Journal of Book of Mormon Studies

Volume 15 Number 2 Article 10

7-31-2006

Birds Along Lehi's Trail

Stephen L. Carr

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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Carr, Stephen L. (2006) " Along Lehi's Trail," Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: Vol. 15 : No. 2 , Article 10. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol15/iss2/10

This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Title Birds Along Lehi’s Trail

Author(s) Stephen L. Carr

Reference Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 15/2 (2006): 84–93, 125–26.

ISSN 1065-9366 (print), 2168-3158 (online)

Abstract When Carr traveled to the , he observed the local birds. In this article, he suggests the possi- bility that the Book of Mormon prophet Lehi and his relied on birds for food and for locating water. Carr discusses the various birds that Lehi’s family may have seen on their journey and the Mosaic law per- taining to those birds. Birds

- ALOnG LEHI’S TRAIL

stephen l. cARR 84 Volume 15, number 2, 2006

PHOTOGRAPHy By RICHARD wELLINGTOn he opportunity to observe The King James translators apparently ex- birds of the Middle East came to perienced difficulty in knowing exactly which me in September 2000 as a member Middle Eastern birds were meant in certain pas- Tof a small group of Latter-day Saints1 traveling in sages of the Hebrew Bible. Obvious mistransla- areas thought to mark the route of Lehi and Sariah’s tions of names in the King James Version of wilderness trek—from , , to , the Bible have been noted, as in several corrective ; and from Sanaʾa, , to Dhofar, . footnotes in the 1979 Latter-day Saint edition of Another opportunity came in October 2004 with a the KJV. A recent Jewish translation of the Bible second visit to southern Oman, one that included makes similar delineations and issues this caveat: the leading candidates for Nephi’s Bountiful: “A number of these birds cannot be identified Khor Kharfot, Khor Rori, and Salalah. For me, with certainty.”2 Birds an amateur ornithologist, the excitement of these According to Deuteronomy 14:11 and 14:20, trips was multiplied because I was able to identify all clean birds could be eaten. Only the “unclean” numerous birds along the way, most of which might ones listed in sidebar 1 were prohibited. Mosaic have been present in those regions in 600 bc. Some law allowed the majority of the class Aves to be birds, of course, were forbidden as food for ancient used for food, but because many birds are small because of proscriptions in the law of and difficult to catch, it naturally follows that only . For Lehi’s people, other birds may have larger birds, such as geese, partridges, and grouse, served as food sources in areas where they were would have been hunted. Even then, according plentiful and could be snared. to the Mosaic law, had to be ritually In Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14, Moses slaughtered and/or ritually prepared. Lehi, holding outlined many specific birds that were not to be the Melchizedek Priesthood, would have been eaten. Some Jewish authorities state one or two qualified, in the absence of Aaronic Priesthood– reasons for the prohibition, such as to prevent holding Levites in his party, to perform the diseases stemming from consuming carrion-eating required rituals for food preparation. birds. Others state that the only reason not to eat The color and activity of bird life undoubt- certain birds was that the Lord wished to try his edly did much to offset the tedium of life along chosen people. Whatever the case, the majority the trail to Bountiful. In addition, most land of proscribed birds are scavengers and carrion birds are attracted to water sources and may have eaters, with other birds eating a variety of lower helped desert travelers like Lehi’s caravan to vertebrate life that may be disease carriers locate water pockets. or poisonous to humans.

Facing page: The Common Kingfisher is a regular seasonal migrant along the eastern Arabian coast. The Malachite Kingfisher is an inch smaller (5"), with a brilliant blue back and an oversizedjournal bright of B ookred bill. of BMothormon of Studies 85 these birds generally frequent small lakes and water courses that support small fish and surface invertebrates. If Lehi owned an estate outside the walls of Israel, and Aqaba, Jordan. Most of these birds live Jerusalem (elevation 2,500 feet above sea level),3 his in excessively dry and subsist on seeds and gardens would have been populated with a variety . After three days of travel since encountering of colorful and interesting birds, with others flying the , Lehi’s group came to a valley that Lehi overhead (see sidebar 2). Birds are attracted to water named after Lemuel. During their prolonged stay sources as well as to trees, bushes, and gardens. there, they would have seen many more bird Although some fruit-eating birds are considered a than those mentioned in sidebar 3. nuisance because they ruin much good fruit, they When Lehi and his party (which now included also eat many fruit- and tree-injuring insects. ’s family and Zoram) left the Valley of Lem- Upon leaving Jerusalem, the Lehite colony may uel, they may have journeyed southeastward, paral- have traveled essentially due east to the area, leling the eastern shore of the Red Sea for some 50 crossed the near there, continued up to 100 miles before crossing the Al-Sarāt Mountains into Moabite lands, then taken the King’s Highway and then traveling on the east side of that range. southward in what is now the Hashemite Kingdom Surprisingly, we saw relatively few waterbirds near of Jordan. Or they could have headed southward the coast, although there are presently fishing vil- through the area, then descended to the lages at intervals along the way. These few birds are level of the (elevation 1,200 feet below sea listed in sidebar 4. level) south of the sea itself. On the way they would The higher elevations around Nahom would have seen some of the familiar dry-country birds as have brought new varieties of bird life. Then, as the well as a few new ones in the desolate Arabah Val- caravan turned eastward from Nahom (a short dis- ley and in the long gradual climb from the Dead tance east and north of present day Sanaʾa, Yemen), Sea to sea level at the now-ancient ghost town of it may have first passed by the ancient , Ezion-geber, situated between present-day Eilat, whose construction had begun almost a century earlier. This dam impounded water from several nearby canyons () following heavy rains. Numerous marsh and freshwater birds would have been detected in the swampy lands around the res- ervoir. The group may not have spent much time there, however, because most of the waterbirds they would have seen (e.g., herons, egrets, and storks) were not permitted as food, despite their large size. Although the ancient dam was breached sometime after the beginning of the Christian era, the water- courses and springs still exist today, and a new dam has been erected to hold water for . For several miles east of Marib, the country is quite green and fertile, with numerous birds flying about and catching and amphibians near the edges of the reservoir and adjacent . Near the ruins of the Temple of the Moon Goddess, a monument that the Queen of possibly contributed to, I watched several birds of the species Little Green Bee-eater. This rather unimposing light green bird flashes a bright, almost neon-like iridescent coppery The Little Green Bee-eater is one of the more interesting birds seen orange color from the underside of its wings when along the Lehi trail. The bright copper coloring of its underwings reflects the sunlight while it catches bees and other flying insects. it out from a branch to catch an errant bee. I This bee-eater is tossing a dead up in the air so as to eat would like to think that some members of the Lehite the most edible parts first.

86 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 The Western Reef Heron occurs in two forms—one dark blue and and tried to locate some morsel of food; but I could the other white. Although large and imposing, it was an unclean bird not tell how successful they were. One of them, a according to the Mosaic law and therefore could not have been used for food. It is found along the shores of the Red Sea and the Arabian Long-tailed Shrike, came up to the hubcap of one of Peninsula. our vehicles and pecked and hammered at its reflec- tion. Apparently it injured itself in so doing, because party would have been interested and intrigued two minutes after I picked it up, it died in my hand. by this bird since it does not inhabit their native Judging from the scriptural account, this hostile Jerusalem. desert area was probably where the Lord did not After leaving the area of ancient Marib, the allow the families to “make much fire,” saying, “I party traveled in extreme desert —far from will make thy food become sweet, that ye cook it the Red or Arabian seas, along the southern edge not” (1 Nephi 17:12). Before entering this bewilder- of the vast Rubʾ al-Khali, the Empty Quarter of ing desert, Lehi’s people could have harvested a the , where only the hardiest of number of mammals—ibex, wild goats, and ground have adapted to survive. As expected, we fowl such as partridges and sandgrouse, to name saw very few birds as we traversed this harsh terrain a few. They then could have prepared the meat by devoid of the two most likely food sources for most smoking or drying it so it would be sweet and edible land birds—plants with seeds that birds can extract and require no further cooking during the next and plants with insects. I did identify three insec­ stage of their journey (see sidebar 5). tivorous species that flew in, landed in the rocks, The Lord specified that animals that had cloven hooves and chewed their cud were clean and could

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 87 be eaten (see Leviticus 11:3). This category included occasionally eat mice and voles and thus were also cattle, sheep, goats, deer, ibex, and antelope. Spe- unclean. cifically mentioned as being unclean were camels, At numerous places along the trail, particu- swine, and two small rodent-like mammals—the larly in the Aqaba area north of Sanaʾa and in the coney and the hare (11:4–7). The prohibition was plateau country at the head of Sayq, we saw then extended to virtually all other mammals that large hawks and eagles soaring in the air, searching walked on four paws (11:27). This would include the the ground for prey. The number of such resident dog, cat, weasel, rabbit, and rodent families. Bats raptors usually indicates the types and quantity of were also included, though listed with the unclean animals (or carrion) available in the area. We never birds (11:19). Also deemed unclean were animals actually saw any of these birds swoop and dive that “creepeth upon the earth”—reptiles such as tor- down to catch prey, but there probably were numer- toises, lizards, chameleons, and presumably snakes ous rodents and reptiles in the territory. and amphibians (11:29–30, 41; see Acts 10:11–14). Eventually the Lehite colony, including the chil- Perhaps the Lord would not allow birds of prey to dren born in the previous years, continued roughly be used as food because they live almost entirely on due eastward from Nahom. As they emerged from small mammals and reptiles. The hawk and the desert—whether at Wadi Sayq, at the wadis families were proscribed (even if they never ate car- reaching the coast at Khor Rori or Salalah, or even rion as do vultures and some eagles) because they at another site—looking ahead they could prob- ate food that was not permitted for human con- ably see fog and mist, large and abundant trees, and sumption. Even though several of the smaller fal- increased bird activity. As our expedition descended cons and small owls subsist mainly on insects that Wadi Sayq, vegetation increased to jungle propor- were considered clean (e.g., the locust, bald locust tions near the mouth, with numerous date and other [solpugid], cricket, and grasshopper family), they palm trees, wild fig trees, and several other hard- wood trees within a few hundred feet of the beach. We observed many birds in the wadi, as well as in the freshwater lagoon and marsh at Khor Kharfot. This water is produced by a permanently run- ning spring, sup- porting a variety of grasses, reeds, and other plants. A pair of bril- liantly colored turquoise blue and orange Malachite Kingfishers, very small for kingfish- ers at barely 4.5

Doves are a family of birds that inhabit largely dry country habitat. The Namaqua Dove pictured here is one of the inches in length, most attractive of all the doves that would have been seen on the trail in southwest Arabia and in what is now repeatedly dived off Yemen and Oman. Doves, of which there are many kinds, could have been eaten by the Lehites.

88 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 caught at one time, such as during migration. Dur- ing the spring and autumn months, the coasts of Arabia experience huge numbers of birds migrat- ing from and Asia to . (We happened to be in the land Bountiful area in September and October.) It is certainly conceivable that the older people of Lehi’s party taught the younger ones how to make traps and snares to capture shorebirds as they landed in large numbers on the beaches to feed before resuming their flights. In addition, some of the larger edible birds, such as geese and swans, could have been taken with a throwing stick or arrow if a hunter crept up close enough or hid in a reed-enclosed blind. And the and young of clean birds could have been harvested during breed- ing season. In our two and a half weeks along the proposed Lehi trail, plus another week in and around Salalah and Khor Kharfot, we were able to identify a large The Eurasian probes for insects in the ground. Often during flight, and when the bird is alarmed, the crest feathers on the back number of birds. Of course, there were many more of its head rise up completely over the head. The black-and-white that we did not see because of the scarcity of cer- wing and tail feathers make this bird’s flight quite noticeable. tain species, migration patterns, food availability, and habitat differences. During their eight years in the wilderness, Lehi’s people probably would have a reed to capture small minnowlike fish in the pool. become quite proficient in identifying which edible This bird is so tiny that it appears to be a fat hum- birds could be captured with the least effort. We mingbird with a large, bright red bill. This species is can imagine that after a day of shipbuilding in the not known to breed outside of Africa; in fact, there land Bountiful, the more introspective members of are only two previous records of a single bird each the group found time to enjoy watching the various on the Arabian Peninsula, both in Yemen. I have birds flitting from tree to tree or the little kingfish- officially reported this sighting because it represents ers flying down from an overhanging reed to pluck the farthest north and east record of this species. a tiny fish from the pond, then flying back to the (See sidebar 6 for birds identified in Wadi Sayq/ reed and juggling the fish so it could be swallowed Khor Kharfot.) headfirst.4 Since it is possible that the Lehites descended from the plateau to the coast at Salalah, we evalu- The sidebars that follow list the birds spotted ated that site as well. There is a freshwater pond and along the proposed Lehi trail by Stephen L. Carr a large sea inlet with many marshy areas, and the in 2000 and 2004. Bird names appear in standard avian activity was superb. The coastal area around taxonomic order, as found in Birds of the World: Salalah is more extensive than at Khor Kharfot, A Checklist, by James F. Clements.5 Regional field with much human activity, which is completely guides6 were consulted to identify birds and deter- lacking at Khor Kharfot. Despite the large num- mine their geographical distribution. In most cases, ber of people near the shores, the beach-combing each listed bird represents multiple sightings. Aster- and plovers were quite numerous, allow- isks identify unclean (prohibited) birds, and ques- ing people to come fairly close to them before they tion marks identify possibly unclean birds. moved away. (See sidebar 7 for birds at Salalah.) Even relatively small birds like sandpipers could produce quite a stewpot if enough of them were

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 89 sidebar 1 sidebar 2

Unclean Birds Birds of Jerusalem and Environs (see Leviticus 11:13–19 and Deuteronomy 14:11–20) Eurasian Kestrel* Sooty Falcon* 7 8 King James Tanakh Translation Oriental -Dove Leviticus Deuteronomy Leviticus Deuteronomy Palm (Laughing) Dove Eurasian eagle eagle eagle eagle Eurasian Crag-Martin ossifrage9 ossifrage vulture vulture Common House-Martin White-spectacled Bulbul (a common songbird that ospray10 ospray black black vulture vulture essentially takes the place of the American Robin of North America and that has a similar vulture vulture falcon melodious song) kite11 kite kite kite Eurasian Blackbird Streaked Scrub-Warbler glede12 buzzard13 Wood Warbler raven and raven and raven, raven, Spotted Flycatcher kin14 kin varieties varieties Isabelline owl15 owl ostrich ostrich (there are no hummingbirds in the Eastern Hemisphere; the Sunbird family night hawk night hawk nighthawk nighthawk replaces them, although they are in no way related) cuckow16 cuckow sea gull17 sea Arabian Babbler hawk and hawk and hawks, hawk, Eurasian Jackdaw* kin18 kin variety variety House Crow* little owl19 little owl little owl little owl Hooded (Carrion) Crow* cormorant cormorant cormorant cormorant great owl20 great owl great owl great owl sidebar 3 swan21 swan white owl22 white owl Birds Seen between Jerusalem and pelican pelican pelican pelican Aqaba, Jordan Long-legged Buzzard* gier eagle23 gier eagle bustard24 bustard African Rock-Martin stork stork stork stork White-tailed Wheatear Blackstart heron heron herons, heron, variety25 variety Brown-necked Raven* Tristram’s Starling lapwing26 hoopoe hoopoe Dead Sea Sparrow

90 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 sidebar 4 sidebar 6

Birds along the Coast of Birds in Wadi Sayq from the the Red Sea Plateau to the Coast White-eyed Gull* Upper Reaches of the Wadi Sooty Gull* Verreaux’s Eagle* Caspian Tern ? (of the same family as , terns Short-toed Eagle* belong to a different subfamily, one that does Bonelli’s Eagle* not scavenge as gulls do but rather dives into Booted Eagle* the water to catch fish) Eurasian Buzzard* Great Crested Tern ? * Eurasian Kestrel* Barbary Falcon* sidebar 5 Oriental Turtle-Dove Bruce’s Green Pigeon Birds in the Deserts Eastward Pied Kingfisher Gray-headed Kingfisher from Nahom and the Marshes around Marib Black-crowned Sparrow- Singing Bush-Lark Gray Heron* Fan-tailed Raven* Black Kite* White-spectacled Bulbul Spotted Thick-knee White Wagtail Namaqua Dove Hooded Wheatear Hume’s Wheatear Little Green Bee-eater Desert Wheatear Eurasian Hoopoe* Variable Wheatear Yellow Wagtail Common Redstart Shining Sunbird Dark-throated Long-tailed Shrike Savi’s Warbler Fan-tailed Raven* Arabian Warbler Yellowhammer Palestine Sunbird Cinereous Bunting Rufous-tailed Shrike Tristram’s Starling Cinnamon-breasted Bunting

On the Coast and Out into the Ocean Cormorant* Masked Booby Gray Heron* Western Reef Heron* Little Egret*

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 91 Greater Flamingo ? (probably was prohibited sidebar 7 because it belongs to the general stork family) Mallard Birds Seen in the Coastal Area Eurasian Wigeon of Salalah Eurasian Buzzard* Gray Heron* Eurasian Kestrel* Little Egret* Kentish (Snowy) Plover ? (see no. 22 in sidebar 1) Western Reef Heron* Common Ringed Plover ? (ditto) Striated Heron* Red-wattled Lapwing ? (ditto) Great (Eurasian) Bittern* White-tailed Lapwing ? (ditto) White Stork* Common African Spoonbill ? (probably was prohibited Eurasian because it belongs to the general stork family) Greater Flamingo ? (ditto) Bateleur* (a large eagle) Osprey* Ruddy Western Marsh Harrier* Common Moorhen Eurasian Kestrel* Sooty Gull* Arabian Partridge Herring Gull* Eurasian Coot Lesser Black-backed Gull* Common Moorhen Slender-billed Gull* Eurasian Oystercatcher Bridled Tern ? Black-winged Stilt Great Crested (Swift) Tern ? Lesser Sand-Plover Brown Noddy ? (this is a type of tern) Bar-tailed Palm (Laughing) Dove Eurasian Curlew Malachite Kingfisher Marsh Sandpiper Gray-headed Kingfisher Common Sandpiper Common Kingfisher Little Stint Eurasian Roller Terek Sandpiper Eurasian Hoopoe* Common Snipe Rock Pigeon Common Redshank African Spotted Redshank Desert Wheatear Common Greenshank Blackstart Sooty Gull* Spotted Flycatcher Herring Gull* Rufous-tailed Shrike Great Crested Tern ? Tristram’s Starling Saunders’s Tern ? Rueppell’s Weaver Rock Pigeon Eurasian Collared-Dove Palm (Laughing) Dove

92 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 Gray-headed Kingfisher Rufous-tailed Shrike Eurasian Roller Palestine Sunbird Graceful Prinia Barn Upcher’s Warbler Spotted Flycatcher Plain Leaf-Warbler White-spectacled Bulbul Tristram’s Starling White Wagtail Rueppell’s Weaver Yellow Wagtail African Silverbill Citrine Wagtail House Bunting Fan-tailed Raven* Black-headed Bunting

Wagtails are birds of the open ground and are named because they constantly flick their tails sideways and occasionally up and down. This Yellow Wagtail would have been seen in substantial numbers during spring and fall migration. The Lehites in Bountiful would have been charmed by their presence.

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 93 16. Warren P. Aston and Michaela nomic rather than alphabeti- genei, Caspian Tern Sterna ing Sunbird habes- J. Aston, “The Place Which cal order: Masked Booby Sula caspia, Great Crested (Swift) sinicus, Rufous-tailed Shrike Was Called Nahom: The dactylatra, Socotra Cormo- Tern Sterna bergii, Bridled Lanius isabellinus, Long-tailed Validation of an Ancient Ref- rant Phalacrocorax nigrogula- Tern Sterna anaethetus, Saun- Shrike Lanius schach, Eur- erence to Southern Arabia” ris, Gray Heron Ardea cinerea, ders’s Tern Sterna saundersi, asian Jackdaw Corvus mon- (FARMS, 1991), 10. Little Egret Egretta garzetta, Brown Noddy Anous stolidus, edula, House Crow Corvus 17. See Aston and Aston, In the Western Reef Heron Egretta Rock Pigeon Columba livia, splendens, Hooded (Carrion) Footsteps of Lehi, 22. gularis, Striated Heron Butori- Oriental Turtle-Dove Strep- Crow Corvus corone, Brown- 18. See S. Kent Brown, “The Place des striatus, Great (Eurasian) topelia orientalis, Eurasian necked Raven Corvus ruficol- That Was Called Nahom: New Bittern Botaurus stellaris, Collared-Dove Streptopelia lis, Fan-tailed Raven Corvus Light from Ancient Yemen,” White Stork Ciconia ciconia, decaocto, Palm (Laughing) rhipidurus, Tristram’s Starling JBMS 8/1 (1999): 66–68. African Spoonbill Platalea Dove Streptopelia senegalensis, Onychognathus tristramii, 19. See Warren P. Aston, “Newly alba, Greater Flamingo Namaqua Dove Oena cap- Dead Sea Sparrow Found Altars from Nahom,” Phoenicopterus ruber, Eur- ensis, Bruce’s Green Pigeon moabiticus, Rueppell’s Weaver JBMS 10/2 (2001): 56–61. asian Wigeon Anas penelope, Treron waalia, Common (Eur- Ploceus galbula, African 20. Hilton and Hilton, “In Search Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, asian) Swift apus, Pallid Silverbill Lonchura cantans, of Lehi’s Trail,” pt. 1, 50–51. Osprey Pandion haliaetus, Swift Apus pallidus, Little Yellowhammer Emberiza 21. Eugene England, “Through Black Kite Milvus migrans, Swift Apus affinus, Common citrinella, House Bunting the Arabian Desert to a Short-toed Eagle Circaetus Kingfisher Alcedo atthis, Emberiza striolata, Cinereous Bountiful Land: Could gallicus, Bateleur Terathopius Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo Bunting Emberiza cineracea, Smith Have Known the Way?” ecaudatus, Western Marsh cristata, Gray-headed King- Cinnamon-breasted Bunting in Noel B. Reynolds, ed., Harrier Circus aeruginosus, fisher Halcyon leucocephala, Emberiza tahapisi, Black- Book of Mormon Authorship: Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accip- Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis, headed Bunting Emberiza New Light on Ancient Origins iter nisus, Eurasian Buzzard Little Green Bee-eater Merops melanocephala. (Provo, UT: BYU Religious Buteo buteo, Long-legged Buz- orientalis, European Roller 5. James F. Clements, Birds of the Studies Center, 1982), 150. zard Buteo rufinus, Verreaux’s Coracias garrulus, Eurasian World: A Checklist (Vista, CA: 22. See Aston and Aston, In the Eagle Aquila verreauxii, Hoopoe Upupa epops, Singing Ibis, 2000). Footsteps of Lehi, 37–43. Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pen- Bush-Lark cantillans, 6. P. A. D. Hollom et al., Birds 23. See Potter and Wellington, natus, Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraae- Black-crowned Sparrow- of the Middle East and North Lehi in the Wilderness, 152–53. tus fasciatus, Eurasian Kestrel Lark Eremopterix nigriceps, Africa (Calton, Staffordshire, 24. See Wm. Revell Phillips, Falco tinnunculus, Sooty Crested Lark Galerida cris- England: T & AD Poyster, “Metals of the Book of Mor- Falcon Falco concolor, Barbary tata, Eurasian Crag-Martin 1988); R. F. Porter et al., Birds mon,” JBMS 9/2 (2000): 36–41. Falcon Falco pelegrinoides, rupestris, African of the Middle East (Princeton, Arabian Partridge Alectoris Rock-Martin Hirundo ful- NJ: Princeton University Birds Along Lehi’s Trail melanocephala, Common igula, Hirundo Press, 2004); and Jens Eriksen Stephen L. Carr Moorhen Gallinula chloro- rustica, House Martin Deli- et al., Oman Bird List, edition pus, Eurasian Coot Fulica chon urbica, Yellow Wagtail 6 (Muscat, Sultanate of Oman: 1. The trip leaders for this tour atra, Eurasian Oystercatcher Motacilla flava, Citrine Centre for Environmental were Gregory Witt of Brigham Haematopus ostralegus, Wagtail Motacilla citreola, Studies and Research, Sultan Young University; Lynn M. Black-winged Stilt Himan- White Wagtail Motacilla Qaboos University, 2003). Hilton, author of two books topus himantopus, Spotted alba, White-spectacled Bulbul 7. See the footnotes in the 1979 pertaining to Lehi’s journey, Thick-knee Burhinus capensis, Pycnonotus xanthopygos, Eur- edition of the Latter-day Saint In Search of Lehi’s Trail and Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus asian Blackbird Turdus mer- edition of the King James Discovering Lehi; and Warren indicus, White-tailed Lapwing ula, Dark-throated Thrush Bible for Deuteronomy 14:12– P. Aston, author of the book Vanellus leucurus, Common Turdus ruficollis, Streaked 18. Also see William Smith, A In the Footsteps of Lehi. Ringed Plover Charadrius Scrub-Warbler Scotocerca Dictionary of the Bible (Grand 2. Tanakh: A New Translation of hiaticula, Kentish (Snowy) inquieta, Graceful Prinia Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1948, the Holy Scriptures According Plover Charadrius alexandri- Prinia gracilis, Savi’s War- 11th printing 1976). to the Traditional Hebrew Text nus, Lesser Sand-Plover Cha- bler Locustella luscinioides, 8. See note 2 for publication data. (Jerusalem: Jewish Publica- radrius mongolus, Common Upcher’s Warbler Hippolais 9. This word, when broken tion Society, 1985), 169. Snipe galllinago, languida, Plain Leaf-War- down into its Latin compo- 3. Jeffrey R. Chadwick, in “Lehi’s Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa bler Phylloscopus neglectus, nents, means “bone-break,” House at Jerusalem and the lapponica, Eurasian Curlew Wood Warbler Phylloscopus or “a bird that breaks bones.” Land of His Inheritance,” in Numenius arquata, Spotted sibilatrix, Red Sea Warbler The Eurasian Lammergeier, Glimpses of Lehi’s Jerusalem, Redshank erythropus, Sylvia leucomelaena, Spotted Gypaetus barbatus, a type of ed. John W. Welch, Common Redshank Tringa Flycatcher Muscicapa striata, vulture, after cleaning off a Rolph Seely, and Jo Ann H. totanus, Marsh Sandpiper Common Redstart Phoeni- carcass as much as possible, Seely (Provo, UT: FARMS, Tringa stagnatilis, Common curus phoenicurus, White- takes the animal’s bones high 2004), 81–130, presents evi- Greenshank Tringa nebu- tailed Wheatear Oenanthe up in the air and repeatedly dence that Lehi’s house was laria, Terek Sandpiper Xenus leucopyga, Hooded Wheatear drops them until they break located inside the city of cinereus, Common Sandpiper Oenanthe monacha, Hume’s open and the marrow can be Jerusalem and that his land of hypoleucos, Ruddy Wheatear Oenanthe alboniger, extracted. inheritance lay at some dis- Turnstone Arenaria interpres, Variable Wheatear Oenanthe 10. If this bird is the same as the tance outside the city. Little Stint minuta, picata, Isabelline Wheatear present-day Osprey, Pandion 4. For those interested, the Eng- White-eyed Gull Oenanthe isabellina, Desert haliaetus, it is lish names of birds observed leucophthalmus, Sooty Gull Wheatear Oenanthe deserti, that feeds solely on bony fish, along the proposed Lehi trail Larus hemprichii, Herring Blackstart Cercomela mel- which were clean according to are given below along with Gull Larus argentatus, Lesser anura, Arabian Babbler Tur- the Mosaic law, and does not their scientific names, pre- Black-backed Gull Larus fus- doides squamiceps, Palestine consume carrion as a vulture sented in the accepted taxo- cus, Slender-billed Gull Larus Sunbird Cinnyris oseus, Shin- does. If, however, this bird is

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 125 a Black Vulture, it would be the larger goose-duck-swan 7. See Issar, Climate Changes Northwestern Province (With unclean. family, which was and is cur- during the Holocene, 227. a Note on a Brief Survey of the 11. The kite, as well as the falcon, rently used for food. 8. See Paul A. Kay and Douglas Northern Province),” ATLAL: is a type of hawk. 22. The only essentially all-white L. Johnson, “Estimation of The Journal of Saudi Arabian 12. This is the European Red owl in the Middle East is the Tigris-Euphrates Stream-flow Archaeology 5 (1981): 73. Kite, Milvus milvus, which ubiquitous Barn Owl, Tyto from Regional Paleoenvi- 21. A perched water table is does not occur in the Middle alba. ronmental Proxy Data,” in formed where an impervi- East. Therefore, the term 23. The gier eagle is a type of vul- Climatic Change 3 (1981): 258. ous bed of limited horizontal buzzard, as rendered in the ture, probably the Egyptian 9. See Groom, Frankincense and extent (e.g., clay or granite) is Hebrew, although being more Vulture, Neophron percnopterus. Myrrh, 217–19; J. Neumann overlain by permeable rock generic, is more accurate. 24. The bustard is a large terres­ and S. Parpola, “Climatic material (e.g., sandstone or 13. Buzzards are a large, soaring trial bird, several species of Change and the Eleventh- alluvium). Rainwater accu- type of hawk. which are native to the Middle Tenth Century Eclipse of mulates in the permeable and 14. The raven, after its kind, East and are not related to the Assyria and Babylonia,” Jour- porous upper rock material but includes crows, magpies, and hawk-eagle family. nal of Near Eastern Studies cannot penetrate downward jays, all of which are scavengers. 25. Included in the heron family 46/3 (1987): 161–82. into the impervious rock. Thus 15. There is a notable difference are bitterns and egrets, all 10. See Issar, Climate Changes water builds up on the imper- between the eight-foot-tall marsh , which besides during the Holocene, 227. meable surface and flows out ostrich and even the largest catching and eating fish 11. See Yohanan Aharoni, The where that surface is exposed owl. The present-day range of also consume many kinds of Archaeology of the Land of by erosion, as in the floor of a the wild ostrich is essentially amphibians and reptiles, some Israel (Jerusalem: Shikmona canyon. A perched water table confined to the savannah of which may be poisonous to Publishing, 1978), 83–103. in the desert lies much nearer areas of central and east humans. 12. Groom, Frankincense and the surface than the regional Africa, reaching as far north 26. Why this mistranslation Myrrh, 96. water table, which may lie at as the southern edge of . occurred is unclear. The 13. Groom, Frankincense and very great depth. In millennia past, the range Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus Myrrh, 69. 22. See George D. Potter, “A New extended farther up into (a type of plover), and the 14. Groom, Frankincense and Candidate in Arabia for the Egypt, the , Hoopoe, Upupa epops, occur Myrrh, 111. ‘Valley of Lemuel,’” JBMS 8/1 and even southern Palestine. both in continental Europe as 15. See Groom, Frankincense and (1999): 61. Interestingly, in light of the well as in Turkey. However, Myrrh, 218; J. Neumann, “Cli- 23. See Ingraham et al., “Saudi Bible’s prohibition of eating only the Lapwing is common mate Change as a Topic in the Arabian Comprehensive Sur- ostrich, there are at least two in Great Britain, where the Classical Greek and Roman vey Program,” 62. ostrich farms in Israel, one in King James translators lived, Literature,” Climatic Change 24. It is noted here that no report the south a few miles north of while the Hoopoe is found in 7/4 (1985): 441; Mebus A. of children being born appears Eilat, the other near the Sea of the Middle East, including Geyh, “The Paleohydrology of in the record before the party Galilee. southern Palestine near where the Eastern Mediterranean,” left Nahom (see 1 Nephi 17:1). 16. This word apparently does not the Mosaic law was given and in Ofer Bar-Yosef and Renee This in no way precludes the refer to the Cuckoo. Most mod- in other parts of the Arabian S. Kra, eds., Late Quaternary earlier birth of children, and ern biblical scholars consider it Peninsula. Chronology and Paleoclimates to assume from this that Lehi to be either the Seagull, as do of the Eastern Mediterranean departed Nahom nine months the Tanakh translators, or the Weather Report from the Valley (Tucson: Department of Geo- after Ishmael’s daughters Petrel. Petrels are a seagoing of Lemuel sciences, University of Ari- arrived at Lehi’s camp would family of gull-sized or smaller Wm. Revell Phillips zona, 1994), 131–45; and Arie be an unfounded assumption. birds that feed off the surface S. Issar, Water Shall Flow from Lehi’s complete journey took of the water, thereby picking up 1. Lehi was of the northern tribe the Rock: Hydrogeology and eight years (see 17:4) and over anything that might be edible. of Manasseh (see Alma 10:3) Climate in the Lands of the 2,000 miles. If he left Nahom They are scavengers of the high but was living in the southern Bible (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, after one year on the trail, the seas, similar to gulls, except tribal lands of Judah. 1990), 11. remaining seven years and 700 that they do not come to the 2. See Karl W. Butzer, “Environ- 16. Hugh Nibley, Lehi in the Des- miles are summed up in three land except to breed and raise mental Change in the Near ert; The World of the Jaredites; scriptural verses (see 17:1–3). their young. They even sleep at East and Human Impact on There Were Jaredites (Salt 25. See Ingraham et al., “Saudi night resting atop the rolling the Land,” in Civilizations of Lake City: Deseret Book and Arabian Comprehensive Sur- waves of the sea. the Ancient Near East, ed. Jack FARMS, 1988), 50. vey Program,” 59. 17. Practically all gulls are known M. Sasson (New York: Scrib- 17. See George D. Potter and 26. Ingraham et al., “Saudi Ara- to be scavengers, either on the ner’s Sons, 1995), 1:123–51. Richard Wellington, Lehi in bian Comprehensive Survey open sea or along beaches. 3. See Butzer, “Environmental the Wilderness: 81 New, Docu- Program,” 75. 18. While most hawks prefer to Change in the Near East.” mented Evidences That the 27. See Potter and Wellington, capture their prey fresh, if 4. See Butzer, “Environmental Book of Mormon Is a True His- Lehi in the Wilderness, 57. extremely hungry they might Change in the Near East.” tory (Springville, UT: Cedar 28. See Ingraham et al., “Saudi be forced to eat carrion. 5. See Nigel Groom, Frankin- Fort, 2003), 55. Arabian Comprehensive Sur- 19. Even now there is a species cense and Myrrh: A Study of 18. See Potter and Wellington, vey Program,” 62. named Little Owl, Athene noc- the Arabian Incense Trade Lehi in the Wilderness, 5. 29. See Potter and Wellington, tua, in the Middle East and (London: Longman Group 19. See S. Kent Brown, “A Case Lehi in the Wilderness, 9. . Ltd, 1981), 217–18. for Lehi’s Bondage in Arabia,” 20. There are several large owls 6. See Arie S. Issar, Climate JBMS 6/2 (1997): 206–8. [With Real Intent] in the Middle East similar Changes during the Holocene 20. See Lloyd Ingraham Out of Judaism to North America’s Great and Their Impact on Hydro- et al., “Saudi Arabian Com- Nancy Goldberg Hilton Horned Owl. logical Systems (Cambridge: prehensive Survey Program: 21. This is an obvious mistransla- Cambridge University Press, Preliminary Report on a 1. I give more details about my tion, as the swan belongs to 2003), 227. Reconnaissance Survey of the conversion in my autobiog-

126 volume 15, number 2, 2006