IMPACT OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVES ON THE PERFORMANCE OF TEAMS (MEN): A CASE STUDY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS (HEIs) OF

Dr. Asif Ali, Dr. Muhammad Rafique Qambrani, Adeel Akhtar and Dr. Komal Ansari

ABSTRACT

Consistent decline in performance of Pakistan Field Hockey team (men) in excellent international competitions has raised a serious concern among professionals. it has become an area of great interest to discover underlying causes of this phenomenon. Economic model of sports suggests that one way of understanding underlying cause of various variables associated with sports performance is assessing the role of finance. This study sought to understand the impact of financial incentives on performance of field hockey varsity players (men) in Pakistan. For this purpose, a self-developed questionnaire that was consisted on 21 items, was distributed among all (eleven) teams (men) of field hockey that were qualified for participation in intervarsity hockey championship (men) Pakistan. For analysis, a simple regression was run to explore the relationship among financial incentives for varsity student field hockey athletes (males) hockey infrastructure, coaching facilities and their sports performance. The analysis indicated that all of three dependent variables (facilities, coaching and performance) found to positively related with financial incentives. Findings suggested that institutions of higher education should offer additional financial benefits for varsity hockey athletes with the aim of achieving objective of uplifting the performance of field hockey (men) at university level in Pakistan. The findings further highlight that the universities should allocate enough finance to develop and to promote sports infrastructure and coaching facilities of high quality to raise the standard of field hockey at universities in Pakistan. The findings of this study put forward the importance of reviewing policy matters regarding budgetary allocations and their usage for national game of Pakistan in institutions of higher education. Keywords: Finance, Field Hockey, Student Athletes, Universities, Sport Performance

Introduction sport and recognized as a na- Field Hockey has been a tional game of Pakistan. The popular sport in almost all of historical data indicates that the continents. It is a popular since 1958 to 1994, Pakistan

Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams

Field Hockey team (men) has sports science interested to prestigious record of winning identify the factors that contri- several excellent competitions. buted in the decline of field Those include eight medals in hockey in Pakistan. Olympics; three gold (1960, 1968, 1984), three silvers (1956, Traditionally, Higher Edu- 1964, 1972) and two bronzes cation Institutions (HEIs) consi- (1974, 1992) (―Field hockey at dered among the important the ,‖ 2016). In streams of the gross root struc- history of Field Hockey World tures and sport management Cup, hockey Pakistani team units in any country (Georgakis (men) won four gold and two & Light, 2012).Unlike several silver medals (―Pakistan men's countries of the world (Flowers, national field hockey team,‖ 2009; Henry, 2010), universities 2016). In addition, Pakistan in Pakistan obviously play an field hockey men‘s team stood important role in the develop- three times on the place of ment of elite athletes through champion in champion trophy. organization of intervarsity co- However, since 1998 a signifi- mpetitions. In the case of Pakis- cant decline has been observed tan, intervarsity competitions of in the performance of Pakistan field hockey game being organ- filed hockey team (men). At ized under the management of present, Pakistan national ho- Pakistan Universities Sports ckey team could not qualify for Board (PUSB), which works un- participation in Hockey World der the supervision of Higher Cup 2014.The data demonstra- Education Commission (HEC), tes a very poor performance of Pakistan. Through, intervarsity Pakistan Field Hockey in world competitions higher education scenario as compared to 70s, institutions make major contri- 80s and 90s. This remarkable bution in organization and pro- decline in the performance of motion of field hockey at natio- Pakistani national team of field nal level. hockey raised serious concern among the professionals. Imp- With regard to the factors of ortantly, in recent years, resear- sports performance, there are chers and professionals in some suggestions indicated that

148 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 11, 2016 sports performance primarily effect of financial incentives on rely on the amount of invest- perceptions towards coaching, ment of financial resources. For training, and utilization of spo- example, advocates of economic rts facilities. For example, Horn model of sports performance (2000) demonstrated that coll- conceptualizes that the goal of ege players with financial ince- sports promotion and enhan- ntives (sports scholarships), in cement can be achieve through comparison with perceptions of increasing investment of finan- athletes receiving no financial cial resources on sports (And- incentives by educational insti- reff, 2001; Bernard & Busse, tution, exhibited higher level of 2004). According to this view, motivation in sports participa- sports performance positively tion and depicted more positive related with financial inves- perceptions towards coaches tment (Manuel Luiz & Fadal, and sports training. In contrast, 2011). In the context of higher poor financial incentives for education institutions (HEIs), players can have adversely aff- one way of increasing financial ect their efficacy and their per- investment includes allocation ceptions concerning sports par- of adequate budget to provide ticipation, investment of effort financial incentives to the play- in skill learning, improvement ers of hockey in universities. In in fitness and coaching (Holt, overall sports system, unlike Kingsley, Tink, & Scherer, 2011). facilities and infrastructure, ph- ysical fitness, coaching and tra- In these lines, one area of ining, the importance of a play- inquiry might be assessing the ers itself is central for sporting relationship between the finan- success. In the life of a player, cial incentives for university fie- finance incentives are among ld hockey players (Haden, 2001) the powerful motivators and and their relationship with their sources of effort investment for perceptions towards indicators sports successes. of sports performance such as, physical fitness and training, Specifically, studies in the coaching, and sports facilities. sports context provided some Prior studies suggest that sports evidences regarding positive performance greatly depends

149 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams on the physical fitness (Gabbett, problems such as, problems cre- 2010; Manna, Khanna, & Dhara, ated by faculty members, prob- 2011; Vescovi, 2014), good coa- lems by peer students, time ching (Gearity & Murray, 2011; management, health issues, Wiman, Salmoni, & Hall, 2010), extra stress due to physical trai- sports facilities (Schwarz, Hall, ning along with academic assig- & Shibli, 2015), and sports nments and pressure put on by training (Güllich, 2014; Hanja- coaches and university author- bam & Kailashiya, 2014; Tucker ities (Elferink-Gemser, Visscher, & Collins, 2012). Due to the fact Lemmink, & Mulder, 2007; that the variables including Henry, 2010; Simiyu, 2010). physical fitness, sports coach- ing, sports facilities, and sports It is a matter of fact that training are considered funda- athletes in education institu- mental for sports performance; tions being considered as a spe- hence, these variables can be cial class of students that req- used as proxies of performance uire specific policy-making and of field hockey teams. treatment (Freeman, 2012). Pro- viding them extra financial inc- The need for financial incen- entives can be one form of com- tives allocation for players in pensation in response to their universities can be realized in specific role (e.g., student and the framework of dual respon- athlete) in the universities (Ha- sibilities and some additional den, 2001; McCormick & Mc- load on athletes in comparison Cormick, 2006). The financial with non-athletes students in incentives for varsity hockey HEIs. As, athletes in HEIs have players can be in form of schol- to bear dual load in the form of arships, prize money, free dor- endeavoring to achieve their mitory on campus, free trans- academic goals while simultan- porting facilities, fee waves, sti- eously acting as an agent of pends during training and com- wining fame in the field of spo- petitions, free supply of food rts to raise positive image of from university mess, free sup- HEIs in the community (Caro- ply of sports kits, and free sup- dine, Almond, & Gratto, 2001). ply of sports equipment (Porto, They also face some additional 1985).

150 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 11, 2016

Prior research suggests that ing in universities play a signi- good financial conditions of ficant role in improving perfor- athletes and spending sufficient mance and participation of stu- budget on student athletes can dent athletes. Among the faci- lead to increased sports partici- lities, availability of Astroturf pation and training, increased pitch thought more important utilization of facilities and spo- to maintain standard of field rts equipment, increased motiv- hockey game in universities ation and investment of phy- (Durack, 2013). Sibson (2005) sical effort to win, reduced str- argued that the globalization of ess, and improved satisfaction field hockey placed affective st- (Sotiriadou, Shilbury, & Quick, ress at the grass-root structures 2008). These factors collectively (e.g. universities, clubs, and ass- may results in improved phy- ociations) to develop sufficient sical fitness, increased interest Astroturf, playing surfaces, spe- in receiving coaching from ctators areas. In addition, other good hockey coaches, and ulti- indicated the importance of fac- mately improved performance. ilities for talent identification, With regard to field hockey pla- increased participation (Wicker, yers in universities of Pakistan, Hallmann, & Breuer, 2013), ra- it is unclear that whether incr- ise standard and talent identi- eased financial incentives offers fication for sports (Martindale, for hockey athletes likely to Collins, & Daubney, 2005; Geor- improve their efficacy regard- gakis & Light, 2012). These fin- ing coaching training, fitness, dings emphasize the significan- and positive perceptions tow- ce of infrastructure of field ho- ards facilities, ultimately imp- ckey game and the need of roved performance. Using econ- professional standard field hoc- omic model of sports perform- key facilities in universities. ance, we intend to know whe- ther increased financial incen- In addition, the quality and tives for hockey athletes can quantity of physical fitness trai- lead to improve performance. ning also believed to consider among the important determi- Jian-chen (2007) indicated nants of sports performance, that sports facilities and coach- particularly at gross-root levels

151 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams in universities (Grove & Hanra- provide feedback contribute to han, 1988; Keogh, Weber, & enhance skills and techniques Dalton, 2003). The rapid chan- of the players and thus conside- ges in completion rules of field red one of the major contribu- hockey game during the past tors of development of expert few decades as well as intro- players (Baker et al., 2003). This duction of synthetic surface has point towards the need of a remarkably altered the physio- systematic and scientific plan of logical demands by the players physical fitness and training at all levels including national, program throughout the year in international, intervarsity levels universities for intervarsity hoc- (Gabbett, 2010; Reilly & Borrie, key players under the super- 1992). It has been suggested vision of skilled and experien- that physical fitness and phy- ced physical fitness trainers. siological demands on the field hockey players significantly Purpose of the study changes as a function of chan- ges in training seasons (pre- The purpose of this study is competition, post-competition- to assess the influence of finan- during competition, off-season, cial incentives on the perfor- maintenance season) (Astorino, mance of field hockey inter- Tam, Rietschel, Johnson, & Fre- varsity players of Pakistan. Ad- edman, 2004). Moreover, it has ditionally, we sought to deter- been indicated that the acquisi- mine the relation between fina- tion of expertise in field hockey ncial resources and sports faci- is multidimensional requiring lities and coaching as well. intense training of wide ranges of tactical, technical, and psy- Significance of the study chological skill training (Cote, Baker, & Abernethy, 2004; Elfe- This analysis based on gras- rink-Gemser et al., 2007). This sroots data may be able to iden- require adequate coaching by tify the underlying causes of expert and skilled coaches decline in field hockey at na- (Baker, Horton, Robertson-Wil- tional level in Pakistan. It may son, & Wall, 2003).The expertise further contribute for better and potential of the coach to policy-making and managem-

152 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 11, 2016 ent field hockey for identifi- informed to participants that cation and development of they could withdraw their par- talent in the game of hockey. ticipation in the study at any time. METERIAL AND METHODS Instrument Population and sample A 21 item Likert-type ques- tionnaire was developed for The population was 176 data collection. The options of (11x16) student players of field strongly agree (SA), agree (A), hockey teams (men) from ele- uncertain (UNC), disagree ven universities of Pakistan. (DA), and strongly disagree The response rate for question- (SDA), were presented in front nnaire was 82% (144 out of 176 of each item. The participant‘s respondents). 126 questionnai- task was to express their honest res out of 144 found suitable for opinion by putting the check data analysis. All hockey ath- mark (√) on the option that best letes were male, willing to par- represented their opinion. The ticipate voluntarily in this study questionnaire included two co- and recruited by sending a nstructs i.e. performance, and letter to the managers and coa- financial incentives. Whereas, ches of university hockey teams questions concerning a) facili- requesting them to allow their ties, fitness and training, and players to involve in this study. coaching were used as proxies With the consents of team coa- of construct one (performance). ches and managers, the resear- chers contacted by telephone to With regard to proxies of the players and arranged the performance e.g. a) facilities) time and place to meet the in- fitness and training, and c) coa- vestigators. All participants ching), questions concerning provided Informed consents sports equipment, availability prior to data collection. The res- of comfortable accommodation earchers made it assured that for stay, membership of hockey information obtained from par- club, and availability of playing ticipants, would be keep confi- surfaces such as grassy fields dential. The researchers further and Astroturf were included in

153 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams proxy one (facilities). The items Five experts took part in the such as availability of physical discussion to decide the cons- fitness trainer, provision of tructs and content of the ques- physical fitness plan through tionnaire. Those experts inclu- the year, skill of their physical ded one PhD, one student of fitness trainer, experience of PhD program, one student of trainer, and regularity in parti- master in physical education, cipation in training program, one intervarsity level hockey were included in proxy two player and one university ho- (fitness). However, the proxy ckey coach. The focus of experts three consisted of questions such during instrument developm- as availability of experienced ent was that only those items hockey coach, expertise of hoc- should be included those are key coach, adequacy of coaching directly related with the issue services, coach‘s feedback regar- under investigation and had ec- ding correction of errors in skills, ological significance and rele- and effectiveness of coaching. vancy with context of Pakistan. Regarding validity of the ques- In construct two (financial tionnaire, the analysis showed incentives), the questions con- 0.885 at Cronbach‘s Alpha level, cerning the provision of finan- showed higher level of validity cial allowances for participation and consistency of this instr- in training camps, amount of ument. daily allowances, money spen- ding on hockey athletes, career Data analysis opportunities based for hockey athletes, sports quota for admi- For the purpose of data ssions in universities and sports analysis, SPSS Statistics version scholarship, were included in 20 was used. Using the financial this construct. Thus, construct incentives as criterion variable, a one comprised of 15 items whe- simple regression was run with reas, each proxy was composed each explanatory variable (faci- of five questions. The remainn- lities, coaching, and fitness). ing six items were included in co- nstruct two (financial incentives).

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RESULTS Figure-1

The analysis showed that per-formance of intervarsity hockey teams, sports facilities, and coaching were predicted by the amount of adequate fina- ncial incentives for student hockey athletes.

With regard to using finance in a regression analysis to pre- dict performance, the analysis revealed that the prediction mo- del was statistically significant, F = 59.730, p < .001 and accoun- ted for approximately 32% of the variance of performance (R2 = .325, Adjusted R2 = .320).

We used finance in a reg- ression analysis to predict filed hockey facilities. Analysis reve- aled that prediction model was statistically significant, F=43.437, p < .001 and accounted for app- DISCUTIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS roximately 26 of the variance of sports facilities (R2 =.259, Adjus- The primary objective of this ted R2 = .253). The analyses fur- study was to understand the ther indicated that the predic- effect of financial incentives on tion model for coa-ching was sports performance of field ho- also statistically significant, F= ckey (men) teams at university 25.514, p< .001 and accounted level in Pakistan. Additionally, for approxima-tely 17% of the we were interested to know the variance of coaching (R2 = .171, correlation among financial in- Adjusted R2=.164). Model sum- centives and facilities and coa- mery, ANOVA table and Coef- ching of field hockey. Accor- ficient has shown in Figure 1. ding to the opinion of the

155 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams varsity field hockey athletes financial resources (Ahmadi, following findings are presen- Asari, & Jorly, 2015; Emrich, ted. Klein, Pitsch, & Pierdzioch, 2012; Manuel Luiz & Fadal, Firstly, findings revealed a 2011). In turn, lack of financial positive correlation between fi- investment in certain sports nancial incentives and perfor- may lead to detrimental effect mance. Secondly, filed hockey on sports performance. In edu- facilities and coaching positi- cation setting, financial incen- vely related to financial incen- tives in the form of scholar- tives. This means that avail- ships, tuition wave, daily allow- ability of adequate financial res- ances, traveling cost, provision ources is having a positive im- of good nutrition, and free bo- pact on the sports facilities, ard have greater significance coaching, and sports performa- for university hockey players. nce. Conversely, lack of ade- quate financial resources is ha- These findings point to the ving a negative impact on the fact that the fundamental cause sports facilities, coaching, and of decline of field hockey at sports performance. gross root level specifically at universities level is probably These findings seem in line lack of financial resources allo- with the economic model of cated for the benefits of varsity sports performance (Leeds & athletes. This may further nega- Leeds, 2012; Rathke & Woitek, tively influenced performance 2008). According to this view, of student hockey athletes. financial resources, economic These findings contradict with conditions, or budget allocation the reports that student athletes for certain sports are the most enjoying great financial benefits important and powerful factor in the higher education institu- among determinants of sports tions in developed countries performance (Buts, Du Bois, (Corgan, 2012; Fram & Framp- Heyndels, & Jegers, 2013). For ton, 2012). Those financial ben- example, studies indicated that efits includes exemption of tui- sports performance is positvely tion fee, provision living expe- associated with investment of nses, free board, free books, a

156 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 11, 2016 university degree, recognition 2001; Comeaux & Harrison, of at national and international 2011; Hyatt, 2003; Parham, level as well as opportunities of 1993). One possible cause of this prestigious professional career phenomenon might be the that (Duderstadt, 2009). For exam- the primary focus of educa- ple, in America, it has been tional institutions / universities indicated that varsity sports has in under-developing counties is become commercialized, ente- to attain educational goals wh- red into the shape of entertain- ereas development of sports is ment business, attained greater on the least priority in many popularity, engagement of na- educational institutions in these tional media and quasi-profes- countries (Andreff, 2001). In co- sionalization that involves inve- ntrast, many universities in de- stment of huge budget for sp- veloped nations take the res- orts programs (Duderstadt, ponsibility of development of 2009; M. Mitten, Musselman, & sports along with gaining their Burton, 2009; M. J. Mitten, Mus- academic mission (Duderstadt, selman, & Burton, 2010; Zhu, 2009; Georgakis & Light, 2012). Won, & Pastore, 2005). On the other hand, it is evident that Furthermore, findings reve- varsity athletes in higher edu- aled a significantly positive cor- cation institutions contribute relation between the investment greatly not only by creating rich of financial resources and faci- environment in campus life of lities such as grassy fields, Ast- universities but also help to in- roturf, stadiums, and establis- crease institutions pride, recog- hment of hockey clubs. Sports nition, and goodwill as well as facilities are fundamental for contributing promoting the the development and promo- good repute of universities. On tion of certain sport (De Bos- the other hand, student athletes scher, De Knop, van Botten- in higher education institutions burg, Shibli, & Bingham, 2009). confront with multidimensional Previously, Dong, Yu, and challenges simultaneously end- Dong (2011) demonstrated that eavoring for their sports success allocation and investment of along with achieving their aca- finanical resources is essential demic goals (Carodine et al., element for the purpose of

157 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams sports development and main- positively related with finance. tenance of sports facilities and This implies that increasing the infrastructure. In addition, Fer- spending money on coaching in eidouni, Foroughi, Tajaddini, the form of increasing coaches‘ and Najdi (2015) showed that salaries, incentives, coaching lower investment on sports faci- facilities, coaching campuses, lities results in poor sport faci- may results in enhancing the lities. It is evident that presence quality and quantity of coach- of infrastructure requires heavy ing of student hockey athletes amount of budget allocations in universities. This increased for the development of these quality and quantity of coach- facilities (Gallardo, Burillo, Ga- ing of hockey athletes further rcía-Tascón, & Salinero, 2009). lead to improved performance Poorly managed infrastructure in intervarsity competitions. of field hockey has adverse Similar to our finding, Freeman effect on the participation of (2012) found that increasing student athletes in universities financial spending on coaching sports (Hallmann, Wicker, Bre- expected to increase athletic su- uer, & Schönherr, 2012; Lim et ccess. In contrast, other studies al., 2011). In addition, well dev- found no positive relation bet- eloped and well managed faci- ween increased finance for coa- lities of field hockey may fur- ching and improved perfor- ther positively impact on the mance (Orszag & Israel, 2009; quality and quantity of training Tsitsos & Nixon, 2012). and participation (Curtis & Bir- ch, 1987; Wicker, Breuer, & Pa- To date, the data about faci- wlowski, 2009). These, in turn, lities, coaching, sports partici- might resulted in decreased pation and performance of var- performance of hockey players sity field hockey student athle- at intervarsity level that further tes is not available. As there is contribute to decline the no publish work that present standards of field hockey at the number of hockey surfaces national level in Pakistan. (aster turf or grass pitches), equipment, stadiums, number With regard to coaching, an- of total qualified coaches, sports alysis showed that coaching hostels, share of allocated finan-

158 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 11, 2016 ce for field hockey in total spor- of sports facilities, infrastruc- ts budget, and number of total ture, poor coaching, and insuf- hockey teams of field hockey in ficient sports equipment due to universities of Pakistan. How- lack of financial resources. ever, Pakistan considered an Based on the findings and underdeveloped country that discussions, following recom- has very tiny budget for higher menddations put forward for education institutions or uni- the development and promo- versities. The share of education tion of field hockey at grass root budget in total federal budget levels with special reference to Pakistan 2015-16 is approxima- Pakistani universities. tely 2.1%. Intuitively, it can be assumed that the portion of sp- 1. Outstanding varsity hockey orts budget within the total uni- athletes should be offered versity budget may be very financial scholarships in the low. The tiny sports budget in form of sports scholarships, universities leave less space for daily allowances during train- financial resources for the deve- ing campuses and during com- lopment and organization of petitions and tournaments. field hockey. Thus, it can be lo- 2. Enough sports budget sho- gically concluded that the less uld be allocated by the education budget in Pakistan universities. The sports ma- likely to suggest few facilities, nagers and administrators in poor coaching and training, and universities should invest less financial benefits for stu- increase financial invest- dent field hockey athletes. ment on student hockey ath- Overall, the findings of present letes and infrastructure dev- study seems congruent with a elopment. study conducted by Andreff 3. Hockey equipment and infr- (2001) demonstrating that lack astructure such as hockey of financial resources is the fields, sports hostels should fundamental cause of decline of be developed. In addition, sports in developing or third these facilities should be in world countries. The study access of student hockey further highlighted that these athletes for practice and trai- countries confronting shortage ning.

159 Impact of Financial Incentives on the performance of Field Hockey Teams

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