic and lower body muscular power and were more accurate in the shooting accuracy test, p < 0.05. No significant differences between groups for height, body mass, speed decrement in 6 x 40-m repeated sprints, handgrip strength, or pushing speed. These results indicate that %BF, sprinting speed, agility, dribbling control, aerobic and muscular power, and shooting accuracy can distinguish between female field hockey players of varying standards. The talent identification programs

Review of Related Literature 76 for female field hockey should include assessments of these physical parameters.

Nieuwenhuis et al. (2002) studied the prediction for identifying talent in female field hockey players. The subject of this study is to identify kin anthropometric, motor physical and psychological variables and specific field hockey skills that influence field hockey performance at the age of 14 to 15 years. The two top girl’s field hockey teams in the North West Province (South Africa) U/15 (under 15 age group) field hockey league (n = 27). The two teams who ended at the bottom of the league (n = 25), were exposed to a test battery. The 52 subjects were classified according to their league results as successful and less successful. The test battery consisted of nine field hockey skills tests, 16 kinanthropometric tests and six physical-motor ability tests and two sport psychological tests. A statistical analysis of the data was done for descriptive purposes and statistical significances between the successful and less successful players were determined. The results indicated meaningful differences in some variables. A prediction function was developed consisting of eight variables that successfully distinguished between successful and less successful 14 to 15 year old female field hockey players.

Wassmer et al. (2002) evaluated a descriptive profile of elite U.S Women’s collegiate field hockey players. They examined the relationships between grip strength, power and sport specific test performance in 37 elite, female collegiate field hockey players (N=8 backs, N=13 forwards, N=4 goalkeepers, N=8 midfield players,

Review of Related Literature 77

N=4 wings). The tests consisted of circumference and limb lengths, percentage of body fat, Margaria-Kalamen stair test, 50- yard dash test, Queen's College step test, grip strength, Illinois agility test, field hockey specific skills tests, and a co-ordination test. The obtained mean (±SD) height, weight, percent body fat, and predicted oxygen consumption were 164.26 (±5.17) cm, 63.06 (±8.60) kg, 17.29 (±3.79)% and 42.87 (±9.08) ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), respectively. The goalkeepers showed heavier significant (p<0.05) change and they had a higher %body fat, however there were no significant differences (p>0.05) observed between any of the player positions in height, limb length, 50-yard dash time, predicted

VO2max, grip strength, agility, or in the field hockey specific tests. There were no significant (p>0.05) correlations (r=0.03 to -0.13) between right and left grip strength and sport-specific test scores. But significant (p<0.05) relationships were found between power and pushing accuracy, as well as between the 50-yard dash and co-ordination test, pushing power and pushing accuracy. The results showed that there are similarities amongst the defensive and offensive players with international level field hockey players, and that measure of power and sport specific tests are significantly correlated.

CHAPTER – III METHODOLOGY

In this chapter selection of subjects, selection of variables and tests, experimental design, reliability of instruments, pilot study, tester’s competency and reliability of the tests, reliability of data, subject reliability, orientation of the subjects, administration of tests, administration of training programs, collection of data and statistical techniques adopted for the analysis of data have been described.

SELECTION OF SUBJECTS To achieve the purpose of the present study, forty five field hockey players from Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Institutions (Maruthi College of Physical Education, and SRKV College of arts and science) Coimbatore, Tamilnadu state, India were selected as subjects at random and their ages ranged from 18 to 25 years. The subjects were divided into three groups consisting of 15 each.

SELECTION OF VARIABLES AND TESTS The research scholar reviewed the available scientific literature pertaining to the problem from books, journals, magazines, websites, and research papers. Based on the consideration of feasibility on criteria and availability, the following variables and the tests were selected:

Methodology 79

Physical Variables

S.No Variables Tests 1 Speed 40 Yard Dash 2 Agility ‘T’ Agility Run Test 3 Grip Strength Hand Grip Dynamometer Cardio Respiratory 4 1 Mile Run Endurance 5 Flexibility Sit and Reach

Physiological Variables

S.No Variables Equipments 1 Vital Capacity 2 Forced Vital Capacity 3 Slow Vital Capacity Spirometer 4 Maximum Voluntary Ventilation 5 Resting Pulse rate Stethoscope

Performance Variables

S.No Variables Tests 1 Hitting 2 Pushing 3 Dribbling Subjective Rating 4 Scooping 5 Dodging

Methodology 80

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN The study was formulated as a true random group design, consisting of a pre-test and post-test. The subjects (N=45) were randomly assigned to three equal groups of fifteen subjects each. The groups were assigned as cross-training group, game-specific exercises group and cross-training with game-specific exercises group in an equivalent manner. The three groups participated in the training for a period of twelve weeks to find out the outcome of the training packages.

RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENTS The instrument such as spirometer, stop watch, stethoscope, sit & reach box, hand grip dynamometer and measuring tape were reliable and accurate enough to carry out the test procedures successively.

PILOT STUDY A pilot study was conducted to assess the initial capacity of the subjects in order to fix the load. For this purpose ten subjects were selected randomly and underwent training packages under watchful eyes of the experts and the researcher. Based on the response of the subjects in the pilot study the training schedule was constructed, however the individual differences were considered while constructing the training programme. The basic principles of training (progression, over load and specificity) were also followed.

Methodology 81

TESTERS COMPETENCY AND RELIABILITY OF THE TESTS To ensure the testers’ competency and reliability of the tests the investigator had a number of practice sessions in the teaching procedure and well versed in the technique of conducting the test. All the measurements were taken by the investigator with the assistance of person well acquainted with their procedures. Tester competency and reliability of test were established by test, retest process.

For this purpose ten subjects were selected at random and tested on the chosen variables, which were recorded twice under identical conditions on different occasions by the investigator. The scores thus obtained were analysed by using Intra-class correlations, at 0.05 level of confidence as shown in table I. The reliability coefficients are significant at 0.05 levels for all the tests under investigation which had more than 0.63.

Methodology 82

TABLE – I RELIABILITY CO-EFFICIENT OF CORRELATION OF TEST-RETEST SCORES

Co-efficient of correlation Sl.No Test Items (N=10) Test – Retest Scores 1 Speed 0.91* 2 Agility 0.93* 3 Hand Grip Strength 0.94* 4 Cardio Respiratory Endurance 0.89* 5 Flexibility 0.96* 6 Vital Capacity 0.91* 7 Forced Vital Capacity 0.90* 8 Slow Vital Capacity 0.90* 9 Maximum Voluntary Ventilation 0.92* 10 Resting Pulse Rate 0.89* 11 Hitting 0.91* 12 Pushing 0.93* 13 Dribbling 0.92* 14 Scooping 0.93* 15 Dodging 0.91* *Significant at 0.05 level

Table value required for significance at degrees of freedom (df-9) is 0.63.

Methodology 83

Research Flow Chart

SUBJECTS Forty five Hockey players (18 to 25 years)

DESIGN Randomized Group Design On initial test of playing Ability

PRE-TEST

Physical Variables Physiological Variables Performance Factors

1. Speed 1. Vital Capacity 1. Hitting 2. Agility 2. Forced Vital Capacity 2. Pushing 3. Grip Strength 3. Slow Vital Capacity 3. Dodging 4. Cardio-Respiratory 4. Maximum Voluntary Endurance Ventilation 4. Dribbling 5. Flexibility 5. Resting Pulse Rate 5. Scooping

Group I Group II Group III Experimental Group ‘A’ Experimental Group ‘B’ Experimental Group ‘C’ (n=15) (n=15) (n=15)

Cross Training Game-specific exercises Cross training with Game- (12 weeks) (12 weeks) specific exercises (12 weeks)

POST-TEST

Statistical analysis (‘t’ test and ANCOVA)

Methodology 84

SUBJECTS RELIABILITY In order to get uniform results from the same subjects, they were used under similar conditions for the same test by the same tester. The test-retest method was used to find out the subjects reliability.

ORIENTATION OF THE SUBJECTS The investigator held a meeting with the subjects prior to the administration of tests. The purpose, the significance of this study and the requirements of the testing procedure were explained to them in detail, so that there was no ambiguity in their minds, regarding the efforts required of them. All the subjects voluntarily came forward to co-operate in the testing procedures and the training to put in their best efforts in the interest of the scientific investigation and in order to enhance their own performance. The subjects were very enthusiastic and co-operative throughout the project.

ADMINISTRATION OF TEST ITEMS

Speed (40 yard dash) Purpose The purpose of this test was to determine acceleration, and also a reliable indicator of speed.

Equipment required Marked track, stopwatch, cone markers.

Methodology 85

Procedure The test involves running a single maximum sprint over 40 yards, with the time recorded. A thorough warm up was given, including some practice starts and accelerations. Starting position was a comfortable stationary position. The front foot was placed on or behind the starting line. That starting position was held for 3 seconds prior to starting without lean in across the starting line, and no rocking movements. The tester provided hints to maximizing speed and encouragement to continue running hard past the finish line. Two trials were allowed, and the best time was recorded to the nearest 2 decimal places.

Scoring The time taken from the first movement till the chest crosses the finish line was recorded as the score.

Agility (T shuttle run) Purpose The purpose of this test was to measure the agility for athletes, and includes forward, lateral, and backward running.

Equipment required Tape, marking cones, stopwatch.

Procedure The subject started at cone A. On the command of the timer, the subject sprinted to cone B and touched the base of the cone with their right hand. They then turned left and shuffle sideways

Methodology 86 to cone C, and also touched its base, that time with their left hand. Then shuffled sideways to the right to cone D and touched the base with the right hand. They then shuffled back to cone B touching with the left hand, and ran backwards to cone A. The stopwatch was stopped as they passed cone A.

Scoring The trials were not counted if the subject crossed one foot in front of the other while shuffling, fails to touch the base of the cones, or fails to face forward throughout the test. The best time of three successful trials to the nearest 0.1 seconds was recorded as the score.

Hand Grip Strength (Grip Dynamometer) Purpose The purpose of this test was to measure the maximum isometric strength of the hand and forearm muscles.

Equipment required Handgrip dynamometer

Procedure The subject held the dynamometer in the hand which is tested, with the arm at right angles and the elbow by the side of the body. The handle of the dynamometer was adjusted if required. The base rested on first metacarpal (heel of palm), while the handle rested on middle of four fingers. When ready the subject squeezed the dynamometer with maximum isometric

Methodology 87 effort, which was maintained for about 5 seconds. No other body movement was allowed. The subject was strongly encouraged to give a maximum effort.

Scoring The best result from several trials for each hand was recorded, with at least 15 seconds recovery between each effort. The score is the average of the best scores of each hand.

Cardio Respiratory Endurance (1 Mile run) Purpose To measure the cardio-respiratory endurance of the subjects.

Equipment required A 400 meters outdoor track, cones, stop watches and a whistle

Procedure The purpose of this test was to complete one mile in the fastest possible time. After the purpose of the test and instructions were given, the participants started running on the count "Ready? Go!” If they desired, walking was interspersed with running, however, they were encouraged to cover the distance in as short a time as possible.

Scoring The time was noted, in minutes and seconds, it took to complete the mile.

Methodology 88

Flexibility (Sit and Reach) Purpose To measure the amount of trunk flexion and the ability to stretch the back muscles (hamstrings) of the subjects.

Equipment required Sit and reach box.

Procedure The subjects were asked and to sit on the floor with back and head against a wall, legs fully extended with the bottom of the feet against the sit and reach box and place the hands on top of each other, stretching the arms forward while keeping the head and back against the wall. The distance was measured from the fingertips to the edge with a ruler which becomes zero or starting point. The subjects were asked to bend and reach forward as for as possible, sliding the finger along the ruler. Then the subjects were asked to hold the final position for the nearest 1/10 of an inch. Was recorded and asked the subjects to repeat the three trails and note the best distance.

Scoring Record the maximum distance reached to the nearest

0.5cm.

Methodology 89

Lung functions (Spirometer) Purpose The purpose of this test was to measure the dynamic lung function by measuring the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), Slow Vital Capacity (SVC) and the Maximum Voluntary Ventilation (MVV).

Equipment Required The equipment used was a computerised RMS Spirometer Helios 401. Helios 401 is a spirometer which was used in conjunction with a Windows based computer. It has a hand piece which houses a turbine transducer. That hand piece was connected to a computer through a USB interface cable. The software given along with the system was used to record spirometry maneuvers and to suggest a diagnosis. The computer monitor was used to display the spirometry parameters, the device parameters, information messages and user guide messages. A printer attached to the computer used to obtain a hard-copy record of the maneuver and the related parameter values. The subjects ID number, name, age, sex, height and weight were fed in to the system.

Procedure Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) To perform the forced vital capacity manoeuvre, the players first breathed in deeply to his full extent. The player then placed the transducer to the mouth and expelled the air in their lungs as quickly as possible. Once all the air in the lungs has been

Methodology 90 expelled, the player breathed in as quickly as possible, still with the transducer to the mouth, until the lungs were full.

Slow Vital Capacity (SVC) The slow vital capacity test was a less strenuous method of finding players vital capacity. The player was asked to breathe regularly through the mouthpiece. The player then took a deep breath followed by a deep exhalation. Both inhalation and exhalation were performed to the maximum extent. After this slow maneuver the player took a few gentle and normal breaths.

Maximal Voluntary Ventilation (MVV) The players were asked to breathe deeply and quickly through the mouthpiece for 15 seconds. Breathing was kept as constant as possible.

Scoring The reading was recorded in litres calibrated by pumping a volume of 1 litre air.

Resting Pulse Rate (Radial Pulse) Purpose The objective was to measure the resting pulse rate in the normal position.

Equipment required Stethoscope

Methodology 91

Description The heart beat of the individual was measured with the earphones of the stethoscope placed in the tester’s ears, the bell of the stethoscope was placed on the radial pulse, so that one could measure his own heart beat. The pulse was counted for 15 seconds and multiplied by 4.

Equipment Stethoscope and watch.

Scoring Pulse rate was measured for one minute.

ADMINISTRATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMS To achieve the purpose of the present study, three training programs namely cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game-specific exercises were designed scientifically. The scientifically designed programmes were administered to the subjects of respective groups for a period of twelve weeks.

TRAINING PROGRAMME The cross training programme lasted for a session in the morning between 6.30 and 8.00 a.m. for three alternate days in a week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday).

The game-specific exercises programme lasted for a session in the morning between 6.30 and 8.00 a.m. for three alternate

Methodology 92 days in a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday). The combined training programme lasted for a session in the evening between 4.30 and 6.00 p.m. for three alternate days in a week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday). All the subjects were present for more than 90% of the total training session. Training schedule for all the groups were attached in the appendix separately.

COLLECTION OF DATA The variables used in the present study were assessed from all the subjects before they were to be treated with the respective treatments. It was assumed as pre-test. After completion of treatment they were tested again as it was in the pre test on all variables and assumed as post test.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES AND ITS JUSTIFICATION The following statistical techniques were adopted to treat the collected data in connection with established hypotheses and objectives of this study.

To find out the difference between pre and post test of each groups, paired‘t’ test was used. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was computed because the subjects were selected random, but the groups were not equated in relation to the factors to be examined. Hence the difference between means of the three groups in the pre-test had to be taken into account during the analysis of the post-test differences between the means. This was achieved by the application of the analysis of covariance, where

Methodology 93 the final means were adjusted for differences in the initial means, and the adjusted means were tested for significance.

Whenever the adjusted post-test means were found significant, the scheffe’s post-hoc test was administered to find out the paired means difference. To test the obtained results on variables, level of significance 0.05 was chosen and considered as sufficient for the study.

CHAPTER - IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF THE STUDY

OVER VIEW This chapter deals with the analysis of data collected from samples under study. The three groups namely cross training group, game specific exercise group and combined cross training and game specific exercises group were analysed for the differences in their measures of physical, physiological and performance in relation to pre test, post test and adjusted post test scores.

In this study, forty five intercollegiate men students were selected as subjects from Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Institutions (Maruthi College of Physical Education, and SRKV college of arts and science), Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India and their ages were between 18 and 25 years.

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE This is the crucial portion of the thesis, that of arriving at the conclusion by examining the hypothesis. The procedure of testing the hypothesis in accordance with the results obtained in relation to the level of confidence which was fixed at 0.05 level, was considered necessary for this study.

The tests are usually called as the test of significance, since we test whether the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores of the samples are significant or not. In the present study, if the obtained F-ratio was greater than the table F-ratio at 0.05 Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 95 level, the hypothesis was accepted to the effect that there existed significant difference between the means of groups compared. And if the obtained, F-ratio was lesser than the table F-ratio at 0.05 level, then the hypothesis was rejected to the effect that there existed significant difference between the means of groups under study.

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE To test the obtained results on all the variables, level of significance 0.05 was chosen and considered as sufficient for the study.

RESULTS OF t-TEST The primary objective of the paired ‘t’ ratio was to describe the differences between the pre-test and post-test mean of field hockey players.

Thus the obtained results were interpreted with earlier studies and presented in this chapter well along with graphical presentations.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 96

TABLE - II SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN GAINS & LOSSES BETWEEN PRE AND POST TEST SCORES ON SELECTED VARIABLES OF CROSS TRAINING GROUP

Pre- Post- Std. S. Mean σ ‘t’ Variables Test Test Dev No difference DM Ratio Mean Mean (±) 1 Speed 6.05 5.76 0.29 0.46 0.12 2.41* 2 Agility 11.19 10.61 0.58 0.60 0.15 3.72* 3 Grip Strength 44.33 51.53 7.20 2.80 0.72 9.93* Cardio 4 Respiratory 7.49 6.81 0.68 0.40 0.10 6.48* Endurance 5 Flexibility 20.33 22.13 1.80 2.21 0.57 3.15* 6 Vital Capacity 2.83 3.27 0.43 0.14 0.03 12.03* Forced Vital 7 3.67 4.32 0.65 0.28 0.07 8.95* Capacity Slow Vital 8 2.96 3.49 0.53 0.26 0.06 7.68* Capacity Maximum 9 Voluntary 106.85 140.25 33.39 7.84 2.02 16.47* Ventilation Resting Pulse 10 72.73 70.87 1.86 1.72 0.44 4.18* rate 11 Hitting 3.27 7.00 3.73 1.70 0.44 8.45* 12 Pushing 3.87 6.00 2.13 1.35 0.35 6.09* 13 Dribbling 4.00 6.46 2.46 1.80 0.46 5.28* 14 Scooping 3.66 5.53 1.86 1.45 0.37 4.96* 15 Dodging 3.60 6.40 2.80 1.08 0.27 10.01*

* Significant at 0.05 level

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 97

An examination of table-II indicates that the obtained ‘t’ ratios were 2.41, 3.72, 9.93, 6.48, 3.15, 12.03, 8.95, 7.68, 16.47, 4.18, 8.45, 6.09, 5.28. 4.96 and 10.01 for speed, agility, grip strength, cardio-respiratory endurance, flexibility, vital capacity, Forced Vital capacity, Slow Vital Capacity, Maximum Voluntary Ventilation, Resting Pulse rate, Hitting, Pushing, Dribbling, Scooping and Dodging respectively. The obtained ‘t’ ratios on the selected variables were found to be greater than the required table value of 2.14 at 0.05 level of significance for 14 degrees of freedom. So it was found to be significant. The results of this study were statistically significant and explained its effects positively.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 98

TABLE - III SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN GAINS & LOSSES BETWEEN PRE AND POST TEST SCORES ON SELECTED VARIABLES OF GAME SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUP

Pre- Post- Std. S. Mean σ ‘t’ Variables Test Test Dev No difference DM Ratio Mean Mean (±) 1 Speed 6.08 5.85 0.23 0.34 0.09 2.53* 2 Agility 11.59 11.12 0.47 0.68 0.17 2.67* Grip 3 42.40 47.93 5.53 2.97 0.76 7.20* Strength Cardio 4 Respiratory 7.52 7.03 0.49 0.67 0.17 2.78* Endurance 5 Flexibility 20.13 21.33 1.20 1.65 0.42 2.80* Vital 6 2.85 3.24 0.38 0.22 0.05 6.55* Capacity Forced 7 Vital 3.70 3.99 0.29 0.41 0.10 2.72* Capacity Slow Vital 8 2.99 3.19 0.19 0.21 0.05 3.49* Capacity Maximum 9 Voluntary 108.03 124.63 16.60 24.23 6.25 2.65* Ventilation Resting 10 71.33 69.60 2.13 2.92 0.75 2.82* Pulse rate 11 Hitting 3.20 7.73 4.53 0.63 0.16 27.43* 12 Pushing 3.73 7.20 3.47 1.40 0.36 9.53* 13 Dribbling 3.80 6.53 2.73 1.43 0.37 7.36* 14 Scooping 3.40 6.33 2.93 0.96 0.24 11.82* 15 Dodging 3.26 6.53 3.26 1.16 0.30 10.87*

* Significant at 0.05 level

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 99

An examination of table-III indicates that the obtained ‘t’ ratios were 2.53, 2.67, 7.20, 2.78, 2.80, 6.55, 2.72, 3.49, 2.65, 2.82, 27.43, 9.53, 7.36,11.82 and 10.87 for speed, agility, grip strength, cardio-respiratory, flexibility, vital capacity, Forced Vital capacity, Slow Vital Capacity, Maximum Voluntary Ventilation, Resting Pulse rate, Hitting, Pushing, Dribbling, Scooping and Dodging respectively. The obtained ‘t’ ratios on the selected variables were found to be greater than the required table value of 2.14 at 0.05 level of significance for 14 degrees of freedom. So it was found to be significant. The results of this study were statistically significant and explained its effects positively.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 100

TABLE – IV SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN GAINS & LOSSES BETWEEN PRE AND POST TEST SCORES ON SELECTED VARIABLES OF COMBINED CROSS TRAINING AND GAME SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUP

Pre- Post- Mean S. Std. ‘t’ Variables Test Test differe σ DM No Dev (±) Ratio Mean Mean nce 1 Speed 6.23 5.32 0.90 0.60 0.15 5.76* 2 Agility 11.45 9.52 1.93 1.34 0.34 5.54* 3 Grip 42.40 52.46 10.06 2.31 0.59 16.85* Strength 4 Cardio Respiratory 7.57 6.49 1.08 0.44 0.11 9.30* Endurance 5 Flexibility 20.06 23.86 3.80 2.30 0.59 6.38* 6 Vital 2.82 3.45 0.63 0.25 0.06 9.64* Capacity 7 Forced Vital 3.71 4.33 0.62 0.30 0.07 7.95* Capacity 8 Slow Vital 3.03 3.50 0.46 0.28 0.07 6.42* Capacity 9 Maximum Voluntary 107.35 145.42 38.06 17.92 4.62 8.22* Ventilation 10 Resting 71.73 68.86 2.86 2.13 0.55 5.20* Pulse rate 11 Hitting 3.26 8.00 4.73 1.03 0.26 17.75* 12 Pushing 4.00 8,13 4.13 1.06 0.27 15.10* 13 Dribbling 3.33 7.60 4.26 0.79 0.20 20.68* 14 Scooping 3.60 6.86 3.26 1.16 0.30 10.87* 15 Dodging 3.93 7.33 3.40 1.24 0.32 10.60* * Significant at 0.05 level

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 101

An examination of table-IV indicates that the obtained ‘t’ ratios were 5.76, 5.54, 16.85, 9.30, 6.38, 9.64, 7.95, 6.42, 8.22, 5.20, 17.75, 15.10, 20.68, 10.87 and 10.60 for speed, agility, grip strength, cardio-respiratory, flexibility, vital capacity, Forced Vital capacity, Slow Vital Capacity, Maximum Voluntary Ventilation, Resting Pulse rate, Hitting, Pushing, Dribbling, Scooping and Dodging respectively. The obtained ‘t’ ratios on the selected variables were found to be greater than the required table value of 2.14 at 0.05 level of significance for 14 degrees of freedom. So it was found to be significant. The results of this study were statistically significant and explained its effects positively.

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE The following tables illustrate the statistical results of the combined and individualised effect of cross training and game - specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of inter - collegiate field hockey players.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 102

TABLE-V COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEANS OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON SPEED (in seconds)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.27 2 0.14 Pre-Test 1.31 6.05 6.08 6.23

Means WG 4.47 42 0.10

BG 2.37 2 1.18 Post-Test 8.55* 5.76 5.85 5.32

Means WG 5.83 42 0.13

Adjusted BG 2.304 2 1.15 8.10* Post-Test 5.76 5.85 5.32

Means WG 5.830 41 0.14

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 103

RESULTS OF SPEED An examination of table - V indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 6.05, 6.08 and 6.23 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 1.31 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean speed F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific and combined cross training & game - specific exercises group were 5.76, 5.85 and 5.32 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 8.55 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post- test mean speed F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 5.76, 5.85 and 5.32 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 8.10 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean speed F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, on speed are graphically represented in the figure -I.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 104

FIGURE - I BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON SPEED

6.4 6.23 Pre Test Mean

6.2 6.08 6.05 Post Test Mean 6

5.85 5.85 Adjusted Post Test Mean 5.8 5.76 5.76

5.6 in seconds seconds in 5.4 5.32 5.32

5.2

5

4.8 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 105

TABLE - VI THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON SPEED

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 5.76 5.85 --- 0.09 5.76 --- 5.32 0.44* 0.34 --- 5.85 5.32 0.53* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table VI shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, and between game specific exercises group and combined cross training with game specific exercises group were 0.44 and 0.53 respectively on speed are greater than the confidence interval value 0.34, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training group and game specific exercises group were 0.09 on speed is lesser than the confidence interval value 0.34, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 106

TABLE-VII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEANS OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON AGILITY (in seconds)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of Df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 1.23 2 0.62 Pre-Test 1.35 11.19 11.59 11.45 Means WG 19.28 42 0.45

BG 20.20 2 10.10 Post-Test 18.73* 10.61 11.12 9.52 Means WG 22.65 42 0.53

Adjusted BG 19.99 2 9.99 18.33* Post-Test 10.64 11.10 9.51

Means WG 22.36 41 0.54

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 107

RESULTS OF AGILITY An examination of table - VII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 11.19,11.59 and 11.45 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 1.35 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean agility F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game - specific exercises group were 10.61, 11.12 and 9.52 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 18.73 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean agility F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 10.64, 11.10 and 9.51 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 18.33 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean agility F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, on agility are graphically represented in the figure -II.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 108

FIGURE - II BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON AGILITY

11.59 11.45 11.19 11.12 12 11.1 Pre Test Mean 10.64 10.61 Post Test Mean 9.52 9.51 10 Adjusted Post Test Mean

8

6 in seconds seconds in 4

2

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 109

TABLE - VIII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON AGILITY

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 10.64 11.10 --- 0.46 10.64 --- 9.51 1.13* 0.68 --- 11.10 9.51 1.59* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table VIII shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 1.13 and 1.59 respectively on agility are greater than the confidence interval value 0.68, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 0.46 on agility are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.68, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 110

TABLE - IX COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEANS OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON GRIP STRENGTH (in kilograms)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 37.37 2 18.68 Pre-Test 1.01 44.33 42.40 42.40 Means WG 774.53 42 18.44

BG 171.91 2 85.95 Post-Test 3.77* 51.53 47.93 52.46 Means WG 956.40 42 22.77

Adjusted BG 155.99 2 77.99 10.52* Post-Test 50.35 48.52 53.05

Means WG 303.84 41 7.41

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 111

RESULTS OF GRIP STRENGTH An examination of table - IX indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 44.33, 42.40 and 42.40 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 1.01 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean grip strength F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 51.53, 47.93 and 52.46 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 3.77 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean grip strength F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 50.35, 48.52 and 53.05 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 10.52 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean grip strength F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, on grip strength are graphically represented in the figure -III.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 112

FIGURE - III BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON GRIP STRENGTH

60 53.03 52.46

51.53 Pre Test Mean 50.35 48.52 50 47.93 Post Test Mean 44.33

42.4 42.4 Adjusted Post Test Mean 40

30

in Kilo in Kilo grams 20

10

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 113

TABLE - X THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON GRIP STRENGTH

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 50.35 48.52 --- 1.83 50.35 --- 53.05 2.70* 2.52 --- 48.52 53.05 4.53* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table X shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 2.70 and 4.53 respectively on grip strength are greater than the confidence interval value 2.52, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 1.83 on grip strength are lesser than the confidence interval value 2.52, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 114

TABLE-XI COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON ENDURANCE (in minutes)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.03 2 0.02 Pre-Test 0.04 7.49 7.52 7.57

Means WG 18.24 42 0.43

BG 2.25 2 1.12 Post-Test 4.52* 6.81 7.03 6.49

Means WG 10.44 42 0.24

Adjusted BG 2.46 2 1.23 7.86* Post-Test 6.82 7.03 6.47

Means WG 6.42 41 0.15

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 115

RESULTS OF ENDURANCE An examination of table - XI indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 7.49, 7.52 and 7.57 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.04 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean endurance F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.81, 7.03 and 6.49 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 4.52 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean endurance F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.82, 7.03 and 6.47 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 7.86 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean endurance F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on endurance are graphically represented in the figure -IV.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 116

FIGURE IV BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ENDURANCE

7.57 7.52 7.6 7.49 Pre Test Mean 7.4 Post Test Mean 7.2 7.03 7.03 Adjusted Post Test Mean 7 6.82 6.81 6.8 6.49

6.6 6.47 in Minutes 6.4

6.2

6

5.8 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 117

TABLE - XII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON ENDURANCE

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 6.82 7.03 --- 0.21 6.82 --- 6.47 0.35* 0.35 --- 7.03 6.47 0.56* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XII shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.35 and 0.56 respectively on endurance are greater than the confidence interval value 0.35, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 0.21 on endurance are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.35, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 118

TABLE - XIII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON FLEXIBILITY (in centimeters)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.57 2 0.28 Pre-Test 0.02 20.33 20.13 20.06 Means WG 416.00 42 9.90

BG 50.31 2 25.15 Post-Test 4.38* 22.13 21.33 23.86 Means WG 240.80 42 5.73

Adjusted BG 53.17 2 26.58 10.39* Post-Test 22.04 21.35 23.93

Means WG 104.86 41 2.55

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 119

RESULTS OF FLEXIBLITY An examination of table - XIII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 20.33, 20.13 and 20.06 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.02 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean flexibility F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 22.13, 21.33 and 23.86 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 4.38 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean flexibility F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 22.04, 21.35 and 23.93 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 10.39 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean flexibility F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on flexibility are graphically represented in the figure -V.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 120

FIGURE - V BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON FLEXIBILITY

24 23.86 23.93 Pre Test Mean 23 Post Test Mean

22.13 Adjusted Post Test Mean 22 21.35 21.33

21 20.33 20.13 20.06 20.04

in Centimeters 20

19

18 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 121

TABLE - XIV THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON FLEXIBILITY

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 22.04 21.35 --- 0.69 22.04 --- 23.93 1.89* 1.48 --- 21.35 23.93 2.58* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XIV shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 1.89 and 2.58 respectively on flexibility are greater than the confidence interval value 1.48, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 0.69 on flexibility are lesser than the confidence interval value 1.48, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 122

TABLE-XV COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON VITAL CAPACITY (in litres) Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of Df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.008 2 0.00 Pre-Test 0.09 2.83 2.85 2.82

Means WG 1.75 42 0.04

BG 0.41 2 0.20 Post-Test 14.53* 3.27 3.24 3.45

Means WG 0.59 42 0.01

Adjusted BG 0.42 2 0.21 15.35* Post-Test 3.27 3.23 3.46

Means WG 0.56 41 0.01

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 123

RESULTS OF VITAL CAPACITY An examination of table - XV indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 2.83, 2.85 and 2.82 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.09 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean vital capacity F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 3.27, 3.24 and 3.45 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 14.53 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.27, 3.23 and 3.46 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 15.35 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on vital capacity are graphically represented in the figure -VI.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 124

FIGURE - VI BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON VITAL CAPACITY

3.45 3.46 3.27 3.27 3.24

3.5 3.23 Pre Test Mean 2.85 2.83 3 2.82 Post Test Mean

Adjusted Post Test Mean 2.5

2

in Litres 1.5

1

0.5

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 125

TABLE - XVI THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON VITAL CAPACITY

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 3.27 3.23 --- 0.04 3.27 --- 3.46 0.19* 0.09 --- 3.23 3.46 0.23* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XVI shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.19 and 0.23 respectively on vital capacity are greater than the confidence interval value 0.09, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 0.04 on vital capacity are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.09, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 126

TABLE - XVII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON FORCED VITAL CAPACITY (in litres) Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.01 2 0.00 Pre-Test 0.09 3.67 3.70 3.71

Means WG 2.90 42 0.06

BG 1.12 2 0.56 Post-Test 7.47* 4.32 3.99 4.33

Means WG 3.17 42 0.07

Adjusted BG 1.14 2 0.57 7.74* Post-Test 4.33 3.99 4.32

Means WG 3.03 41 0.07

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 127

RESULTS OF FORCED VITAL CAPACITY An examination of table - XVII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.67, 3.70 and 3.71 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.09 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean forced vital capacity speed F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 4.32, 3.99 and 4.33 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 7.47 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean forced vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 4.33, 3.99 and 4.32 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 7.74 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean forced vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on forced vital capacity are graphically represented in the figure -VII.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 128

FIGURE - VII BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON FORCED VITAL CAPACITY 4.33 4.33

4.4 4.32 4.32 4.3 Pre Test Mean 4.2 Post Test Mean 4.1 Adjusted Post Test Mean 3.99 3.99 4 3.9 3.8 3.71 3.7 in Liters 3.7 3.67 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 129

TABLE - XVIII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON FORCED VITAL CAPACITY

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 4.33 3.99 --- 0.34* 4.33 --- 4.32 0.01 0.24 --- 3.99 4.32 0.33* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XVIII shows that the mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.34 and 0.33 respectively on forced vital capacity are greater than the confidence interval value 0.24, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and combined cross Training with game specific exercises groups were 0.01 on forced vital capacity are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.24, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 130

TABLE - XIX COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON SLOW VITAL CAPACITY (in litres)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of Df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.03 2 0.01 Pre-Test 0.59 2.96 2.99 3.03 Means WG 1.35 42 0.03

BG 0.94 2 0.47 Post-Test 11.79* 3.49 3.19 3.50 Means WG 1.67 42 0.04

Adjusted BG 0.94 2 0.47 11.58* Post-Test 3.50 3.19 3.50

Means WG 1.66 41 0.04

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 131

RESULTS OF SLOW VITAL CAPACITY An examination of table - XIX indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 2.96, 2.99 and 3.03 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.59 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean slow vital capacity F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 3.49, 3.19 and 3.50 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 11.79 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean slow vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 3.50, 3.19 and 3.50 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 11.58 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean slow vital capacity F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post-test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on slow vital capacity are graphically represented in the figure -VIII.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 132

IGURE - VIII BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON SLOW VITAL CAPACITY 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.49 3.5 Pre Test Mean 3.4

3.3 Post Test Mean 3.19 3.19 3.2

3.1 3.03 2.99 3 2.96 in Liters 2.9

2.8

2.7

2.6 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 133

TABLE - XX THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON SLOW VITAL CAPACITY

Adjusted Post-test means

Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 3.50 3.19 --- 0.31*

3.50 --- 3.50 0.00 0.18 --- 3.19 3.50 0.31* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XX shows that the mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.31 and 0.31 respectively on slow vital capacity are greater than the confidence interval value 0.18, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.00 on slow vital capacity are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.18, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 134

TABLE - XXI COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY VENTILATION (in litres)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of Df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 10.45 2 5.22 Pre-Test 0.03 106.85 108.03 107.35 Means WG 7419.00 42 176.64

BG 3512.39 2 1756.19 Post-Test 7.24* 140.25 124.63 145.42 Means WG 10186.68 42 242.54

Adjusted BG 3590.70 2 1795.35 7.63* Post-Test 140.40 124.47 145.43

Means WG 9641.46 41 235.15

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 135

RESULTS OF MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY VENTILATION An examination of table - XXI indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 106.85, 108.03 and 107.35 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre- test was 0.03 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean maximum voluntary ventilation F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game- specific exercises group were 140.25, 124.63 and 145.42 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 7.24 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean maximum voluntary ventilation F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training with game- specific exercises group were 140.40, 124.47 and 145.43 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 7.63 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean maximum voluntary ventilation F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on maximum voluntary ventilation are graphically represented in the figure –IX. Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 136

FIGURE - IX BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY VENTILATION

160 145.43 145.42 140.4 140.25 Pre Test Mean 140 124.63 124.47 Post Test Mean

Adjusted Post Test Mean 120 108.03 107.35 106.85

100

80 in Liters 60

40

20

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 137

TABLE - XXII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON MAXIMUM VOLUNTARY VENTILATION

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 140.40 124.47 --- 15.93* 140.40 --- 145.43 5.03 14.23 --- 124.47 145.43 20.96* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXII shows that the mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, cross training and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 15.93 and 20.96 respectively on maximum voluntary ventilation are greater than the confidence interval value 14.23, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 5.03 on maximum voluntary ventilation are lesser than the confidence interval value 14.23, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 138

TABLE - XXIII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON RESTING PULSE RATE (in beats/min)

Cross and Game- Cross Game- Source of Sum of Means specific Df F-ratio Training specific Variance Squares Squares exercises exercises BG 10.00 2 5.00 Pre-Test 1.25 72.73 71.73 71.73 Means WG 166.80 42 3.97

BG 30.71 2 15.35 Post-Test 6.64* 70.86 69.60 68.86 Means WG 97.06 42 2.31

Adjusted BG 25.75 2 12.87 5.56* Post-Test 70.78 69.63 68.90

Means WG 94.82 41 2.31

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 139

RESULTS OF RESTING PULSE RATE An examination of table - XXIII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 72.73, 71.73 and 71.73 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 1.25 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean resting pulse rate F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 70.86, 69.60 and 68.86 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 6.64 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean resting pulse rate F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 70.78, 69.63 and 68.90 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 5.56 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean resting pulse rate F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on resting pulse rate are graphically represented in the figure -X. Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 140

FIGURE - X BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON RESTING PULSE RATE

73 72.73 Pre Test Mean 72 71.73 71.73 Post Test Mean 70.86 71 70.78 69.63 70 69.6 68.9 68.86 69

in Beat per minute per Beat in 68

67

66 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 141

TABLE - XXIV THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON RESTING PULSE RATE

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 70.78 69.63 --- 1.15 70.78 --- 68.90 1.88* 1.41 --- 69.63 68.90 0.73 * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXIV shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 1.88 on resting pulse rate are greater than the confidence interval value 1.41, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups and game specific exercise and combined cross training with game specific exercise groups were 1.15 and 0.73 respectively on resting pulse rate are lesser than the confidence interval value 1.41, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 142

TABLE - XXV COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON HITTING (in points)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.04 2 0.02 Pre-Test 0.02 3.26 3.20 3.26 Means WG 32.26 42 0.76

BG 8.04 2 4.02 Post-Test 3.59* 7.00 7.73 8.00 Means WG 46.93 42 1.11

Adjusted BG 8.13 2 4.06 3.74* Post-Test 6.99 7.74 7.99

Means WG 44.53 41 1.08

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 143

RESULTS OF HITTING An examination of table - XXV indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.26, 3.20 and 3.26 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.02 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean hitting F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 7.00, 7.73 and 8.00 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 3.59 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean hitting F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.99, 7.74 and 7.79 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 3.74 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean hitting F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on hitting are graphically represented in the figure -XI.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 144

FIGURE – XI BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON HITTING 8 7.99 7.74 7.73 8 Pre Test Mean 7 6.99 7 Post Test Mean Adjusted Post Test Mean 6

5

4 3.26 3.26 3.2

in in Points 3

2

1

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 145

TABLE - XXVI THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON HITTING

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 6.99 7.74 --- 0.75 6.99 --- 7.99 1.00* 0.96 --- 7.74 7.99 0.25 * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXVI shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 1.00 on hitting are greater than the confidence interval value 0.96, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, game specific exercise and combined cross training with game specific exercise groups respectively were 0.75 and 0.25 on hitting are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.96, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 146

TABLE - XXVII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON PUSHING (in points)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.53 2 0.26 Pre-Test 0.34 3.86 3.73 4.00 Means WG 32.66 42 0.77

BG 34.31 2 17.15 Post-Test 23.91* 6.00 7.20 8.13 Means WG 30.13 42 0.71

Adjusted BG 34.57 2 17.28 23.76* Post-Test 6.00 7.18 8.14

Means WG 29.82 41 0.72

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 147

RESULTS OF PUSHING An examination of table - XXVII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.86, 3.73 and 4.00 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.34 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean pushing F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.00, 7.20 and 8.13 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 23.91 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean pushing F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.00, 7.18 and 8.14 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 23.76 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean pushing F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on pushing are graphically represented in the figure -XII.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 148

FIGURE - XII BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON PUSHING

9 Pre Test Mean 8.14 8.13 8 Post Test Mean 7.2 7.18 Adjusted Post Test Mean 7 6 6 6

5 4 3.86 4 3.73 in in Points 3

2

1

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 149

TABLE - XXVIII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON PUSHING

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 6.00 7.18 --- 1.18* 6.00 --- 8.14 2.14* 0.78 --- 7.18 8.14 0.96* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXVII shows that the mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups and game specific exercises and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 1.18, 2.14 and 0.96 respectively on pushing are greater than the confidence interval value 0.78, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 150

TABLE - XXIX COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON DRIBBLING (in points) Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 3.51 2 1.75 Pre-Test 2.32 4.00 3.80 3.33

Means WG 31.73 42 0.75

BG 12.13 2 6.06 Post-Test 4.62* 6.46 6.53 7.60

Means WG 55.06 42 1.31

Adjusted BG 11.57 2 5.78 4.31* Post-Test 6.45 6.52 7.61

Means WG 54.98 41 1.34

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 151

RESULTS OF DRIBBLING An examination of table - XXIX indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 4.00, 3.80 and 3.33 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 2.32 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean dribbling F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.46, 6.53 and 7.60 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 4.62 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean dribbling F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.45, 6.52 and 7.61 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 4.31 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean dribbling F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on dribbling are graphically represented in the figure - XIII.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 152

FIGURE - XIII BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON DRIBBLING 7.61 8 7.6 Pre Test Mean Post Test Mean 6.53 6.52 6.46 7 6.45 Adjusted Post Test Mean 6

5 4 4 3.8 3.33

in in Points 3

2

1

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 153

TABLE - XXX THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON DRIBBLING

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 6.45 6.52 --- 0.07 6.45 --- 7.61 1.16* 1.07 --- 6.52 7.61 1.09* * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXX shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 1.16 and 1.09 respectively on dribbling which are greater than the confidence interval value 1.07, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups were 0.07 on dribbling which are lesser than the confidence interval value 1.07, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 154

TABLE - XXXI COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON SCOOPING (in points) Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of Df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 0.57 2 0.28 Pre-Test 0.42 3.66 3.40 3.60

Means WG 28.53 42 0.67

BG 13.51 2 6.75 Post-Test 13.64* 5.53 6.33 6.86

Means WG 20.80 42 0.49

Adjusted BG 13.09 2 6.54 13.77* Post-Test 5.55 6.30 6.87

Means WG 19.48 41 0.47

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 155

RESULTS OF SCOOPING An examination of table - XXXI indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.66, 3.40 and 3.60 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 0.42 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean scooping F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 5.53, 6.33 and 6.86 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was13.64 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean scooping F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 5.55, 6.30 and 6.87 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 13.77 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean scooping F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on scooping are graphically represented in the figure -XIV.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 156

FIGURE - XIV BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON SCOOPING 6.87 6.86 7 Pre Test Mean 6.33 6.3 Post Test Mean 5.55 6 5.53 Adjusted Post Test Mean

5 3.66 4 3.6 3.4

3 in in Points

2

1

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 157

TABLE - XXXII THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON SCOOPING

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 5.55 6.30 --- 0.75* 5.55 --- 6.87 1.32* 0.63 --- 6.30 6.87 0.57 * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXXII shows that the mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.75 and 1.32 respectively on scooping are greater than the confidence interval value 0.63, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between game specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.57 on are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.63, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 158

TABLE - XXXIII COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MEAN OF CROSS TRAINING, GAME-SPECIFIC AND COMBINED CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES GROUPS ON DODGING (in points)

Cross and Game- Source Cross Game- Sum of Means specific of df F-ratio Training specific Squares Squares exercises Variance exercises BG 3.33 2 1.66 Pre-Test 1.77 3.60 3.26 3.93 Means WG 39.46 42 0.94

BG 7.64 2 3.82 Post-Test 5.60* 6.40 6.53 7.33 Means WG 28.66 42 0.68

Adjusted BG 6.28 2 3.14 4.62* Post-Test 6.40 6.58 7.28

Means WG 27.87 41 0.68

B- Between Group Means * - Significant W- Within Group Means (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 42 = 3.22) df- Degrees of Freedom (Table Value for 0.05 Level for df 2 & 41 = 3.23)

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 159

RESULTS OF DODGING An examination of table - XXXIII indicated that the pretest means of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game-specific exercises group were 3.60, 3.26 and 3.93 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the pre-test was 1.77 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the pre-test mean dodging F-ratio was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The post-test means of the cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.40, 6.53 and 7.33 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the post-test was 5.60 and the table F-ratio was 3.22. Hence the post-test mean dodging F-ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 42.

The adjusted post-test means of the cross training, game- specific exercises and combined cross training & game- specific exercises group were 6.40, 6.58 and 7.28 respectively. The obtained F-ratio for the adjusted post-test means was 4.62 and the table F-ratio was 3.23. Hence the adjusted post-test mean F- ratio was significant at 0.05 level of confidence for the degree of freedom 2 and 41.

The pre, post and adjusted post test mean values of cross training, game-specific exercises and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups on dodging are graphically represented in the figure - XV.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 160

FIGURE - XV BAR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE PRE POST AND ADJUSTED MEANS OF THE CTG, GSEG AND CCTWGSEG ON ON DODGING

8 Pre Test Mean 7.33 7.28 Post Test Mean 6.58 6.53 6.4

7 6.4 Adjusted Post Test Mean 6

5 3.93

4 3.6 3.26 in in Points 3

2

1

0 CTG GSEG CCTWGSEG

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 161

TABLE - XXXIV THE SCHEFFE’S TEST FOR THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE ADJUSTED POST TEST PAIRED MEANS ON DODGING

Adjusted Post-test means Combined Cross Game Cross Training Mean Confidence Specific Training with Game Difference Interval exercises Group Specific Group exercises Group 6.40 6.58 --- 0.18 6.40 --- 7.28 0.88* 0.78 --- 6.58 7.28 0.70 * Significant at 0.05 level of confidence

Table XXXIV shows that the mean difference between cross training and combined cross training with game specific exercises groups were 0.88 on dodging are greater than the confidence interval value 0.78, which shows significant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

The mean difference between cross training and game specific exercises groups, game specific exercises and combined cross with game specific exercises groups were 0.18 and 0.70 respectively on are lesser than the confidence interval value 0.78, which shows insignificant difference at 0.05 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 162

DISCUSSION ON FINDINGS The prime intention of the researcher was to analyse the combined and individualized effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players. The theme behind this study was to observe the influences of cross training, game- specific exercises and combined exercises as a alternate means to develop the selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players. To achieve this, three different training packages were designed as cross training group (CTG), game-specific exercises group (GSEG) and combined cross training with game-specific exercises group (CCTWGSEG). The results of the effect of three training packages on variables used in this study are analysed so as to reach the theme of the present study, and sources behind such similarities and variations observed on variables between the training groups, have been discussed here using scientific studies and logical in nature.

Cross training means different things to different people. To some it may mean the effect that training on one side of the body has on the other. Cross – training is using another sport, activity or training techniques to help improve performance in the primary sport activity. Game-specific exercises are specifically designed to develop the performance related factors.

While analyzing the results, it was revealed that there were significant differences found in all the experimental groups.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 163

RESULTS OF CROSS TRAINING PROGRAMME In testing the cross training group, the results reveal that the variables used in the study evidencing that CTG has produced significant improvement positively on physical variables namely speed (0.29, P<0.05), Agility (0.58, P<0.05), hand grip strength (7.20, P<0.05), cardio respiratory endurance (0.68, P<0.05) and flexibility (1.80, P<0.05). The CTG has produced significant improvement positively on physiological variables namely vital capacity (0.43, P<0.05), forced vital capacity (0.65, P<0.05), slow vital capacity (0.53, P<0.05), maximum voluntary ventilation (33.39, P<0.05) and resting pulse rate (1.86, P<0.05). The CTG has produced significant improvement positively on performance variables namely hitting (3.73, P<0.05), pushing (2.13, P<0.05), dribbling (2.46, P<0.05), scooping (1.86, P<0.05) and dodging (2.80, P<0.05).

RESULTS OF GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES PROGRAMME In testing the game-specific exercises group, the results reveal that the variables used in the study evidencing that GSEG has produced significant improvement positively on physical variables namely speed (0.23, P<0.05), Agility (0.47, P<0.05), grip strength (5.53, P<0.05), cardio respiratory endurance (0.49, P<0.05) and flexibility (1.20, P<0.05). The GSEG has produced significant improvement positively on physiological variables namely vital capacity (0.38, P<0.05), forced vital capacity (0.29, P<0.05), slow vital capacity (0.19, P<0.05), maximum voluntary ventilation (16.60, P<0.05) and resting pulse rate (2.13, P<0.05). The GSEG has produced significant improvement positively on

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 164 performance variables namely hitting (4.53, P<0.05), pushing (3.47, P<0.05), dribbling (2.73, P<0.05), scooping (2.93, P<0.05) and dodging (3.26, P<0.05).

RESULTS OF CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES PROGRAMME In testing the cross training with game-specific exercises group, the results reveal that the variables used in the study evidencing that CTGWGSEG has produced significant improvement positively on physical variables namely speed (0.90, P<0.05), Agility (1.93, P<0.05), grip strength (10.06, P<0.05), cardio respiratory endurance (1.08, P<0.05) and flexibility (3.80, P<0.05). The CTGWGSEG has produced significant improvement positively on physiological variables namely vital capacity (0.63, P<0.05), forced vital capacity (0.62, P<0.05), slow vital capacity (0.46, P<0.05), maximum voluntary ventilation (38.06, P<0.05) and resting pulse rate (2.86, P<0.05). The CTGWGSEG has produced significant improvement positively on performance variables namely hitting (4.73, P<0.05), pushing (4.13, P<0.05), dribbling (4.26, P<0.05), scooping (3,26, P<0.05) and dodging (3.40, P<0.05).

The results of the above study support the findings of the following,

PHYSICAL VARIABLES Fatouros (2000) compared the effects of three different training and found significant (p < 0.05) improvements in vertical

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 165 jump performance and leg strength. Tanaka, et al. (1998) also found that endurance training, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial density. They transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power.

Sale et al. (1990) found that relative to gains in strength and endurance training was added to strength training (S+E), additional improvements occurred in endurance than were generated by strength training alone. When strength training was added to E-training (E+S), more gains were made in strength then were generated endurance training alone endurance measures were unaffected. The authors concluded that concurrent strength and endurance training did not interfere with strength or Endurance development in comparison to strength or Endurance training alone. They prove that the effectiveness of added training may depend on a variety of factors, such as intensity, volume and frequency of training, status of the subjects and how the training modes are integrated.

Kritpet, et al. (1989) conducted a study to determine the effect of 6 weeks strength training programme consisting of squat and plyometric exercises on vertical power jump performance, static and dynamic muscular strength and muscular power production in college adults. The results of the training

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 166 programme indicated a significant mean gain (p<.05) within both training programmes.

Meyer, (1987) conducted a study to investigate the effects of ten weeks of strength and flexibility training on the strength, flexibility, body composition and self-perception. Significant differences were found in post-test means except in flexibility.

Flynn (1998) RPE decreased significantly at MID and POST compared with that at PRE (P < 0.05; time effect). Wallace (1997) Both E and C groups demonstrated similar increases in Vo2 max (25% and 27%) while only C demonstrated an increase in I RM bench press (19%) and leg press (25%). A cross training (C) group.

Hennessy, et al. (1994) compared the effects of three preseason training programs on endurance, strength, power, and speed. Power (vertical jump performance) and speed (20-m sprint time) gains were noted. Anindra, et al. (1990) investigated the effects of specific conditioning programme on selected performance variables among tribal students. From the findings, the speed, endurance, strength and agility increased significantly after training. Pizza, et al. (1995) compared the changes in running economy, foot impact shock, run performance, and resting heart rate and blood pressure elicited by increases in training volume via run training (RT) and cross training (CT).

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 167

PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES Alagesan, (1997) examined the effects of specific pre-season training package on selected physical fitness and cardio pulmonary variables and skill performance of football players. Forty five men were selected at random and their age ranged from 18 to 25 years. The selected physical fitness and cardio pulmonary variables and skill performance were tested before and after 12 weeks of experimentation. He found that the specific pre- season training improved speed, endurance, agility, flexibility, explosive power, leg strength, maximum voluntary ventilation, forced expiratory volume, dribbling, ball control, kicking and general playing ability.

Lakhera, et al. (1994) conducted a study to evaluate the lung function in Indian athletes and non-athletes during adolescence. For the lung function on 40 boys (20 athletes and 20 non-athletes) with ages 13 to 16 years, were evaluated annually for over a period of two years. The variables studied were forced vital capacity (FVC) forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory capacity (IC) and maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV).

Kraemer, (1986) studied the effect of marathon running on blood components and pulmonary function and found significant decrease in FVC. Kramer (1984) conducted a study to determine the effects of aerobic training on pulmonary function and submaximal work performance in subjects with preclinical chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. The ventilator and

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 168 aerobic/ventilator groups exhibited an increase in maximum voluntary ventilation and aerobic/ventilatory groups exhibited an increase in maximum voluntary ventilation for 10 sec. (MVV2) in their post training tests.

De, et al. (1982) the participants of inter-university "Kabaddi" competition showed higher values of height, weight and surface area than average Indian population, indicating better attainment of growth in them. Further, the values of respiratory efficiency tests like, FEV1, MEFR and PEFR were also observed to be more in these players, probably due to training effect.

SKILL PERFORMANCE FACTORS Gabbett (2010) investigated the physiological demands of women's Field Hockey competition and compared these demands to those experienced during game-based training activities. Game- based training is likely to be useful for improving the skill levels of players.

Gabbett et al. (2009) presented a brief review of the relevant literature on game-based training, and summarize the advantages and disadvantages of this approach to training. This study investigates the effectiveness of game-based training are limited, with many of the suggested advantages and disadvantages of game-based training based on anecdotal evidence. Game-based training offers a specific method of conditioning for team sport competition, but game-based training may not simulate the high- intensity, repeated-sprint demands of international competition.

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 169

The game-based training had been reported to offer a safe, effective method of conditioning for team-sport athletes that results in comparable (and, in some cases, greater) improvements in physical fitness and performance than traditional conditioning activities. While technical instruction training has been associated with a higher volume of skill executions (i.e., more 'touches'), game-based training has been associated with greater cognitive effort - an important condition for skill learning. This study investigates skill learning have reported comparable (and, in some cases, greater) improvements in skill execution and decision- making following game-based training than training involving repetitious technical instruction. These findings demonstrate the value of game-based training for improving skill and physical fitness in team sport athletes. Further this study investigates the long-term skill and physical benefits of game-based training are warranted.

McManus et al. (2007) In a field hockey game players need a high level of energy and analytical skill to fulfill the requirements. Sports-specific physical training is paramount in field hockey. The findings of this study indicate the need for gender-specific basic skills and fitness programs with two additional components addressing the differing needs of midfielders and defences (similar) and the attacks.

Verrall, et al. (2005) In conclusion it were observed that increasing the amount of anaerobic interval training, stretching whilst the muscle is fatigued, and implementing sport specific

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 170 training drills resulted in a significant reduction in the number and consequences of hamstring muscle strain injuries.

Ananda Kumar (2006) conducted a study to find out the effect of specific drills on selected skill related fitness variables and skill performance among hockey players. The results reveal that there was significant improvement in the shooting, and dribbling ability of the experimental group with the specific drills. There was no significant improvement in the selected variables of the control group. There was no significant improvement in the shooting, passing and dribbling ability of the control group.

Keogh et al (2003) developed an effective testing battery for female field hockey by using anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related tests to distinguish between regional representative (Rep, n = 35) and local club level (Club, n = 39) female field hockey players. These results indicate that %BF, sprinting speed, agility, dribbling control, aerobic and muscular power, and shooting accuracy can distinguish between female field hockey players of varying standards. The talent identification programs for female field hockey should include assessments of these physical parameters.

Nieuwenhuis et al. (2002) studied the prediction for identifying talent in female field hockey players. The results indicated meaningful differences in some variables. A prediction function was developed consisting of eight variables that

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 171 successfully distinguished between successful and less successful 14 to 15 year old female field hockey players.

Wassmer et al. (2002) evaluated a descriptive profile of elite U.S Women’s collegiate field hockey players. They examined the relationships between grip strength, power and sport specific test performance in 37 elite, female collegiate field hockey players. The goalkeepers showed heavier significant (p<0.05) change and they had a higher %body fat, however there were no significant differences (p>0.05) observed between any of the player positions in height, limb length, 50-yard dash time, predicted Vo2max, grip strength, agility, or in the field hockey specific tests. There were no significant (p>0.05) correlations (r=0.03 to -0.13) between right and left grip strength and sport-specific test scores. But significant (p<0.05) relationships were found between power and pushing accuracy, as well as between the 50 yard dash and co- ordination test, pushing power and pushing accuracy.

Another investigation by Tanaka, et al. (1994) that the cross training is a widely used approach for structuring training programme to improve competitive performance in a specific sport by training in a variety of sports.

Cross training effects never exceed those induced by the sport-specific training mode. For the general population, cross training may be highly beneficial in terms of overall fitness. Similarly, cross training may be an appropriate supplement during rehabilitation periods from physical injury and during periods of overtraining or psychological fatigue. Since, cross

Analysis of Data and Interpretation of the Study 172 training was one of the most advanced forms of sports training the combination with game-specific exercises produces significant changes. Anyhow these two different training when in conjunctional nature, the effect might have been strengthened as a value added one.

DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESES

1. The first hypothesis stated that there may be significant differences due to cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players form their baseline to post treatment.

The findings of the study showed that there were significant differences in selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players form their baseline to post treatment due to influence of cross training and game specific exercises. Hence the first hypothesis was accepted on the above said variables.

2. The second hypothesis stated that the combined group may show significant differences than the individual groups on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players.

The findings of the study showed that the combined group may show significant differences than the individual groups on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players. Hence the second hypothesis was accepted on the above said variables.

CHAPTER - V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY The purpose of this study was to investigate the combined and individualized effect of cross training and game specific exercises on selected physical, physiological and performance factors of field hockey players. To achieve the purpose of the present study, forty five field hockey players from Ramakrishna Mission Vidhyalaya, Coimbatore district, Tamilnadu were selected as subjects at random and their age ranged from 18 to 25 years. By using the matching procedure on the basis of their initial performance test scores, the subjects were divided into three equal groups of fifteen each. The study was formulated as a true randomized group design, consisting of a pre-test and post-test. The subjects (N=45) were randomly assigned to three equal groups of fifteen men students each.

The groups were assigned as Cross Training Group (CTG), Game-Specific Exercises Group (GSEG) and Combined Cross Training with Game-Specific Exercises Group (CCTWGSEG) in an equivalent manner. The selected variables were speed, grip strength, agility, flexibility, cardio respiratory endurance, vital capacity, forced vital capacity, slow vital capacity, maximum voluntary ventilation, resting pulse rate, hit, push, dodging, dribbling and scoop.

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 174

The three groups participated in the training for a period of twelve weeks to find out the outcome of the training packages. This training package was given for 90 minutes each for three days in a week.

After completion of the treatment the subjects belonging to all the three groups were again tested on criterion measures as measured during the initial test. The collected data on criterion measures were treated by analysis of covariance to test the significance of mean difference among the three groups on performance and performance related factors. Further, its significance was observed, as a post-hoc test, Schefee’s test was applied.

CONCLUSIONS From the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The experimental group ‘A’ had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors after undergoing the cross training for a period of twelve weeks.

2. The experimental group ‘B’ had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors after undergoing the game-specific exercises for a period of twelve weeks.

3. The experimental group ‘C’ had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 175

performance factors after undergoing the combined cross training with game-specific exercises for a period of twelve weeks.

4. The cross training group had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical and physiological variables than the game-specific exercises group.

5. The game-specific exercises group had shown significant improvement in all the performance variables than the cross training group.

6. The combined cross training with game-specific exercises group had shown significant improvement in all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors than the individualized groups.

RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations for implication 1. The results of this research study clearly indicates that cross training with game-specific exercises could enhance the performance of hockey players in almost all the selected physical, physiological and performance factors. Hence it is recommended that coaches and physical educators in the game of hockey should give due importance to include cross training along with game-specific exercises in their schedules.

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 176

2. It is also recommended that a hockey team at any level should have knowledge about cross training to train the players for enhancing their performance.

Recommendations for future research

1. A similar study may be conducted on players of National Hockey team to assess their level in the selected variables.

2. A similar study may be conducted on different game and sports.

3. A similar study may be conducted in greater detail to assess changes on biochemical, physiological, psychological variables.

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APPENDIX

CROSS TRAINING I TO VI WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Monday Wednesday Friday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise and Jogging, Walk, - - - - 15 min. exercise and stretching exercise and stretching stretching 2 Aerobic Running Stair climbing Running 1 50- One Nil 15 min. training 65% 3 Strength Leg Press, Back Wrist curls, triceps, Bench press, 2-3 40% 6 – 10 180 15 min. training Hyperextension, hip abduction, and seated pulley rows – Nos sec. biceps, and Adduction and sit ups 60% Forearm Curls, 4 Speed and Follow the leader, Speed agility ladder Shuttle run, 1-3 70 - 1-3 180- 15 min. agility Hollow sprint drills, N drill and lateral movement 80% 300 training and the snake. four square drills. drills, zig zag run, sec. 5 Flexibility Upper Chest Hamstring leg and Modified hurdle 3-5 40 - 6 - 8 180 15 min. training stretch, lower leg groin stretch, hip stretch, high low 60% sec. and heel stretch, flexor, shoulder and arm stretch. back stretch, arm stretch, groin stretch, lower back and hip stretch. 6 Lateral Football Softball basket ball 1 50- one Nil 10 min. game 70% 7 Cool down Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down 5 - min. exercises exercises

CROSS TRAINING VII TO XII WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Monday Wednesday Friday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise and Jogging, Walk, - - - - 15 min. exercise and stretching exercise and stretching stretching

2 Aerobic Running Stair climbing Running 1 65- One Nil 15 min. training 80%

3 Strength Leg Press, Back Wrist curls, triceps, Bench press, 2-3 60% 8 – 12 150 15 min. training Hyperextension, hip abduction, and seated pulley rows – Nos sec. biceps, and Adduction and sit ups 75% Forearm Curls, 4 Speed and Follow the leader, Speed agility ladder Shuttle run, 3-5 80 - 1-3 150- 15 min. agility Hollow sprint drills, N drill and lateral movement 90% 270 training and the snake. four square drills. drills, zig zag run, sec. 5 Flexibility Upper Chest Hamstring leg and Modified hurdle 3-5 60 - 8 - 10 150 15 min. training stretch, lower leg groin stretch, hip stretch, high low 80% sec. and heel stretch, flexor, shoulder and arm stretch. back stretch, arm stretch, groin stretch, lower back and hip stretch. 6 Lateral Football Softball basket ball 1 70- one Nil 10 min. game 90% 7 Cool down Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down - - - - 5 - min. exercises exercises

GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES I TO VI WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Tuesday Thursday Saturday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise Jogging, Walk, - - - - 10 min. exercise and and stretching exercise and stretching stretching

2 Skills Dribbling: Ball rolling Pushing: Dodge: Right 1 Nil 45 min. stick side, ball rolling Straight push, dodge and left non-stick side, ball reverse push, dodge, One versus tapping stick side and ball roll and one and one nonstick side. Hitting: push and wrong versus two.

Hitting with partner, foot push. Tackling: shadow

hitting towards goal Flick: Right tackling, lounge 7 0%

post, turn around hit, side flick, tackling, zapping, - wrong foot hit, roll and reverse flick wrist tackling and Once 5 0 hit, cross step hit and and drag flick sweeping reverse hit. Stopping:

Right hand stop, left distance) meters (23 stop, straight stop, lounging stop, reverse stop 3 Game Game Game Game 1 Arou Once Nil 25 min nd 90% 4 Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down Cool down - - - - 10 - min. exercises exercises

GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES VII TO XII WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Tuesday Thursday Saturday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise Jogging, Walk, - - - - 10 min. exercise and and stretching exercise and stretching stretching

2 Skills Dribbling: Ball rolling Pushing: Dodge: Right 1 Nil 45 min. stick side, ball rolling Straight push, dodge and left non-stick side, ball reverse push, dodge, One versus tapping stick side and ball roll and one and one nonstick side. Hitting: push and wrong versus two.

Hitting with partner, foot push. Tackling: shadow

hitting towards goal Flick: Right tackling, lounge

post, turn around hit, side flick, tackling, zapping, 90% wrong foot hit, roll and reverse flick wrist tackling and Once 70 - hit, cross step hit and and drag flick sweeping reverse hit. Stopping:

Right hand stop, left distance) meters (23 stop, straight stop, lounging stop, reverse stop 3 Game Game Game Game 1 arou Once Nil 25 min nd - 90% 4 Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down Cool down - - - - 10 - min. exercises exercises

CROSS TRAINING WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES I TO VI WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Monday Wednesday Friday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise and Jogging, Walk, - - - - 10 min. exercise and stretching exercise and stretching stretching 2 Aerobic Running Stair climbing Running 1 50- One Nil 15 min. training 65% 3 Flexibility Lower leg and - - 3-5 40 - 6 - 8 180 15 min. training heel stretch, 60% sec. back stretch, groin stretch, lower back and hip stretch. Hamstring leg and groin stretch, hip flexor, high low arm stretch. 4 Strength - Leg Press, Back - 2-3 40% 6 – 10 180 15 min. training Hyperextension, – Nos sec. biceps, and Forearm 60% Curls, Wrist curls, triceps, hip abduction, and Adduction 5 Speed and - - Follow the leader, 1-3 70 - 1-3 180- 15 min. agility Hollow sprint, 80% 300 training Speed agility sec. ladder drills and four square drills and sit ups Shuttle run, lateral movement drills, zig zag run, 6 Skills Dribbling: Ball Pushing: Straight Dodge: Right 1 Nil 30 min. rolling stick side, push, reverse push, dodge and left ball rolling non- ball roll and push dodge, One versus stick side, ball and wrong foot push. one and one tapping stick side Flick: Right side versus two. and nonstick flick, reverse flick Tackling: shadow

side. Hitting: and drag flick tackling, lounge Hitting with tackling, zapping,

partner, hitting wrist tackling and

towards goal sweeping

post, turn 70% Once

around hit, 50 - wrong foot hit, roll and hit, cross

step hit and distance) meters (23 reverse hit. Stopping: Right hand stop, left stop, straight stop, lounging stop, reverse stop 7 Game Game Game Game 1 Arou Once Nil 15 min nd 90% 8 Cool down Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down 5 - min. exercises exercises

CROSS WITH GAME-SPECIFIC EXERCISES VII TO XII WEEKS

Sl.No Activity Monday Wednesday Friday Sets Inten Repeti Rest Duration sity tion in sec. 1 Warm up Jogging, Walk, Walk, exercise and Jogging, Walk, - - - - 10 min. exercise and stretching exercise and stretching stretching 2 Aerobic Running Stair climbing Running 1 65- One Nil 15 min. training 80% 3 Strength Lower leg and - - 2-3 60% 8 – 12 150 15 min. training heel stretch, – No’s sec. back stretch, 75% groin stretch, lower back and hip stretch. Hamstring leg and groin stretch, hip flexor, high low arm stretch. 4 Speed and - Leg Press, Back - 3-5 80 - 1-3 150- 15 min. agility Hyperextension, 90% 270 training biceps, and Forearm sec. Curls, Wrist curls, triceps, hip abduction, and Adduction 5 Flexibility - - Follow the leader, 3-5 60 - 8 - 10 150 15 min. training Hollow sprint, 80% sec. Speed agility ladder drills and four square drills and sit ups Shuttle run, lateral movement drills, zig zag run. 6 Skills Dribbling: Ball Pushing: Straight Dodge: Right 1 Nil 30 min. rolling stick side, push, reverse push, dodge and left ball rolling non- ball roll and push dodge, One versus stick side, ball and wrong foot push. one and one tapping stick side Flick: Right side versus two. and nonstick flick, reverse flick Tackling: shadow side. Hitting: and drag flick tackling, lounge Hitting with tackling, zapping,

partner, hitting wrist tackling and

towards goal sweeping

post, turn 90% around hit, Once 70 - wrong foot hit, roll and hit, cross

step hit and distance) meters (23 reverse hit. Stopping: Right hand stop, left stop, straight stop, lounging stop, reverse stop 7 Game Game Game Game 1 arou Once Nil 15 min nd - 90% 8 Cool down Cool down Cool down exercises Cool down - - - - 5 - min. exercises exercises