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145. Charles Lindholm-The Islamic Middle East Tradition And The Islamic Middle East A contemporary Bedouin and his son in traditional clothing, Jordan. The Islamic Middle East Tradition and Change Revised Edition Charles Lindholm # 1996, 2002 by Charles Lindholm 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5018, USA 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4, 1JF, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton South, Melbourne, Victoria 3053, Australia KurfuÈ rstendamm 57, 10707 Berlin, Germany The right of Charles Lindholm to be identi®ed as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First edition published 1996 Revised edition published 2002 by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, a Blackwell Publishing company Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available for this book. ISBN 1-405-10146-6 (paperback) A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 10 on 12pt Sabon by Kolam Information Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall For further information on Blackwell Publishers, visit our website: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com Illustrations Maps 1.1 Modern states and major languages in the Middle East. 9 5.1 The pre-Islamic world c. ad 600. 70 6.1 The early expansion of Islam. 95 7.1 The central Islamic lands in the tenth century. 108 8.1 The Ottoman Empire toward the end of the seventeenth century. 122 Figures 4.1 Parallel cousin marriage over two generations. 56 4.2 The Middle Eastern segmentary lineage system: (a) cognatic descent ± ideal form; (b) patrilineal descent ± ideal form. 57 5.1 Muhammad's family (greatly simpli®ed). 67 6.1 Muawiya and his successors. 92 6.2 Early Abbasid Caliphs. 99 11.1 Ali and his successors. 175 Plates Frontispiece A contemporary Bedouin and his son in traditional clothing, Jordan. 1.1 A recent photograph of the suq (bazaar) in Aleppo, Syria. 14 2.1 Camel traf®c during the annual spring nomad migration in northeast Afghanistan. 18 2.2 A Yemeni town in the mid-eighteenth century. 29 4.1 Nineteenth-century French lithograph of an Arab shaikh and his men. Note the black tent in the background. 52 ILLUSTRATIONS ix 5.1 AllaÅh amalõÅ, ``God is my hope'' ± in Tumar style. 75 5.2 The holy sites of Medina and Mecca in the late eighteenth century. 78 6.1 Romantic nineteenth-century French portrayal of an Arab cavalryman. 86 7.1 Eighteenth-century portrait of a Qizilbash. 117 8.1 Nineteenth-century lithograph of a traditional punishment in Iran. 134 9.1 Umayyad mosque in Damascus, Syria. 140 9.2 Invocation of the Prophet Muhammad, written by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II about 1838. 142 9.3 Elderly man with prayer beads. Southern Syria. 144 9.4 The longer Profession of Faith, with decorative waw (and) from an early twentieth-century Turkish calligrapher: ``I believe in God AND in His angels AND in His books AND in His messengers, AND in the Day of Judgment, AND in the predestination that good AND evil come both from God, and in the resurrection. I witness that there is no deity save God and that Muhammad is His servant and His messenger.'' 10.1 A man reciting the entire Quran from memory. 149 Such experts are paid to recite during ceremonial occasions. 157 11.1 The Persian mosque in Damascus, Syria. 168 12.1 Huwa Allah ± ``He is God'' ± in ku® quadrangular script. 184 12.2 A North African khaniqa in the nineteenth century. 192 13.1 A religious mendicant. 197 14.1 Eighteenth-century portrait of a black slave in Persia. His dress and the fact that he has been immortalized in a portrait suggest that he has achieved high social status. 217 14.2 Nine of the forty-eight headdress variations recorded in mid-eighteenth-century Yemen. Each headdress indicates signi®cant distinctions of ethnicity, occupation, status, and so on. 221 15.1 A bridal procession among the Pukhtun of Swat. The bride is hidden in the palenquin. 229 15.2 Women of several generations gathered together for a funeral. This picture was taken in Swat but in much of the Middle East women bear the emotional work of mourning. 242 17.1 Boys learn the competitive skills of adulthood through play. 266 Contents List of Illustrations viii Preface to the Second Edition xi Acknowledgements xvii Glossary xx Part I Introduction 1 The Middle East: Assumptions and Problems 3 The Middle East in Western Eyes 3 Where is the Middle East? 7 Equality and Individualism as Central Values 10 Part II Preconditions for Egalitarian Individualism 2 Ways of Living 17 The Ecological Framework 17 The Bedouin Option 19 Shepherds and Confederacies 22 Independent Farmers of the Mountains 25 The Dialectic of Desert and Sown 28 3 Traditions of Authority and Freedom 33 Continuities with Jahiliyya 33 Emissaries and Exemplars: Types of Prophecy 36 The Legacy of Gilgamesh 41 The Limits of Authority 46 4 The Social Construction of Egalitarianism 49 Ibn Khaldun's Theory of Authority 49 Group Feeling: the ``Band of Brothers'' 53 vi C O N T E N T S Middle Eastern Kinship and Descent 55 Complications in the Model 59 Part III State and Society: Prophets, Caliphs, Sultans, and Tyrants 5 The Prophetic Age 65 The Rise of Islam 65 The Recon®guration of Ordinary Life under Islam 73 The State in Early Islam 78 Tensions and Divisions 81 6 Early Struggles for Authority 84 The Rule of the Righteous 84 Movements of Religious Resistance: Kharijites and Shi`ites 88 Maintaining Secular Domination 90 The Abbasid Rebellion 96 The New Hierarchy of the Courtier 100 7 Sacred and Secular Rulers 105 The Quest for the Redeemer: the Qarmati 105 Pragmatic Tribesmen: Buyids and Seljuks 107 The Religious Option 112 8 Novelties and Continuities 120 The Ottoman Exception 120 Other Experiments: Cavaliers and Assassins 127 Reprise: the Uses and Abuses of Government 131 Part IV Sacred Power: Reciters, Lawyers, Incarnations, and Saints 9 The Essentials of Islam 139 The Authority of the Quran and the Necessity of Practice 139 The Problem of Salvation 146 The Charisma of the Prophet 148 10 Recapturing the Sacred Past: the Power of Knowledge 151 The Authority of History 151 Legalism in Islam 155 The Education of the Scholarly Elite 160 Resistance to the Authority of the Learned 163 11 The Partisans of Ali 167 The Charisma of Ali 167 The Two Faces of Shi`ism 170 C O N T E N T S vii Shi`ite History: Acquiescence and Rebellion 173 Khomeini's Revolution 178 12 Su®sm in Practice 181 In Search of the Beloved 181 Ecstasy and Remembrance 185 The Cosmic Order 188 The Spiritual Division of Labor 190 13 The Contradictions of Saintly Authority 194 The Cult of Saints 194 The Delegitimization of Su®sm 198 The Exaggeration of Charisma 200 Ambiguities of Sel¯essness 203 Islamists and Su®s 206 Part V Dilemmas of Subordination 14 Slaves, Eunuchs, and Blacks 213 Gelded Warriors: Slaves and Clients 213 Race and Inferiority 216 The Categorization of Human Types 219 Noble Slaves, Base Freemen 224 15 The Ambiguities of Women 228 Women in Middle Eastern Consciousness 228 History, Culture, and Misogyny 234 Quandaries of Patrilineality 237 The Dangers of Female Sexuality 241 16 Escapes from Distinction: Love and Friendship 245 Romantic Love 245 Love Between Men 251 `I Am You': Idealized Friendship 253 Part VI Conclusion 17 Problems and Possibilities 259 The Command of the Powerful 259 Egalitarian Individualism and Despotism 265 Resistance to Authority 268 Chronology of Events 272 Notes 283 References 302 Index 315 To the memory of Ernest Gellner Preface to the Second Edition After the collapse of the Soviet Union, it was said that a stable new world order was in place, with the United States claiming to hold un- contested sway as both leader and exemplar for the rest of humanity. But after September 11 it appears that much of the West, and certainly the United States government, has found in militant Islam a threat to this so-called new world order and an opponent to ®ll the role left vacant by the disappearance of the ``communist menace.'' Several years ago this shift was predicted by the conservative theorist Samuel Hun- tington, who made an immense impact with his portrait of a ``clash of civilizations'' in which the West ± characterized by Huntington as ra- tional, capitalistic, individualistic, and egalitarian ± was seen as des- tined to struggle with other cultures motivated by competing value systems ± especially those inspired by the religious edicts, patriarchal attitudes and tribal ethics of Islam. Similarly, other political scientists have foreseen a battle of ``MacWorld'' versus ``Jihad'' ± the Western forces of technology, ef®ciency, and change warring against Islamic forces represented as zealotry, irrationality, and tradition. These dismal predictions would seem to be borne out by President Bush's declaration of a crusade against terrorism and by the American-led campaign against the Taliban in Afghanistan. This book is my attempt to resist this widely held and one-sided per- spective. For me, such simplistic divisions of us against them ignore the fundamental values that the West in general, and, as I argue, the United States in particular, share with Middle Eastern culture; values that have often fueled dispute, but could and should also provide a basis for dia- logue and reconciliation.
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