The Perception of the English Speakers of Indonesia on the Semantic Functions of the Definite Article

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THE PERCEPTION OF THE ENGLISH SPEAKERS OF INDONESIA ON THE SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree in English Language Studies

Aloysius G. Sujatmiko B.S. Student Number: 076332019

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : ALOYSIUS G. SUJATMIKO B.S. Nomor Mahasiswa : 07 6332 019

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

THE PERCEPTION OF THE ENGLISH SPEAKERS OF INDONESIA ON THE SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal : 26 Januari 2011

Yang menyatakan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for his direction, assistance, and guidance. In particular, his recommendations and suggestions have been invaluable for the project and for the data analysis improvement. His straightforward comments and long hours for reading and correcting my thesis has placed me in his debt. I also wish to thank Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., who has guided me to see the attractive side of linguistics. My gratitude goes to Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo who has introduced me with the deep meaning of semantics and pragmatics and pulled me in the great enthusiasm in language research. I should thank to Dr. J. Bismoko who has made me fascinated with the idea of „think globally and act locally‟ and encouraged me to choose a topic of thesis which is much closer to humanism. I am also thankful to Drs. F.X. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D., for his valuable criticism and input that really made my thesis better than it would have been. I would like to thank to Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A (Hons)., Ph.D. and Mbak Lely who have helped me to make the thesis seemed easier to finish. Thanks are also due to my classmates in Class 2007 who have shared invaluable moments in studying. Thanks to Sesco, Wedho, Eko, and Pak Frans from Class 2008 who have spared their precious time to help me with this project. Special thanks should be given to Pak Wid and Bu Pip for their endless support and tireless help that make all the hard stuff go smoothly. Finally, words alone cannot express the thanks I owe to my wife Rina who never gives up on me; my children Sita, Ayu and Dhanes for their abundant love, trust, and encouragement, and for teaching me the deep meaning of life and love. Thanks to my sister Nanik, my brother Listyo and their families for their endless encouragement. I dedicate this work to my Mom and Dad who have rested in peace: thank you for all magical miracles and my memories of you have helped me get through many frustrating moments.

Aloysius G. Sujatmiko B.S.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………… i APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………………………….. ii DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE …..………………………………………….… iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ..……………………………………….…... iv COPYRIGHT APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………….. v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN …………………………………. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………….…………………. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ..………………………………….…………………... viii LIST OF TABLES .………………………………………….………………….. x LIST OF FIGURES ..…………………………………………………………… xi LIST OF DIAGRAMS .…………………………………………………………. xii LIST OF APPENDICES ..………………………………………….…………… xiii ABSTRACT ..…………………………………………………………………… xiv ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………………… xvi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 A. Background ………………………………………………………………….. 1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………………………… 8 C. Research Objectives …………………………………………………………. 9 D. Research Limitation …………………………………………………………. 10 E. Research Benefit ……………………………………………………………... 11 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW 13 A. Literary Review ……………………………………………………………… 13 1. Definiteness ……………..……………………………………………….. 13 a. Familiarity …………………………………………………………... 14 b. Identifiability ………………………………………………………... 19 c. Uniqueness ………………………………………………………….. 22 d. Inclusiveness ………………………………………………………... 26 2. English Definite Article ………………………………………………….. 28 3. Definite Description ………………………………….………………….. 36 4. The Uses of Definite Description ………………………………………... 41 a. Hawkins‟ List of Definite Description Uses ………………………… 41 b. Quirk et al.‟s List of Definite Description Uses …………………….. 50 B. Review of Related Studies …………………………………………………... 56 C. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………………… 59 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 62 A. Research Method …………………………………………………………….. 62 B. Research Data ……………………………………………………………….. 63

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C. Research Procedure ………………………………………………………….. 66 D. The Krippendorff‟s α Statistic ………………………………………………. 67 CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 73 A. The Identified Types of Definite Description Uses …………………………. 73 B. Level of Agreement among English Speakers of Indonesia ………………… 88 C. The Significance of Knowledge of Definite Description Uses ……………… 95 1. Cases of agreement among Coders ……………………………………… 96 2. Cases of disagreement among Coders …………………………………… 104 a. The 3-1 Disagreement ………………………………………………. 105 b. The 2-2 Disagreement ………………………………………………. 110 c. The 2-1-1 Disagreement …………………………………………….. 113 d. The 1-1-1-1 Disagreement ………………………………………….. 116 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 121 A. Conclusions ………………………………………………………………….. 121 B. Suggestions ………………………………………………………………….. 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………. 128 APPENDIX 1 The Annotation Result ………………………………………….. 132 APPENDIX 2 Text Annotation Instruction …………………………………….. 148

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 The top five words with the highest frequency of occurrence 5 in Guruh promises to revolutionize PDI-P article in The Jakarta Post online, Sunday, February 7, 2010. Table 1.2 The top five words with the highest frequency of occurrence 6 in President faces pressure to resuffle cabinet article in The Jakarta Post online, Sunday, February 7, 2010. Table 2.1 Hawkins‟s list of definite description uses 50 Table 2.2 Quirk et al.‟s list of definite description uses 56 Table 3.1 The sample size for selected confidence intervals 64 (Neuendorff, 2002: 89) Table 3.2 Description of research data 65 Table 3.3 A sample of coding result 69 Table 3.4 Frequencies for Both Coders 70 Table 3.5 Bootstrapped Distribution of α Values and the Agreement 72 Level Table 4.1 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder A 74 Table 4.2 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder B 76 Table 4.3 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder C 80 Table 4.4 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder D 82 Table 4.5 Distribution of disagreement (pfu) among coders 89 Table 4.6 Frequencies of all coders 90 Table 4.7 Distribution of agreement among coders 97 Table 4.8 Distribution of disagreement among coders 105

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Shared knowledge (Leech, 1981: 157) 15 Figure 2.2 The X-bar format of phrase structure 34 (Hegeman and Gueron, 1999: 78) Figure 2.3 X-bar analysis of the car 34 Figure 2.4 X-bar analysis of NP the new car in the garage 35 Figure 2.5 X-bar analysis of DP the car 36

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LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Diagram 4.1 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder A 74 Diagram 4.2 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder B 79 Diagram 4.3 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder C 81 Diagram 4.4 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder D 83 Diagram 4.5 Classification of definite descriptions according all coders 84

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1. The Annotation Result 132 APPENDIX 2. Text Annotation Instruction 148

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ABSTRACT

Aloysius G. Sujatmiko B.S. 2011. The Perception of the English Speakers of Indonesia on the Semantic Functions of the Definite Article. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies. Graduate Program. Sanata Dharma University.

The main aim of the study is to investigate how English speakers of Indonesia interpret the meaning of definiteness by classifying a number of definite descriptions according to their uses. The research is also intended to measure the agreement among the speakers about the classification of definite description uses. Concerning these, the objectives of this research were formulated to answer the following two problems: (a) How are the uses of definite descriptions identified by English speakers of Indonesia? and (b) How significant is the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia to be able to identify the meaning of the definite article the? In order to answer the problems and to accomplish the research, the present study uses the method and techniques commonly applied in a content analysis. According to Neuendorf (2002: 1), content analysis can be defined as “the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics.” From quantitative point of view, four linguistic students of the Graduate Study of English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University as the coders of the study were asked to present their interpretation on the meaning of definite descriptions found in a number of English texts by classifying them with the classification scheme proposed by Hawkins (1978). Then, the Krippendorff‟s α statistics was employed to find out how much the coders agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses. The coding result shows that coders A, B, and D were successful in identifying all the types of definite description uses proposed by Hawkins. They agreed that the types of anaphoric use, associative anaphoric use, immediate situation use, larger situation use, unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, and unexplanatory modifiers use were found in 418 definite descriptions. The result also shows that coder C identified all types of uses in the data collection except the type of an unexplanatory modifiers use. The coding done by all coders show that there are more cases of disagreement than agreement. There are only 55 or 13.2% cases of perfect agreement from the total number of 418 definite descriptions collected from The Jakarta Post online articles. It means there are 363 cases of disagreement produced by all coders. The computational process using the Krippendorff‟s alpha statistics resulted in the α value of 0.55. The best interpretation of this α value is that the level of agreement among coders about the meaning of definite descriptions according to the types of their uses is relatively not very high. The relatively low value of agreement among the coders is mainly caused by two factors, i.e. the ambiguity in Hawkins‟ theory of definite description uses and the coders‟ misinterpretation of the theory of definite description uses.

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A further analysis of the data has proved that the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia is considered significant. It can be obviously seen from the fact that there are many cases where the coders failed to produce perfect agreement on the types in group one (anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use) and group three (unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use) where the determinant elements of the meaning can be found in the discourse.

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ABSTRAK

Aloysius G. Sujatmiko B.S. 2011. The Perception of the English Speakers of Indonesia on the Semantic Functions of the Definite Article Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mempelajari bagaimana penutur bahasa Inggris yang berbahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu memahami arti ketentuan dengan menggolongkan sejumlah frasa deskripsi tentu sesuai dengan penggunaannya. Penelitian ini juga dimaksudkan untuk mengukur kesesuian di antara para penutur tentang penggolongan dari penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu. Berkenaan dengan itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini dirumuskan untuk menjawab dua permasalahan berikut ini: (a) Bagaimana penutur bahasa Inggris yang berbahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu mengenali penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu? dan (b) Seberapa penting pengetahuan akan penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu bagi penutur bahasa Inggris yang berbahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu untuk dapat mengenali arti dari kata the sebagai kata sandang tentu? Guna menjawab permasalahan-permasalahn tersebut dan menyelesaikan penelitian ini, digunakanlah metode dan tehnik yang biasa diterapkan dalam suatu analisa isi. Menurut Neuendorf (2002: 1), analisa isi dapat diartikan sebagai “analisa yang teratur, sesuai dengan kenyataan, kwantitatif atas ciri-ciri dari suatu pesan.” Dari sudut pandang kwantitatif, empat orang mahasiswa linguistik dari program S2 Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma sebagai penanda diminta untuk menunjukkan pemahaman mereka atas arti dari frasa deskripsi tentu yang ditemukan pada sejumlah naskah bahasa Inggris dengan menggolongkannya sesuai dengan skema penggolongan yang diusulkan oleh Hawkins (1978). Kemudian untuk mendapatkan seberapa besar tingkat persesuaian di antara para penanda tentang arti dari frasa-frasa deskripsi tentu dengan menetapkan penggunaan dari dari frasa-frasa deskripsi tentu tersebut. Hasil penandaan menunjukkan penanda A, B, dan D berhasil mengenali semua tipe penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu seperti yang telah diusulkan oleh Hawkins. Mereka setuju bahwa semua tipe penggunaan ditemukan pada 418 frasa deskripsi tentu. Di sisi yang lain, hasil penandaan juga menunjukkan penanda C dapat mengenali semua tipe kecuali tipe penggunaan dengan pengubah yang tak dapat diterangkan. Penandaan yang dilakukan oleh semua penanda menunjukkan ada lebih banyak kasus ketidaksesuian daripada kasus kesesuaian. Hanya ada 55 atau 13.2% kasus kesesuaian dari jumlah total 418 frasa deskripsi tentu yang dikumpulkan dari artikel The Jakarta Post online. Ini berarti ada 363 kasus ketidaksesuaian yang dihasilkan oleh semua penanda. Proses penghitungan dengan menggunakan statistic Krippendorff‟s alpha menghasilkan nilai α = 0.55. Penafsiran terbaik dari nilai α ini adalah bahwa tingkat kesesuaian antara para penanda tentang arti dari frasa deskripsi sesuai dengan penggunaannya relatif tidak terlalu tinggi. Nilai persesuain di antara para penanda yang rendah ini utamanya disebabkan oleh dua factor: ambiguitas dari teori Hawkins tentang penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu dan pemahaman yang berbeda dari penanda atas teori penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu.

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Analisa lebih jauh atas data membuktikan bahwa pengetahuan akan penggunaan frasa deskripsi tentu bagi penutur bahasa Inggris yang berbahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu dianggap penting. Hal ini secara jelas dapat dilihat dari kenyataan bahwa ada banyak kasus di mana para penanda gagal menghasilkan kesesuian sempurna pada tipe-tipe di kelompok satu (penggunaan anaforis dan asosiatif anaforis) dan kelompok tiga (penggunaan tak lazim dengan pengubah yang bersifat menerangkan dan penggunaan pengubah yang tak dapat diterangkan) di mana unsur penentu dari arti dapat ditemukan dalam wacana.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This thesis is divided into five chapters, i.e. (1) introduction, (2) theoretical review, (3) research methodology, (4) discussion, and (5) conclusion. The introductory chapter includes the background information related to the present study.

This chapter informs the readers about the importance of the issue under the current study and establishes a framework for the research. This chapter contains six major sections, namely (a) background, (b) problem formulation, (c) research objectives, (d) research limitation, and (e) research benefit.

A. Background

English is considered as one of many international languages widely spoken.

Smith as cited in Brutt-Griffler (2002: 5) suggests that the term international language specifically refers to a particular language “which is used by people of different nations to communicate with one another”. He argues that this kind of language is different from an auxiliary language which he describes as a language that is used for internal communication in a society with many different languages.

English in Indonesia should be considered as an international language since in the real day-to-day communication it is only used to communicate with people coming from different countries. A different situation can be observed in the Philippines where English is one of several languages used as a means of communication within

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the societies in the country to communicate. Therefore, English in this country should be considered as an auxiliary language.

Smith in Brutt-Griffler (2002) mentions further that an international language is characterized with the fact that there is no direct relationship between speaking the language and assimilating the culture of the society where it is spoken as a mother tongue. In other words, a community that adopts a particular language as an international language is not required to internalize the customs and beliefs commonly shared by the societies where the language is used as a mother tongue.

Although in common practice people might pick and use some customs and beliefs they consider attractive or beneficial during language learning.

In the process of acquiring an international language, the teaching objective of the language learning is to use the language to facilitate the communication of learners’ ideas and culture within an international community. It is because an international language plays a purely functional role. Therefore, in the case of English as an international language in Indonesia, it is considered necessary to learn the language since English has been widely accepted as an international language.

Speaking the language should enable Indonesian people to communicate with other people from many different countries. On the other hand, it should always be kept in mind that learning English does not necessarily result in a culture shift.

Some studies have shown that in many cases English learners often face big challenges in learning the language (Butler, 2002; Ionin and Wexler, 2003; Kaku,

2006; Master, 1997, 2002). The same studies also conclude that the challenges are

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quite often the result of different language system possessed by the learners’ native language and English. The challenges become greater if the learners cannot locate a concept in their own language system to match a particular language feature in

English.

Master (2002, 332) argues that English article system contains several single morphemes where each morpheme bears several functions. He states that “the article system stacks multiple functions onto a single morpheme, a considerable burden for the learner, who generally looks for one-to-one-function correspondence in navigating the labyrinth of any human language until the advanced stages of acquisition”. The indefinite article a(n), for example, functions not only to express the count-noncount distinction but also to introduce a new element in a particular discourse. The first function is referred as the structural function and the second is commonly known as the semantic function. Master suggests that these multiple functions in a single morpheme give a burden for a learner who commonly learns a language by associating a relevant language feature in her own language to understand the meaning of a particular language item she is learning.

In another study on English article system Ionin and Wexler (2003, 150) state that “learners of English as a second language (L2) have difficulty in acquiring

English articles. In particular, learners often use articles inappropriately – i.e. they do not appear to have mastered the semantic of English articles.” In addition Kaku

(2006: 63) who focuses his study on how Japanese learn English article system mentions that non-native English speakers tend to use their own language features to

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master the English article system. In other words, an English learner will very likely try to find the corresponding lexical item in her language in order to understand the meaning of English articles.

Some problems in learning English articles lie on the fact that lexically

English words are categorized into two major groups (Aitchison, 2003). They are content words and function words. According to Aitchison content words are those with intrinsic meanings. It means that they determine their own meaning and are still meaningful when they stand by themselves. A content word may come in the form of noun, verb, or adjective. Poole (1999) suggests that a content word refers to something in the real world. The word student for instance refers to a living object that is normally a human being and studying in a school or university.

Function words, on the other hand, are those whose meanings are “often difficult to specify” (Aitchison, 2003: 67). Yet, they have a very important role in the syntactic process. They function to glue “pieces of sentences together into longer syntactic patterns”. In other words, function words such as articles are meaningless in their isolation and can only have meaning when they are combined with content words. According to Poole (1999) what function words do is serve the content words in some ways.

It has been mentioned before that unlike function words, content words carry meanings although they are by themselves, and very often a content word carries more than one meaning. In Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2007), for instance, a monosyllabic verb go appears with forty-eight meanings, while a longer

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verb with more syllables such as remember comes up with eight meanings only.

Another example of this is the comparison between the adjectives safe and reluctant.

The dictionary shows that the first adjective appears with fifteen meanings and the latter occurs with one meaning only.

It certainly needs further study, but the examples above indicate that content words with more syllables carries fewer meanings than those with only one or fewer syllables. It may indicate that it is the result of the frequency of its occurrence in the spoken and written communication. It means that the more frequent a word occurs the more meanings it will have. Therefore, it can be assumed that shorter words are used more frequently rather than longer ones in that they consequently produce more meanings.

Although the definite article the has no meaning when it stands by itself, from the number of the syllables as a function word it presumably has a significantly high number of occurrence. In a sample of newspaper article taken from The Jakarta Post online, Sunday, February 7, 2010, the definite article the occurs with significantly high frequency of occurrence.

word occurence the 43 to 16 a 12 said 12 and 11 Table 1.1 The top five words with the highest frequency of occurrence in Guruh promises to revolutionize PDI-P article in The Jakarta Post online, Sunday, February 7, 2010.

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Another sample of article taken from the same edition of The Jakarta Post online newspaper also shows that the definite article still has the highest frequency of occurrence.

word occurence the 54 to 16 of 12 a 10 and 11 Table 1.2 The top five words with the highest frequency of occurrence in President faces pressure to resuffle cabinet article in The Jakarta Post online, Sunday, February 7, 2010.

Therefore it can also be assumed that this function word posses a very important position in common spoken and written English.

Considering the importance of the definite article and challenges that English learners may possibly face in learning it, studies on this field should be conducted.

The present study attempts to investigate the definite article. It focuses specifically on noun phrases with the definite article the which is commonly referred as definite descriptions. The investigation aims to describe how the English speakers of

Indonesia perceive the semantic functions of the definite article.

This study is conducted within the spirit to accept English as a global language as suggested by Kachru. Yano mentions that

It was Kachru who (1985) divided English speakers into three groups and since then this model of three concentric circles has been the standard framework of world Englishes studies. They are the “inner circle”, where English as a first (native) language (ENL); the “outer circle,” where they speak it as a second or additional language; and the

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“expanding circle,’ where they use it as a foreign language (EFL) (Yano, 2001: 121).

Kachru in Yano (2001) further suggests that English is no longer the domination of people living in the inner circle countries, i.e. where English is used as the first or native language. People who live in outer circle countries, such as Singapore or India, where English is spoken as the second language, and those who live in extended circle countries, such as Indonesia or Japan, where English is not spoken as the first or second language, are entitled with the same right to communicate in English with the possibility to have their own variety. Therefore, the term commonly used now is

English speakers rather than English users.

Studies on linguistic features commonly have their concern on form, meaning and functions. As the current study has a specific focus that is noun phrases with the definite article or commonly known as definite description, the discussion has its centre on definiteness and the semantic function of the definite article. The study also considers definiteness as the basic factor which is necessary to discuss since it becomes the semantic and pragmatic background concerning the interpretation of definite descriptions. The meaning of definiteness, then, is implemented by the semantic function of the definite article which is commonly known as the definite description uses.

The main aim of the study is to investigate how four English speakers of

Indonesia as the respondents of the current study perceive the meaning of definiteness by assigning a number of definite descriptions to a particular classification scheme.

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The research is also intended to measure the agreement among the English speakers of Indonesia about the classification of definite description uses. In measuring the agreement the current study employs the Krippendorff’s alpha statistics. Carletta

(1996: 249) argues that the use of statistics enables this kind of study to achieve evidence that can be understood by not only the researcher but also other people. This evidence can also “make the judgments underlying the research reliably”. In other words, Carletta argues that the use of statistics can make studies rely on objective judgment since in the past “research was judged according to whether or not the reader found the explanation plausible”.

B. Problem Formulation

It is already mentioned before that definite description is one of the most common constructions found in English sentence. It plays a very important role within the structure of the sentence. Therefore, it is considered necessary to investigate the meaning of the definite article the and how four English speakers of

Indonesia perceive it. This current study examines how four English speakers of

Indonesia as the respondents of the research identify the semantic functions of the definite article. They were asked to classify a number of definite descriptions extracted from a collection of The Jakarta Post online newspaper articles using the classification scheme which is developed from the theories of definite description uses suggested by Hawkins (1978). The questions the recent study tries to answer are: a. How do the English speakers of Indonesia perceive the semantic functions of the

definite article the?

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b. How significant is the knowledge of the semantic functions of the definite article

the for the English speakers of Indonesia?

C. Research Objectives

Based on the problems formulated in the previous subchapter, this study is intended to find out how four English speakers of Indonesia as the respondents in the research show their understanding on the different meanings of the definite article the by identifying the semantic functions of the definite descriptions extracted from The

Jakarta Post online articles. On the first objective, the research is projected to find what types of definite descriptions uses that the respondents can identify. The respondents are asked to classify a number of definite descriptions extracted from randomly selected articles of The Jakarta Post online based on a classification scheme that is developed from the theories of definite description uses proposed by

Hawkins (1978).

Dealing with the first objective, the recent study is also projected to determine how good the respondents are in doing the form of linguistic analysis for classifying definite descriptions based on their uses. The investigation refers to how good here as how much the respondents of the study agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses.

The respondents’ level of agreement is represented in a figure that is gained through

Krippendorff’s alpha statistic.

Secondly, the present study aims to find out how significant the knowledge of the definite description uses for the respondents is in order to be able to identify the

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meaning of the definite article the. Since all respondents were linguistics students of the graduate program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University, the researcher assumes that the respondents have appropriate linguistic knowledge background in order to be able to produce agreement in classifying the definite descriptions. When the agreement is produced the knowledge of the definite descriptions uses should be considered as not very significant. On the other hand, when the respondents fail to reach the agreement the knowledge of the definite descriptions uses should be considered as very significant. As the study tries to measure the agreement among the English speakers of Indonesia about the uses of the definite descriptions found in The Jakarta Post online, the result then is also expected to become the evidence in answering the question.

D. Research Limitation

The limited time, experiences, and resources cause some limitations to the current study. First, it was already mentioned in the background that definiteness is such a wide topic to discuss. Definiteness covers many different subtopics such as article system or other linguistic concepts such as specificity and generic class of nouns. However, it is considered necessary that the present study focus on a particular topic to make the research more specific. Therefore, the study specifically deals with the semantic functions of the definite article which is referred by the current study as definite description uses and the interpretation of their meanings.

Second, based on the accounts mentioned in the introduction the focus of the current study is on the respondents’ perception of the semantic functions of the

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definite article. The research is not projected to do deeper analysis on respondents’ background knowledge of their mother tongue which might influence the coding.

Therefore, the study does not include any contrastive linguistic theories on the comparison between English article system and the definite/indefinite articles in

Bahasa Indonesia, nor does the study involve the theories on language learning and acquisition in the analysis of the coding result.

Finally, concerning the source of the data for the current study, the research is limited to The Jakarta Post online newspaper articles which were randomly downloaded from http://www.thejakartapost.com/, from Tueday, 16 February 2010 until Thursday, 18 February 2010. The choice of the source of the data is quite obvious in that the articles can be easily accessed and retrieved in the form of soft copies which offer a lot of ease in processing them. This online newspaper is also publicly regarded for providing news and information in qualified writing style with neutral contents. In addition, a lot of news with local issues should ease the burden of the respondents in this study.

E. Research Benefit

Theoretically, it is expected that the present study will give a contribution in understanding the concept of definiteness in common, and the semantic interpretation of the use of definite descriptions in particular. Hopefully, the result of the study can be a significant reference to the existing theories. It is hoped that the result of the study will provide the readers with a rough picture on how English speakers of

Indonesia interpret the use of definite descriptions.

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Practically, understanding the semantic meaning of definite descriptions will certainly strengthen English learners’ theoretical background so that they will be able to produce acceptable sentences. By doing so they will become more entitled as the owner of English regardless of whether they speak it as an international or auxiliary language, since owning something also means knowing it.

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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter presents the discussion of some related theories as a theoretical base, upon which the research is laid. The discussion covers three major sections.

They are (a) literary review, (b) review of related studies, and (c) theoretical framework. The first section covers relevant theories that will be used to answer the research questions. The second section discusses some studies and research reports on the investigation of English article system. The third section presents the theoretical answer to the research questions.

A. Literary Review

This subchapter presents the theories related to definite descriptions and their uses. They are the theories on definiteness, English definite article, definite descriptions, and two theories on the uses of definite descriptions by Hawkins (1978) and Quirk et al. (1985). The theories serve as a strong basis for the present study.

1. Definiteness

According to www.sil.org/linguistics the term definiteness refers to a linguistic category. This category concerns with the grammaticalization of identifiability and nonidentifiability of referent on the part of a speaker or addressee.

Lyons (1999) suggests that this linguistic category is common in all languages and its realization can be seen in the use of demonstratives, personal pronouns, possessive, and some other expressions which can be associated with definiteness.

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Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) categorizes the word definite as an adjective. It originated from the Latin verb definire which means clearly known, seen or stated. Fromkin et al. (1996: 162) suggest that something is definite if it refers to a unique object “insofar as the speaker and listener are concerned”. Von Heusinger (2009: 1) gives more specific definition by stating that “a definite singular expression unambiguously denotes or refers to exactly one object.

The object can be identified as the only one that is denoted by the definite expression.” Fromkin et al. and Von Heusinger mention two values which characterize the meaning of definiteness. They are familiarity and uniqueness.

Quite similarly, in an article about definiteness and indefiniteness Abbot

(2006) mentions that in general the meaning of definiteness can be accommodated in two main theories: uniqueness and familiarity. On the other hand, Lyons (1999) suggests that besides these two theories the meaning of definiteness can also be explain from two other points of view: identifiability and inclusiveness. Accordingly in the current study the discussion on the semantic meaning of the definite article will focus on the theory of definiteness in terms of (a) familiarity, (b) identifiability, (c) uniqueness, and (d) inclusiveness. a. Familiarity

Lyons (1999: 3) argues that familiarity hypothesis refers to a linguistic context where the definite article the gives a signal “that the entity denoted by the noun phrase is familiar to both speaker and hearer.” This idea was previously proposed by Christophersen in 1939 by stating that “now the speaker must always be

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supposed to know which individual he is thinking of; the interesting thing is that the the-form supposes that the hearer knows it too” (Abbot, 2009: 9). See the following sentence:

1) I bought the dictionary yesterday.

The speaker who utters (1) is aware that the hearer knows exactly which dictionary she is referring to. They may be in an immediate situation where both of them as the participants of the discourse can see the referent of the definite description the book that the speaker mentions. Leech (1981: 157) calls this as „shared knowledge‟. He suggest that “a phrase the x conveys a presupposition, by the speaker, that there is some x that can be identified uniquely in the contextual knowledge shared by a speaker and hearer”. He also illustrates this idea with the following figure:

shared knowlege

...the cat....

speaker hearer

Figure 2.1 Shared knowledge (Leech, 1981: 157)

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Figure 2.1 above shows that both the speaker and the hearer share the same understanding about the object that the speaker mentions. The hearer knows exactly which cat the speaker mentions and the speaker is very likely certain that the hearer can identify which particular cat he is referring to.

The term referent according to Poesio and Vieira (1998: 186) is a standard terminology which refers to “the object in the world that is contributed to the meaning of utterance by a definite description”. For example, it can be understood that Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is the referent of the definite description the

President of Indonesia in 2007. Another example is the round object commonly seen shining in the sky at night, and moving around the Earth every 28 days which becomes the referent of the definite description the moon.

The familiarity hypothesis can also be seen in the following sentences:

2) Clean the table, will you? I want to put this vase on it.

3) Tomorrow I am going to clean the bathroom.

4) I hear from the radio that the president resigned yesterday.

5) When the sky is clear we can see the moon easily at night.

6) A pretty, blue-eyed woman and two small children entered the bus. I

immediately recognized the woman. The children also looked quite

familiar.

7) I got into a taxi and asked the driver to take me to the station.

In sentence (2) the definite article the signals that both the speaker and the hearer are in an immediate situation. In this situation the referent of the definite description the

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table refers to is considered familiar to both the speaker and the hearer. Therefore, an immediate situation is such a situation where the object is visible to the participants of the discourse; the hearer can locate the object that the speaker mentions.

Sentence (3) is quite similar to (2) in that both of them are uttered in an immediate situation. The speaker and the hearer must have shared the same information concerning the part of the house named the bathroom and its whereabouts. The room might not be visible at the moment of speaking, but the speaker and the hearer should refer to the same entity, that is the specific part of a house commonly known as the bathroom.

The definite description the president in sentence (4) indicates that the situation is not as immediate and visible as the one in the previous sentences. It has wider context and the speaker recounts the past event which might result in such a situation where both the speaker and the hearer would not be able to locate the object named the president. Yet, the speaker and the hearer must have shared the same understanding about the referent of the definite description the president that posses a certain political position in their country. In this kind of situation Lyons (1999: 4) suggests that both the speaker and the hearer might not personally know the person in that position, but this person must be “familiar in the sense of being known to exist and probably known by report.” The participants of the discourse might not know the referent personally, but they know and are aware of the existence of such person in their country.

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The context in sentence (5) is wider than the one in sentence (4), in that the definite noun phrase the moon refers to the round object that shines in the sky at night, and orbits the earth. This natural satellite of the earth is one of the most familiar astronomical bodies to people of the earth since it can be seen from almost every part on the surface of the earth. Lyons (1999: 4) suggests that this “familiarity stems from general knowledge.” Everybody in the world is expected to know the existence of such object called moon.

Sentence (6) shows that familiarity can be produced by certain linguistics arrangement. The definiteness of the woman and the children in the second sentence is created by the introduction of a pretty, blue-eyed woman and two young children in the preceding sentence. Lyons (1999: 4) states that in this situation the referents of the definite noun phrases are “familiar not from the physical situation but from the linguistic context; they have been mentioned before.” Therefore, it is not merely that both the speaker and the hearer share the same knowledge as the result of a particular immediate situation, but because the speaker has previously introduced the referent in the form of indefiniteness.

Sentence (7) has a quite different situation from sentence (6). It has been mentioned before that sentence (6) contains new referents which are introduced in the form of indefinite noun phrase since they are unfamiliar to the hearer. In sentence (7) the noun phrase the driver takes its definiteness not by firstly introduced in the form of indefiniteness. Instead, Lyons (1999) suggests that it is such a common knowledge that public transportations such as taxis have drivers. It means that by mentioning the

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word taxi the speaker has an expectation that the hearer can associate it with any objects related with the vehicle, such as a driver, wheels, or seats. In other words the familiarity of the definite noun phrase the driver is produced by the occurrence of the indefinite noun phrase a taxi.

From the discussion above it can be concluded that the concept of familiarity can be used to distinguish a definite noun phrase from the indefinite one. A noun phrase is definite if it is familiar to both the speaker and the hearer. On the other hand, a noun phrase is considered as indefinite if the speaker and the hearer do not share the same knowledge about the referent. The examples above show that the speaker and the hearer are in such a situation where they share the same understanding about the referents, like (2) – (5), and where a certain linguistic context or particular word helps the hearer to get acquainted with the referents, such as (6) and (7). b. Identifiability

It can be seen from the discussion above that the theory of familiarity has been developed to find the difference between definite and indefinite noun phrases.

However, it cannot solve the problem of definiteness in the following sentence:

8) I‟ve just arrived from Jakarta. The plane was five hours late.

It seems that sentence (8) is just another similar sentence to sentence (7). However, there are no indefinite noun phrases or particular lexical items which can be used as triggers to shape the definiteness of the noun phrase the plane as the one in sentence

(7). Instead, its definiteness is formed by the hearer understanding that travelling

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from Jakarta will probably involve the use of a certain mode of transportation such as plane.

Lyons (1993: 6) suggests that applying the theory of familiarity to sentence

(8) above is rather forced. He states that such a situation “is generally the case that the definiteness of the noun phrase confirms an association which is only probable or possible than known.” In sentence (8) the definite noun phrase the plane accommodates the hearer to make a possible association between its referent with the journey. He further mentions that “the use of definite article directs the hearer to the referent of the noun phrase by signaling that he is in a position to identify it.”

According to Lyons this is the core of the theory of identifiability.

Having the same perspective as Lyons, Abbot (2009: 13) suggests that familiarity theory is not enough to accommodate the meaning of definiteness.

Especially it is because the theory of familiarity has its implication more on “prior acquaintance” or first mentioned. Therefore both Lyons and Abbot suggest that another theory on definite description should be developed. Abbot states that “the use of definite conveys to the addressee that they ought to be able to determine a unique referent from the description used plus contextual or background information”. Birner and Ward in Abbot (2009: 13) also mention that “the term „identify‟ suggests that an addressee is able to pick the referent out in the world at large”. They further mention that

what is required for felicitous use of the definite article (and most uses of other definites) is that the speaker must believe that the

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hearer is able to individuate the referent in questions from all others within the discourse model (in Abbot, 2009: 13).

Therefore, the theory of identifiability can also be applied to the following sentences:

9) The president of Egypt is visiting tomorrow.

10) The boy Susan had dinner with last night phoned a minute ago.

Sentence (9) shows that it is a probability that Egypt is a country with a person in a political position as the president. The referent of the definite description the president is identified with this individual. On the other hand, it is obvious that sentence (10) is a complex sentence. The relative clause Susan had dinner with last night becomes the context for the referent of the description the boy, although it does not provide any specific information about the particular boy Susan had dinner with last night.

Lyons (1999: 6) states that “while on the familiarity account the tells the hearer that she knows which, on the identifiability account it tells her that she knows or can work out which.” The following sentence gives a clear-cut distinction between familiarity and identifiability:

11) Pass me the salt, please?

While uttering sentence (11) above the speaker might think that it is unnecessary to make any gesture whatsoever to indicate the location of the object she is referring.

Instead, she must have an expectation that with the use of the definite article the hearer must be able to identify that there is an object named salt which she can get

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immediately because the speaker use the verb pass. Lyons argues that “the referent of the definite noun phrase is unfamiliar to the hearer, but he is able to find a referent for it”. He further mentions that “identifiability certainly offers a more comprehensive picture than does familiarity”. c. Uniqueness

Abbot (2006: 392) suggests that something is definite if it is unique. She states that the idea of uniqueness is complete if “the existence of one and only one entity meeting the descriptive content of the NP.” Consider the following sentences:

12) I came across an owner of Casa Grande.

13) I came across the owner of Casa Grande.

The use of indefinite article an in (12) has the implication that Casa Grande is owned by a group of people and the speaker only met one of them. On the other hand, the use of definite article the in (13) signals that Casa Grande is owned by one person only, that is the person that the speaker met. These two sentences should become good examples for the theory of uniqueness.

Abbot also mentions that “the uniqueness theory seems to accord well with our intuitions. It is also supported by the fact that when we stress the definite article contrastively it brings out the sense of uniqueness”. Consider the following sentence:

14) Did you come across an owner or the owner of Casa Grande?

By uttering sentence (14) it seems that the speaker requests the information from the hearer whether Casa Grande is possessed by some persons, or only one person. She does not merely want to confirm the information she might already know as the form

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of the question is interrogative. Here, the use of the definite article the and its possible stressing when it is pronounced signals the uniqueness of the referent.

Before Abbot, Lyons (1999: 8) has come with the same idea about the theory of uniqueness. He suggests that “the definite article signals that there is just one entity satisfying the description used.” Consider the following sentences:

15) I‟ve just attended a wedding party. The bride and the bridegroom wore

traditional clothes.

16) Who is the referee today? [by a football coach before a football match]

The use of the definite article in (15) is considered acceptable in a way that wedding parties certainly involve brides and bridegrooms. The definite noun phrases the bride and the bridegroom naturally refer to the individuals that are involved in the particular party mentioned in the first sentence. However, Lyons also argues that it is very unlikely that the hearer can identify the referents in any real sense. She does not have any information about the bride and the bridegroom, In other words, if she comes across the persons in the street the next day it might hardly be possible that she can recognize them as the persons mentioned in the sentence.

The use of the definite article is also possible in sentence (16) in that official football matches normally involve the work of referees. However, the sentence also indicates that the speaker cannot identify the referent of the definite noun phrase. She does not expect the hearer to be able to identify the person either. Both the speaker and the hearer know that there is such a person with a specific role in the particular event, but this cannot be considered as specific information.

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Lyons (1999: 8) argues that the uniqueness as shown in (15) and (16) “is generally not absolute, but is to be understood relative to a particular context”.

Therefore, in sentence (15) the hearer is drawn to associate the bride and the bridegroom with the wedding; that there is normally one bride and one bridegroom in a wedding party. The hearer of sentence (16) is expected to understand that a football match is a sport event which always involves one person whose job is to make sure that the rules of the sport are followed. In other words, the wedding party and the football match give the definite noun phrases the related contexts although the hearers are not significantly informed about details of the referents.

Sentence (15) and (16) provide the example for the notion that uniqueness is generally not absolute. However, the following sentences show that uniqueness can also be absolute.

17) The moon looked very bright last night.

18) The Dark Times were again descending over the universe.

It is perfectly possible to speak of the bride or a bride, the referee or a referee.

However, it is very unlikely to use indefinite a instead of definite the for moon or universe in sentence (17) and (18). It is normally acceptable to use definite article for these nouns since they are “inherently unique, denoting something which is only one”

(Lyons, 1999: 8). It is true that to some extent the use of indefinite a for moon or universe is acceptable, considering that some planets in our universe have their own moons or a situation where another universe exists.

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Indefinite article, however, cannot be applied to some particular noun modifiers: superlatives, first, same, only and next (Lyons, 1999: 9). Consider the following examples:

19) Johan is the cleverest student in his class.

20) Naomi is the most beautiful girl in town.

21) He is the first person leaving the room.

22) She was the only person disagreed.

23) We have the same problem.

24) What time is the next train to Liverpool?

All the sentences above contain noun phrases with definite article which cannot be substituted by indefinite a. In other words, it is considered unacceptable to speak of a cleverest student, a most beautiful girl, or an only person. Lyons (1999: 9) argues that

“the unacceptability of the indefinite article seems likely to stem from a semantic incompatibility between an element of uniqueness in the meaning of the modifier and the non-uniqueness of a”.

In sentence (19) the cleverest student can be understood as „a student who is cleverer than all the others‟. The definite NP the most beautiful girl in sentence (20) is associated to the referent that is „more beautiful than all the others‟, and the first person in (21) means „a particular individual before all the others‟. It can be clearly seen here that uniqueness is involved in these sentences. The same thing applies to the only person in (22) which means „no one except a particular person‟. The same problem in sentence (23) refers to a single problem which is considered unique since

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it is experienced only by both the speaker and the hearer. The next train in (24) means

„an immediately following train‟. Due to the fact that trains go one by one, there can only be one train which follows the preceding one. d. Inclusiveness

It can be obviously seen in the previous section that all examples given contains definite noun phrases which involve count nouns in the singular form. It may stem from the strong notion of the theory of uniqueness that a unique object refers to something which is only one (Lyons, 1999; Abbot, 2006). It is, however, acceptable to combine definite article with plural count nouns or mass noun. Consider the following sentences:

25) I came across the owners of Casa Grande.

26) Johan and Nani are the cleverest students in this class.

27) We are waiting for the students who will accompany us.

28) I like going to Pizza Hut. The salad is always fresh and delicious.

29) This is the best fried rice I‟ve ever tasted.

According to Lyons (1999), Trenkic (2008), and Abbot (2009) the definite noun phrases in the sentences above cannot be explained with the theory of uniqueness.

Instead, the theory of inclusiveness is proposed to accommodate the meaning of the definiteness. Lyons suggests that the referent in the theory of inclusiveness is associated to “the totality of the objects or mass in the context which satisfy the description”.

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In sentence (25) the definite noun phrase the owners refers to a group of people who owns Casa Grande. The definite noun phrase the cleverest students in sentence (26) refers to a group of students consisting only Johan and Nani who happen to be cleverer than all other students in class, and the definite noun phrase the students in sentence (27) refers to all students who are about to come along. In sentence (28) the referent of the description the salad is taken to all salad served in that particular restaurant, and the referent of the description the best fried rice in sentence (29) refers to the totality of the fried rice in the speaker‟s experience deserving to be called the best.

From the examples above it seems that when the definite article is combined with plural and mass nouns it becomes a universal quantifier. To some extent it is similar in meaning to all. However, Lyons (1999: 11) argues that “it seems unsatisfactory to say that the signals uniqueness with singular noun phrases and inclusiveness with plural and mass noun phrases.” He suggests that uniqueness can be assimilated to inclusiveness.” Consider the following sentence:

30) I am attending a seminar today. I hope the speaker has great ideas.

The speaker who utters sentence (30) may assume that there will be only one speaker.

So, the total number of the speaker to be involved in the seminar is only one.

To sum up the discussion above the term definiteness can be understood as a linguistic category. The meaning of definiteness can be approached from the theories of familiarity, identifiability, uniqueness and inclusiveness. In other words, something can be categorized as definite when the referent is familiar for the

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participants of the discourse and the information about it can be considered as shared knowledge. Something is definite if the participants of the discourse are in the position of being able to identify its referent. Definiteness is produced when there is only one entity meeting the description. Finally, if the referent of a particular object is the totality of a particular object which met the description the object is also considered definite.

To end the discussion on definiteness it is considered necessary to mention that the term definiteness does not only apply to noun phrases with the definite article. Lyons (1999) mentions that the term definiteness also can also be applied to noun phrases with demonstratives, proper nouns, possessives, personal pronouns, and universal quantifiers. This particular idea is supported by Heusinger (2009) who states that definite expressions include proper names, definite NPs, demonstratives, personal pronouns and possessive constructions. Lyons further suggests that definiteness can also be used to refer to a sentence with past tense aspect such as I read that book yesterday. He argues that in the view of the traditional grammar the sentence is categorized as definite past. It can be compared with another past sentence such as I have read that book which is considered as indefinite past.

2. English Definite Article

Trenkic (2008: 109) refers articles as “a grammatical representation of semantic/pragmatic definiteness as a category of meaning”. More specifically Leech

(1981: 156) mentions the role of meaning of definiteness by stating that “the contrast between definiteness and indefiniteness is a very general semantic phenomenon, most

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clearly manifest in English in the definite and indefinite articles the and a/an”. It means that when someone makes a sentence in English she needs to know whether the noun phrases in the sentence are categorized as definite or indefinite before she can use the appropriate articles.

It is already mentioned before that the definite article the as a realization of definiteness in English has a very important position in common spoken and written

English. The importance of the definite article the which serves as a function word can be observed in that it has an obligatory position in English sentences which enable them to deliver the complete meaning of the definiteness of a noun phrase. See the following sentences:

31) *I put new book I just bought on the table.

32) *Teacher gave us a lot of homework.

Sentences (31) and (32) above should be considered as unacceptable English sentences (* is a symbol for ungrammatical sentences) since they miss the definite article the. The definite article is needed to make the meaning of the noun phrases new book and teacher complete. The main idea of those sentences might still be understood, but still the definite article the is needed to make new book and teacher acceptable English definite noun phrases.

The importance of the definite article also lies on the fact that it always comes with nouns creating a definite noun phrase (Sellen, 2000; Quirk et al., 1972;

Zandvoort and Van Ek, 1970). In this construct the definite article the is used to

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modify a noun or several nouns, a sentence element that almost always appears in sentences. Consider the following sentences:

33) The new English teacher is absent today.

34) *She has the.

35) *That is the awesome.

36) *Those are students we are talking about.

An English native speaker will certainly get confused with (34) and (35) because the sentences come with the definite article the. However, it does not modify any nouns as the definite article in (34) is not followed by any nouns, and awesome in sentence

(35) is an adjective. Therefore, these sentences can be considered not only ungrammatical but also meaningless. Sentence (36) can also be categorized as unacceptable in a way that the noun students is not preceded by the definite article the. The definite article should be put before the word students to form a the-phrase or definite noun phrase since its definiteness is stated by the clause we are talking about (those students).

Zandvoort and Van Ek (1970: 117) suggest that the definite article the has a particular structural function. It can precede both singular and plural nouns in a definite noun phrase construct. It can be placed immediately before nouns, noun phrases, or be separated from its nouns by one or more words. Consider the following sentences:

37) The girl is crying in front of me.

38) It is the most beautiful doll I have ever had.

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Sentence (37) shows that the definite article the is placed immediately before the noun girl. While in sentence (38) the definite article is separated by two modifiers, that is the adverb most and the adjective beautiful, to form a definite noun phrase. In some situation, however, the definite article the can precede a few adjectives to refer to the general class of people as in the poor, the rich, and the blind. The can also precede a past participle which functions as an adjective as in the haunted, the oppressed, and the marginalized (Sellen, 2000).

In terms of its pronunciation Zandvoort and Van Ek (1970: 117) mention that the definite article the can be pronounced differently. It is pronounced [ðì] before vowel sounds or [ðǝ] in other cases. Normally, the definite article like other function words does not get a stress. However, Quirk et al. (1972: 136) suggest that the definite article the can be stressed in order to “indicate excellence or superiority in some respect”, as in:

39) John is the man we are looking for.

40) Luna‟s wedding will be the most interesting event this week.

The definite article the in (39) and (40) should be pronounced as [ðì] if the speaker wants to show the prominence of the definite noun phrase.

Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999: 271) state that the definite article the is “a part of a larger system of reference and determination”. This is quite similar with what Quirk et al. (1985) suggest on the function of the definite article. They put the discussion on definite article under the topic of reference. They mention that

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definite article can be used to express specific and generic reference as well. Consider the following sentences:

41) The dog is eating in the garden.

42) The dolphin is smart.

43) The whale is a mammal.

The definite noun phrase the dog in sentence (41) can be clearly understood as having a specific reference since it refers only to a particular dog that is eating in a particular garden known by both the speaker and the hearer. The definite noun phrase the whale in sentence (43), however, expresses generic reference since every whale is a mammal. Now compare the definite noun phrase the dolphin in (42) and the definite noun phrase the whale in (43). The dolphin in sentence (38) can be read as having a generic reference since dolphins are commonly known as smart animals. However, in a certain situation sentence (42) can also be understood as having specific reference.

Suppose a woman is playing with a dolphin in a pool and she utters (42) in this situation. Both the hearer and the speaker will automatically refer the definite noun phrase the dolphin to the particular animal in the pool. Moreover, if there is exactly one dolphin she is playing with in the environment.

Zandvoort and Van Ek (1970: 117) suggest that ”in the majority cases the definite article denotes the following noun refers to a special person, animal or thing as distinct from others of the same kind”. Master (1997: 225) also has a similar opinion in that “the general function of the is to single out or identify, or to indicate

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that the speaker either presumes a noun to be singled out and identified for the hearer or instructs the hearer to do so”.

Quite similarly, Quirk et al. (1985: 265) suggest that in general “the definite article the is used to mark the phrase it introduces as definite”. They mention further that the word definite refers to “something which can be identified uniquely in the contextual of general knowledge shared by speaker and hearer”. They also mention that „something‟ can be the referent of any noun phrases, such as a person (the man), a group of people (the villagers), an object (the car), a group of objects (the desks), an abstraction (the idea), or a group of abstraction (the worries).

Concerning the construction of a definite noun phrase Lyons (1999: 41) suggests that it is necessary to consider the place of the definite article within noun phrase structure in order to see it from a syntactic point of view. Veiera (1998: 35) also suggests that it is considered important to discuss the syntactic structure of the constructs since it may provide complementary information on the meaning of a definite description.

Haegeman and Gueron (1999: 78) propose a model of layered structure which serves as “the blueprint for all structures in English”. They argue that this model offers “a more elegant and economic way of dealing with phrasal projection”. They also state this model can be applied in other languages. They refer this theory as X- bar theory or X‟-theory. See the following figure:

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specifier X’

X complement Figure 2.2 the X-bar format of phrase structure (Hegeman and Gueron, 1999: 78)

It can be seen in the model in figure 2.2 that phrases are endocentric. It means that every phrase has one obligatory head and one or more optional, dependent words which present to narrow the meaning of the head word. It can be seen in the model above that X or X‟ is the head of the projection. XP is the maximal projection, and X‟ is an intermediate projection. X‟ dominates the head X and the complement, and the maximal projection XP dominates an intermediate X‟ and the specifier. Haegeman and Gueron (1999: 79) suggest that “X‟-theory defines the local relations of a head,

X. Every head bears two local relations: the head is locally related to its complement and to the specifier of its projection”. As it is mentioned before, the specifier or the complement presents to narrow the meaning of the head.

Using the model proposed by Haegeman and Gueron above, the definite noun phrase the car can be analyzed as follows:

Det N’

the car Figure 2.3 X-bar analysis of the car

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It can be seen in the tree analysis shown in figure 2.3 that NP is the maximal projection of the head noun car. The position of the specifier is occupied by the determiner the. A longer noun phrase such as the new car in the garage which takes an adjective as its modifier and a prepositional phrase as its complement can be analyzed as follows:

Det N’

AP N’

N PP

the new car in the garage

Figure 2.4 X-bar analysis of NP the new car in the garage

It can be seen in the tree analysis above that Det, N‟, N, AP and PP are the heads of the projection. NP is the maximal projection, and N‟ is an intermediate projection. N‟ dominates the head n and the complement, and the maximal projection NP dominates an intermediate N‟ and the specifier which is occupied by the determiner the.

Lyons (1999: 42) suggests that it is also possible to use X-bar theory in analyzing phrases from different perspective. He mentions that “the noun phrase is a phrasal projection, not of the noun, but of the determiner (Det or D). It is therefore

DP not NP”. A category of NP which is projected from N is still there, but it is within DP, as a complement of the head D. The analysis can be shown as follows:

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(specifier) D’

D NP

(specifier) N’

the car

Figure 2.5 X-bar analysis of DP the car

With the model above Lyons further argues that the DP analysis arises from “an interest in functional categories” which is opposed to lexical categories like noun, verb, adjective, or preposition. This analysis is intended to show that an NP is the projection of the functional category of D or Determiner.

Finally, it can be concluded that the definite article the is a lexical item which serves as a function word. This function word is used to categorize the head noun in a noun phrase construct as definite and becomes the realization of definiteness. It means that it normally precedes a head noun although in some particular cases the definite article can also be used with a number of adjectives. The definite article is used with anything which can be identified definitely and when the referent of the definite noun phrase is clear for the participants of the discourse.

The definite noun phrase construct is commonly known as definite description

(Abbot 2006, Poesio and Vieira 1998, Vieira 1998). Ostertag (2006) suggests that in

English a definite description may come in two forms: a definite noun phrase with definite article the preceding the noun, and a noun phrase with possessive adjective.

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Therefore, the definite noun phrases the table and my table are both considered as definite descriptions. The present study, however, only covers the definite noun phrase with definite article the.

3. Definite Description

Definite description as a linguistic construct can be related with many different linguistic concepts. It is certainly related to the semantic and pragmatic meaning of definiteness which is often discussed with indefiniteness as its contrasting concept. The meaning of definite descriptions, then, is certainly a determinant factor in its use. Abbot in Brown (2006, 392) suggests that the term definiteness is commonly applied to noun phrases. It is signaled by the occurrence of the definite article the. She suggests that it is because the definite article the is commonly referred as the definite noun phrase maker.

Abbot (2009) suggests that to some extent the definiteness of a certain entity is determined by its specificity. Frawley (1992: 69) mentions that specificity refers to

“the uniqueness of the entity”. It means the level of specificity of the entity is determined by its uniqueness. On the other hand, Heusinger (2002: 245) argues that specificity and definiteness are two different semantic categories which are independent of each other. He also admits that this opinion is quite different from the traditional view that positions expressions of specificity as a subclass of indefinite

NPs. He believes that “definiteness expresses the discourse pragmatic property of familiarity, while specificity mirrors a more finely grained referential structure of the

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items used in the discourse”. However, both Frawley and Heusinger agree that specificity and definiteness are not only limited to the use of articles.

According to Leech (1981: 156) definiteness is commonly contrasted with indefiniteness. He suggest that this contrast “most clearly manifest in English in the definite and indefinite articles the and a/an”. He further argues that definiteness can best be explained in pragmatic rather than in semantic. It is because “to interpret the, we have to relate it to a particular speech situation, and to assumptions made by the speaker about the hearer”. The idea of studying definiteness from a particular point of view is also supported by Löbner in Poesio and Vieira (1998) who quite similarly suggests that definiteness can be approached from two different linguistic areas, i.e. semantic and pragmatic.

Löbner in Poesio and Vieira (1998) suggests that the meaning of definite descriptions can be approached from semantic point of view. This applies when the definite descriptions consist of a complex noun phrase, such as the wheel of the car, the fact that moon is round, and the first woman to fly across Atlantic. According to

Löbner the definiteness of the head nouns is determined by other words in the phrase.

He suggests that this kind of definite descriptions should be called as semantic definites. In other cases, the head noun by itself, such as the dog or the man, cannot denote the meaning of definiteness. The meaning should be clear when a particular context is related to the descriptions. Löbner refers this kind of the-phrases as pragmatic definites. This latter class includes anaphoric, immediate, and larger uses which will be discussed further in section 4.

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Abbot (2006: 392) mentions that definiteness is a particular term which is commonly assigned to noun phrases. She also states that in English the definite article the is commonly accepted as the definite article. She mentions that noun phrases beginning with the, such as the Queen of England or the table, are commonly called definite descriptions. She suggests that this kind of phrases is taken as “prototypical examples of definite NPs”.

Obviously it can be seen that Leech, Heusinger, Lyons, and more recently

Abbot have a common idea about definiteness. They agree that definiteness is usually expressed in noun phrases. They also point out that definiteness is commonly symbolized in the definite article the. Heusinger and Lyons agree that the concept of definiteness is not limited to noun phrases with definite article and they mention that a definite noun phrase can contain definite article (the), demonstratives (this, that), proper nouns (John, New York), possessives (my, your, mine, theirs), personal pronouns (I, we, you, they), or universal quantifiers (all, every, each). The recent study, however, focuses only on the discussion of noun phrases with the definite article which is commonly known as definite descriptions. This is in line with Lyons‟ idea that the term definite description commonly refers to “an expression which ascribes a property or properties to a particular entity – in other words, a definite noun phrase” (1999: 7).

According to Hawkins (1978) the theory of definite descriptions was proposed by Bertrand Russell in 1905. Zouhar (2006) mentions that Russell‟s theory of definite descriptions “offers a highly systematic account of the semantics of the definite

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article and the logical form of sentences involving definite descriptions”. The theory can be represented in the following form:

44) The F is G.

Ostertag (2006: 465) suggests that this form “can be interpreted as expressing a relation between the properties F and G”. While Hawkins uses the following sentence to explain the form above:

45) The king of France is wise.

He suggests that sentence (45) can be paraphrased into the following propositions:

46) There is a king of France.

47) There is not more than one king of France.

48) This individual is wise.

Sentence (46) suggests that the object referred to by the definite description in (45) exists. Sentence (17) expresses uniqueness of this individual, that there is only one such object. It also means that Russell‟s theory is not intended to cover the generic use of definite descriptions. Sentence (48) gives the predication of this unique, existing individual. Only if sentences (46) – (48) are true that sentence (45) will be true. The falsity of any of the last three sentences would make sentence (45) false.

Therefore, if someone utters sentence (45) at the present time, it would be false considering that France is not a country with monarchical system. In other words

Hawkins suggests that

Russell was attempting to describe the meaning of this sentence, and in particular the meaning of definite article…he proposed a logical structure of three conjoined propositions to represent a single surface

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proposition of the subject-predicate kind, i.e. a logical structure with a very different form from the corresponding surface structure (Hawkins, 1978: 93)

Like many other theories, Russell‟s theory on definite descriptions has received many criticisms in the philosophical and logical literature (Hawkins, 1978:

94). However, it is not the intention of the present study to discuss the theory deeper.

It is considered enough to mention that the term definite description used in the study refers to all definite noun phrases with the definite article, the most common constructs in English, with the semantic meaning as proposed by Russell. As a linguistic construct definite description has its semantic function which Hawkins refers as the definite description uses. The semantic functions of the definite article which is materialized in the uses of definite descriptions will be discussed in the following subchapter.

4. The Uses of Definite Descriptions

This subchapter focuses the discussion on two theories on the definite descriptions uses. The first one is proposed by Hawkins (1978). The second theory is proposed by Quirk et al. (1985). a. Hawkins’ list of definite description uses

Hawkins (1978) classifies the definite descriptions uses into six types. They are (1) anaphoric use, (2) associative anaphoric use, (3) immediate situation use, (4) larger situation use, (5) unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, and (6)

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unexplanatory modifiers use. Later it can be observed that most types are purely semantic, while some other types are best viewed from pragmatic point of view.

The first type of definite description uses proposed by Hawkins is the anaphoric use. According to Fromkin et al. (1996: 515), anaphora refers to “the process of replacing a longer expression by a pronoun or another kind of „pro-form‟”.

Hawkins (1978) suggests that a definite description with anaphoric use refers to a definite noun phrase with the definite article which refers back to an antecedent. This antecedent is a linguistic form which is mentioned previously in the discourse. Both description and antecedent should refer to the same entity. Heusinger (1995: 2) names this use as anaphorical linkage.

The following sentences are examples of anaphoric use:

49) An old woman came here last week. The woman left a message for me.

50) Tina visited a museum yesterday. The building was very old.

51) I travelled to Jakarta last week. The journey was terrible.

52) I meet a woman and a man on the way here. The couple seemed

familiar to me.

53) I bought a pair of pants yesterday, but the trousers did not fit me.

In sentence (49) the definite description the woman as the anaphor is preceded by the indefinite noun phrase an old woman. It can be seen here that the definiteness of the definite description the woman is produced by the introduction of an antecedent which comes in the form of indefinite noun phrase. It can also be seen in sentences

(50), (51), (52), and (53) that an antecedent can be in the form of hyponym (the

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building), nominalization (the journey), summation (the couple), or synonym (the trousers).

The theory of anaphoric use is in line with Heim‟s familiarity theory

(Heusinger, 1995: 2) which suggests that “an indefinite NP introduces a new discourse referent and a definite NP refers to an already established one.” See the following sentence:

54) A man walks. The man is well-suited.

According to Heim in Heusinger (1995: 2) something is definite if it is mentioned before. The definite noun phrase the man in (54) refers to an object that has been introduced by the indefinite noun phrase a man. This is what Heusinger refers as the anaphorical use of definite descriptions.

Dealing with the second type of definite description uses, Hawkins (1978) mentions that a definite description with an associative anaphoric use refers to a particular situation where the speaker and the hearer are in the position of being able to draw a relationship between two or more different elements mentioned in the discourse. Veiera (1998: 5) adds that in associative anaphoric use the participants of a discourse “may have (shared) knowledge between certain objects evoked by the discourse (the triggers) and their components or attributes (the associates).”

The following sentences should give clear examples on the associative anaphoric use:

55) Dan bought a car yesterday, but I don‟t like the color.

56) It certainly is a great book. Do you know the author?

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57) I went to a wedding yesterday, but I didn‟t meet the bride.

It can be seen in all examples above that the definite descriptions are created by associating them with the objects mentioned previously which functions as the triggers. Therefore, in (55) the indefinite noun phrase a car becomes the trigger for the definite description the color (of the car), in (56) the indefinite noun phrase a great book is the trigger for the definite description the author (of the great book), and in (57) the indefinite noun phrase a wedding functions as the trigger for the definite description the bride (in the wedding).

The third type of definite description uses is the immediate situation use.

Hawkins (1978) suggests that there are two categories in this use. They are visible situation use and immediate situation use. The former refers to a situation where both the speaker and the hearer can see the object. The latter refers to a situation where it is not necessary for the speaker and the hearer to be able to see the object they mention in the discourse. Viera (1998: 6) suggests that in this kind of situation “the referent is a constituent of the immediate situation in which the use of the definite description is located, without necessarily being visible”.

The following sentences are examples of immediate situation use:

58) Can you hand me the hammer, please?

59) Let‟s move the table to that corner.

60) Beware of the dog.

61) Don‟t feed the animals.

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In sentences (58) and (59) the speaker and the hearer are in such a situation where they can definitely see the objects the hammer and the table. It is also very likely that the objects are unique in that there is only a single entity of them in the surroundings.

On the other hand, sentences (60) and (61) refer to a situation where the definite descriptions signify the existence of the objects the dog and the animals without them being necessarily visible. Hawkins also suggests that this kind of definite descriptions can be commonly observed in public notices which not only give people warning but also information about the existence of particular objects in the surroundings.

Hawkins classifies the use of larger situation into two categories. They are specific knowledge in the larger situation and general knowledge in the larger situation. The former refers to the situation where the speaker and the hearer share knowledge of the existence of the referent, while the latter refers to the situation where the specific knowledge is not needed. It includes definite descriptions with proper nouns such as the United Nation or the Ministry of Education. In addition,

Veiera (1998: 6) suggests that both of the situations refer to “situations in which the speaker appeals to the hearer‟s knowledge of entities existing in the non-immediate or larger situation of utterance – knowledge they share by being members of the same community, for instance.” Hawkins mentions that it is considered sufficient to use the general knowledge about the existence of certain types of objects in certain types of situations. Consider the following sentences:

62) I‟m taking my relative from Jakarta to visit the palace. It opens at 8

am, isn‟t it?

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63) Have you met the doctor? (between two patients waiting outside a

doctor‟s surgery)

Sentence (62) is very likely uttered in a situation where both the speaker and the hearer are the inhabitants of a place with a special building called palace where common people can come to see around. They must share the same knowledge about the existence of the place which can be visited daily from 8 am. Sentence (63), on the other hand, shows that the first mention the doctor is possible on the basis of knowledge that people visit a doctor‟s surgery to meet the doctor.

Hawkins suggests that there are definite descriptions which do not fit into the previous categories. Veiera (1998: 6) suggests that these definite noun phrases “are not anaphoric, do not rely on information about the situation of utterance, and are not associates of some trigger in the previous discourse.” Instead, Hawkins classifies them in groups according to their syntactic and lexical properties, such as NP complements, nominal modifiers, referent establishing relative clauses, and associative clauses. Consider the following sentences:

64) Many couples refuse to face the fact that there are problems in their

relationship.

65) The meeting came to the conclusion that the company should raise the

salary.

66) The number seven is special for some communities.

67) The name John is very popular in the United States.

68) The girl we met yesterday was a new student in this school.

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69) Put this book on the table (that is) over there.

70) The end of the story is rather illogical.

71) Did you notice the headline of the newspaper this morning?

Sentence (64) and (65) show the use of definite descriptions with the relative clause construction.

Sentences (66) and (67) contain definite descriptions in which some nouns modify other nouns. In sentence (66) the noun seven modifies the noun number and in (67) the noun John modifies the noun name. Hawkins argues that these definite descriptions are acceptable first-mentions without previous indefinite descriptions. It applies differently in I don’t like the number and I know the name which require antecedents. Hawkins also argues that the construction of the definite descriptions in

(66) and (67) is quite similar with the fact that S construction, in that S is a fact and seven is a number. It does not apply to *the page one or *the age seven, for instance, because one is not page and seven is not age. Therefore, it should be page one and age seven.

Sentences (68) and (69) show that when a relative clause refers to something which is familiar to both the speaker and the hearer the relative clause can be a referent to the hearer without a first mention. In the case of the definite description the girl in sentence (68) the definiteness is resulted from the relative clause (that) we met yesterday which follows the description. This is similar with sentence (69) where the definiteness of the phrase the table is produced by the occurrence of the relative clause (that is) over there.

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It can be seen in sentence (70) that an associative relationship can be drawn between the head noun end and the word story which follows the preposition of. The same associative relationship can also be seen in sentence (71) between the head noun headline and the noun newspaper which follow the preposition of. It is simply because the story may correspond to the beginning, the end, or the theme, and the newspaper may be related to the headline, the editorial, or the column. Accordingly,

Veiera (1998: 8) suggests that “associative clauses incorporate both the trigger and the associate of an associative anaphoric sequence. The modifiers of the head noun specify the referent with which the definite description is associated.”

Heusinger (1995: 1), on the other hand, has a bit different argument in that a noun phrase preceding the prepositional phrase of_ gets its definiteness from “the functional concept” NP of_ that assigns to the NP exactly one object. It means that in the definite description the end of the story it is understood that every story only has one beginning, and one end as well. The preposition of that comes together with the word story has a significant role in a way that it completes the function of the NP the end.

Finally, Hawkins suggests that there is a small number of modifiers in definite description construct which can be categorized as unexplanatory. He further mentions that these modifiers almost always appear following the definite article the. This idea is in line with Lyons‟ (1999) that some particular noun modifiers such as superlatives, first, same, only and next can only be used with definite article, but not with indefinite one. Consider the following sentences:

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72) My friend and I share the same interests.

73) The first person walking on the moon was an American.

Hawkins mentions that there is no specific reason to explain why the words same and first should be preceeded by the definite article the in this particular case. Although, it can be seen from the semantic point of view that the word same which modifies the head noun interest in sentence (72) states the identity between two sets of interests: the speaker‟s interests and her friend‟s. In sentence (73) the definiteness of the head word person is produced by the modifier first which means that there is only one entity to match the referent of the definite description the first person. It applies simirlaly with superlative modifier such as fastest and most diligent.

The discussion above show that each type of definite description uses has certain characteristics. These characteristics become the main factors in determining the meaning of definiteness of the use. According to their characteristics the types of definite description uses in Hawkins‟ classification can be put into three groups:

Group 1 Examples anaphoric use an old woman  the woman a museum  the building travelled to Jakarta  the journey a woman and a man  the couple. A pair of pants  the trousers associative anaphoric use a car  the color (of the car) a great book  the author (of the book) a wedding  the bride (in that particular

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wedding. Group 2 Examples immediate situation use Can you hand me the hammer, please? Let‟s move the table to that corner. Beware of the dog. Don‟t feed the animals. larger situation use The palace opens at 8 am. Have you met the doctor? (between two patients waiting outside a doctor‟s surgery) Group 3 Examples unfamiliar uses with the fact that… explanatory modifiers the conclusion that…. the number seven the name John the girl we met yesterday… the table (that is) over there the end of the story… the headline of the newspaper… unexplanatory modifiers the same interests use the first person walking on the moon Table 2.1 Hawkins‟s list of definite description uses

The definiteness of group one is determined by an element preceding the definite description. The element can be a pro-form (anaphora) of the description or a trigger

(associating element) to which the description can be associated. In other words, hearers (or readers) of the discourse should be aware with particular initial expressions in the discourse. The definiteness of the second group is determined by

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„external‟ elements in that both the hearer (reader) and speaker (writer) must share the same understanding or commonly known as shared knowledge on the referent of the definite description. Finally, the definiteness of the types in group three is determined by some particular linguistic arrangement. Therefore, it is obvious that the meaning of definiteness in group one and group three is more predictable rather than the definiteness in group two. b. Quirk et al.’s List of Definite Description Uses

Quirk et al. (1985) classify the uses of definite article into eight categories.

They are (1) immediate situation, (2) larger situation (general knowledge), (3) anaphoric reference (direct), (4) anaphoric reference (indirect), (5) cataphoric reference, (6) sporadic reference, (7) logical use, and (8) the use of the with reference to body parts.

Dealing with the first type of definite description uses, Quirk et al. (1985:

266) use the term situational reference to describe “cases where the reference of the is derived from the extralinguistic situation”. In this case, immediate situation refers to a particular situation where the hearer is able to locate the reference in her surroundings. Consider the following sentences:

74) Have you tried the steak? (uttered during a dinner)

75) This is the ballroom. (uttered during a tour inside a building)

In sentence (74) the speaker invites the hearer to find the reference of the definite description in their surroundings. The object might not be visible for the hearer, but with the use of the definite article the the speaker wishes to signal its existence. It is

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also obvious in sentence (75) that both the speaker and the hearer are able to identify the referent of the definite description the ballroom in their surrounding.

According to Quirk et al. (1985) larger situation may refer to some worldwide knowledge such as the moon and the sun, or it may refer to common understanding shared by most people in a particular country or place. Consider the following sentences.

76) People have tried to use the sun as the source of energy.

77) The Sultan does not have any sons. All his children are girls.

In sentence (76) the referent for the definite description the sun is considered as an object which becomes a piece of a common knowledge that is known by almost everybody in the world. Sentence (77) contains a definite description that refers to some more local common knowledge. It is quite obvious that almost everybody in

Yogyakarta will know which person is being referred by the definite description the

Sultan.

In the direct anaphoric reference uses, Quirk et al. (1985) suggest that the term anaphoric reference is used to mention the uniqueness of reference of a definite description when it is supplied by information given earlier in the discourse. The anaphora is direct if the same head noun occurs in the text and a relation of coreference exists between the noun phrases. Consider the following sentence.

78) I came across a young boy this morning. The boy gave me a strange

look.

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In (78) the definite description the boy refers to the antecedent a young boy which functions to give information about the referent. It is a direct anaphora since the same head noun boy appears in the discourse and there is a relation of coreference between the indefinite noun phrase a young boy and the definite description the boy.

It means that both phrases refer to the same entity.

On the other hand, Quirk et al. (1985) state that an anaphora is indirect when the reference becomes part of the hearer‟s knowledge by inference from what has already been mentioned, not by using the same head noun like direct mention above.

Consider the following sentence.

79) Dad bought a new car, but I don‟t like the color.

It is obvious that the definite description the color in (79) refers to the particular color of a particular car mentioned before. This is also the result from general knowledge that a new car must be well-painted.

Quirk et al. (1985) suggest that cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphoric reference. It has been mentioned before that anaphoric reference accounts to preceding information which may occur in the form of the same head noun or different nouns. When the nouns are different the participants of the discourse are in the position of being able to draw a relationship between the nouns. Cataphoric reference is understood as a situation where the information for the referent is placed after the definite descriptions, in contrast to anaphoric reference that depends on preceding noun phrases. Consider the following sentences.

80) The girl walking here is my sister.

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81) The Prime Minister of Egypt is scheduled to visit Indonesia.

Sentence (80) shows that the definite description the girl takes its definiteness from the contracted adjective clause (that is) walking here. In sentence (81) the definite description the Prime Minister takes its definiteness from the prepositional phrase of

Egypt.

Dealing with definite descriptions with sporadic reference, Quirk et al. (1985:

269) suggest that the definite article the “is sometimes used in reference to an institution of human society.” Consider the following sentence.

82) I‟m picking up my friend at the station.

Sentence (82) can be interpreted in two different ways. Firstly, it may mean that both the speaker and the hearer are inhabitans of a place with only one station. Therefore, the definite description the station can be explained in the theory of uniqueness.

Secondly, the definite noun phrase the station can be referred to the station as an institution. In this case, according to Quirk et al. it is considered inappropriate to ask, in response to (82): Which station? It should be sufficient to get the idea that the definite description the train refers to a particular place where people normally get on or get off from a train. This interpretation is preferred by Quirk et al. They call it as sporadic reference since “reference is made to an institution which may be observed recurrently at various places and times.”

Quirk et al. (1985) suggest that with the logical use of the definite article the knowledge of the world is considered as not very necessary. The uniqueness of the referent can be logically seen from the interpretation of certain words. Some of them

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are first, next, last, same, only, sole, and superlative adjectives like best and cleverest.

Quirk et al. also mention that in this particular case replacing the definite article the with indefinite or zero article would generally be considered unacceptable. Therefore, it is the first train coming and not a first train coming. The same treatment applies with plural form where the only students is acceptable, while only students is considered unacceptable.

Finally, Quirk et al. (1985: 270) mention that the definite article the is often used “with reference to parts of the body and following a preposition.” Consider the following sentences.

83) I have a pain on the stomach.

84) She gave her son a kiss on the cheek.

Quirk et al. suggest that it is possible to replace the definite article in sentences (83) and (84) with possessive adjectives my and his. Although it may happen in a very special situation, it is unlikely possible to replace the possessive adjective in the following sentence with the definite article the.

85) Have you cut your finger?

From the discussion above the classification of definite descriptions uses proposed by Quirk et al. can be summarized in the following table:

Types of uses Examples Immediate Situation Have you tried the steak? (uttered during a dinner) Larger Situation (General the sun

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Knowledge) the Sultan Anaphoric Reference a boy  the boy (Direct) Anaphoric Reference a new car  the color (of the new car) (Indirect) Cataphoric Reference The girl walking here is my sister. Sporadic Reference the station in this town (considering the town only has one station) Logical Use of The the first person the best girl The Use of The With I have a pain on the stomach. Reference to Body Parts Table 2.2 Quirk et al.‟s list of definite description uses

It is obvious that Quirk et al. propose a longer list of definite description uses than

Hawkins‟. However, it can be also seen that most uses of definite descriptions from

Quirk et al. can be well accommodated in Hawkins‟ list. Hawkins‟ anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use are essentially the same with Quirk et al.‟s direct and indirect anaphoric references. Hawkins and Quirk et al. share exactly the same theories on immediate situation and larger situation uses. They also have the same idea on the logical use of the definite article which Hawkins refers as unexplanatory modifiers use. On the other hand, from the syntactic features of the sporadic, cataphoric references, and the use of the with reference to body parts, it can be assumed that these three semantic functions from Quirk et al. can be accommodated in Hawkins‟ unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers.

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B. Review of Related Studies

In relation to the topic of the study, two researches have been conducted before in this field. The first was conducted by Vieira (1998). In this dissertation

Vieira presents an implemented model of definite description processing that is based on extensive empirical studies of definite description use and whose performance can be quantitatively measured. He argues that traditionally definite descriptions have been regarded as anaphoric in almost all approaches to discourse processing and discourse representation, and the models of definite description processing proposed in the literature tend to emphasize the role of common-sense inference mechanisms.

His study shows that definite descriptions are not primarily anaphoric. Instead, they are often used to introduce a new entity in the discourse. He also states that in the model of definite description processing that he proposes, recognizing discourse new descriptions plays a role as important as identifying the antecedent of those used anaphorically.

The second research was conducted by Poesio and Veiera (1998). The study is aimed at assessing the feasibility of annotating corpora with information about definite description interpretation. In the study people were asked to classify the uses of definite descriptions found in 33 newspaper articles. Then, the agreement among those people about the classes assigned to definite descriptions was measured. The result shows that the agreement among the people is relatively low.

Some other studies related with English definite article and definiteness have also been conducted (Butler, 2002; Ionin and Wexler, 2003; Kaku, 2006; Master,

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1997, 2002; Nasaji and Swain, 2000; Snape et al., 2006; White, 2008). Butler and

Kaku focus their discussion on the problem that the learners of English in Japan frequently face in mastering the English article system. Kaku starts her study with a common assumption that “many second language (L2) learners have difficulty in acquiring the English article system” and this also happens with L2 Japanese learners.

In dealing with this problem she proposes Lardiere‟s “reassembling feature” by which

L2 Japanese learners can associate the article the with referentiality.

Kaku‟s study, however, is based on another study of English articles by Ionin and Wexler (2003). In this preceding investigation Ionin and Wexler argue that

“learners often use articles inappropriately – i.e., they do not appear to have mastered the semantics of English articles”. They further add that there is “no consensus regarding the interpretation that underlies article choice in L2-English”. Their study is quite similar with the following study by Kaku in that it focuses more on the definite article the.

Though quite similar with Kaku‟s study in that it deals with L2 Japanese learners, Butler‟s (2002) study is an attempt to see the learners‟ difficulty from different angle. The study specifically addresses the problem by “examining the metalinguistic knowledge of the English article system that learners employ… in a given situation”. The study is expected “to better understand the process of „making sense‟ of the English articles by learners”.

A different study was conducted by Nasaji and Swain (2000) in that they used

English articles as a component in their research instrument in order to study the

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negotiated help in the zone of proximal development of L2 Korean learners. The study results in more general “support for a consciousness-rising view of language learning”.

Master‟s (1997, 2002) studies present discussion on the acquisition of the

English articles by non-native speakers of English in a wider context. He argues that the problems non-native speakers often face in learning and mastering English article system is closely related with the article system of their first language. He mentions that “articles appear to be acquired differently depending on whether or not they occur in the learner‟s first language”.

Apparently those studies still leave a space where a study on how the English speakers of Indonesia perceive the semantic functions of the definite article which can be seen from the classification of definite descriptions according to their uses needs to conduct. It is considered necessary to study how the English speakers of

Indonesia interpret the meaning of the definite article. It is expected that the study gives a better understanding on the phenomena of actual English usage as an international lingua franca and in particular the reason on the significance of the knowledge of the semantic functions of the definite article.

C. Theoretical Framework

The present research is mainly based on the semantic and pragmatic theories of definiteness. The theories try to explain what definiteness is and describe what meanings of definiteness can be accommodated in terms of familiarity, identifiability, uniqueness, and inclusiveness. These four theories should explain how definite

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descriptions are used as the first aim of the study is to observe how English speakers of Indonesia identify the types of uses of definite descriptions found in The Jakarta

Post online newspaper based on a classification scheme which is developed from

Hawkins‟ classification of the uses of definite description.

The study prefers Hawkins‟ theory on the definite descriptions uses rather than the one proposed by Quirk et al. The main reason is that because Hawkins offers more simple account on the definite description uses which is materialized in fewer types of uses. In other words, Hawkins proposes shorter list of types of definite description uses rather than Quirk et al. Hawkins‟ list consists of six types of definite description uses while Quirk et al. has eight types of definite description uses in their list. In order to provide the participants of the study with less burdensome instrument the list with fewer items is considered more preferable.

It is mentioned before that Hawkins classifies the uses of definite description into six types: (1) anaphoric use, (2) associative anaphoric use, (3) immediate situation use, (4) larger situation use, (5) unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, and (6) unexplanatory modifiers use. The assumption in this research is that all

English speakers of Indonesia participating in the current study would be able to identify all these types of definite description uses to definite descriptions found in

The Jakarta Post online newspaper. The result from the annotation process is analyzed and measured to find out how good English speakers of Indonesia are in classifying definite descriptions based on their uses.

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Finally, the predictability of the meaning of the types of definite description uses should answer the second research question. It is expected that the coders would produce agreement on the types in group one (anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use) and group three (unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use) since the determinant elements of the meaning can be found in the discourse. In other words, technically it should be easier for the coders to create agreement on the types in group one and three rather than on types in group two (immediate situation use and larger situation use). As it was mentioned before, to understand the meaning of the types of uses in group two the hearer (or the reader) of the discourse is required to share the same information of the referent of the description mentioned in the discourse. The assumption of the present study is that if the coders produce agreement on the types of uses in group one and three where the predictability of the meaning is relatively high the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia is considered not significant. On the other hand, if the coders fail to produce agreement on the types of uses in group one and three it should be concluded that the knowledge of definite description uses for

English speakers of Indonesia is considered significant.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology and procedure employed in the research. It consists of four sections. They are (a) research method, (b) research data,

(c) research procedure, and (d) Krippendorff’s α statistics. The first subchapter presents the research method used in the study. The second subchapter contains the discussion on the data source and the way they are collected. The third subchapter presents and elaborates the steps in analyzing the data. Finally, the fourth subchapter presents and exemplifies the use of Krippendorff’s α statistics to compute the data.

A. Research Method

The present study, which intends to find the answer of the research questions, adopts the method and techniques commonly applied in a content analysis. Neuendorf

(2002: 1) defines content analysis as “the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics.” Therefore, the objective of this kind of analysis is to study the message within a particular form of language representation. Neuendorf mentions that this kind of study includes analysis of human interaction, TV programs, language expressions used in films and novels, words usage in newspaper and magazine, and so much more.

However it is not the intention of the current study to investigate the message that is contained in the source of data. The main aim of the study is to investigate how the English speakers of Indonesia perceive the meaning of definiteness by assigning a

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number of definite descriptions to a particular classification scheme. Therefore, the present research is categorized as a descriptive study. Fraenkel and Wallen (1993:

380) state that a study which is carried out based on descriptive approach puts a great emphasis on holistic description. It is employed to describe in detail everything happens in a particular situation.

The study is also put on the basis of quantitative approach. It requires four coders to interpret the meaning of definite descriptions found in a number of natural language texts by classifying them with the classification scheme proposed by

Hawkins (1978). Then, the Krippendorff’s α is employed to find out how much the coders agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses.

B. Research Data

The source of the data for the current research is in the form of 418 definite descriptions found in selected articles from The Jakarta Post online. This online newspaper is the online version of The Jakarta Post, an English newspaper published by PT Bina Media Tenggara, a local publisher in Indonesia. Most of the articles are written by Indonesian journalists and checked by a language supervisor who speaks

English as the native language before they are published in paper and online versions.

Therefore, the English used in the articles is considered standard in term of internationally publishable English since people from different countries can subscribe to the magazine or open the online version.

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The articles were retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/, from

Tueday, 16 February 2010 until Thursday, 18 February 2010. There were 90 online articles collected and they were put in a list. These articles, then, were selected using systematic sampling (Krippendorff, 2004: 115) in which every 5th article from the list was taken. The study did not apply skip interval as suggested by Neuendorff, but it was projected to reach the minimum number of sample size that is 384 items with +/-

5% sampling error and 95% level of confidence (Neuendorff, 2002: 89). See the following table.

Sampling error 95% Level of Confidence 99% Level of Confidence ± 2% 2,404 4,160 ± 3% 1,087 1,852 ± 5% 384 665 ± 10% 96 167 Table 3.1 The Sample Size for Selected Confidence Intervals (Neuendorff, 2002: 89)

Therefore, the sampling process was terminated when it reached the number of 418 definite descriptions in 18 articles.

The reason of selecting this local English newspaper is to provide the coders with more local issues, since the daily has a lot of reports on local issues and events.

It was expected that the coders would have less burden in understanding the main idea of the articles. The following table shows the description of the data.

No Date Title ∑ Definite Descriptions 5 Tue, 02/16/2010 Century team to obtain 21 11:09 AM depositors’ data by force 10 Tue, 02/16/2010 Palm estate is forest, says 28

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10:09 AM ministry 15 Mon, 02/15/2010 Mining and conservation at the 52 11:31 AM crossroads 20 Tue, 02/16/2010 Rights group seeks probe into 16 12:10 PM attack on NGO office 25 Mon, 02/15/2010 Bagir to promote press code of 8 9:10 PM ethics, law 30 Mon, This year's registration for 10 02/15/2010 3:22 state university entrance online PM 35 Wed, 02/17/2010 Forests expand by 14m 36 10:20 AM hectares: Ministry 40 Wed, 02/17/2010 Tourists struggle to obtain 8 4:54 PM visas at Ngurah Rai airport 45 Wed, 02/17/2010 Century committee sets up 20 3:07 PM formulation team 50 Wed, 02/17/2010 New book tells of Bali airport's 37 2:14 PM humble beginnings 55 Wed, 02/17/2010 No transparency leads to 24 11:40 AM school budget scam 60 Wed, Police question witnesses in 10 02/17/2010 4:06 missing university statue case PM 65 Tue, 02/16/2010 SBY tells regions to look up to 5 6:59 PM Tangerang 70 Fri, 02/12/2010 Indonesia’s Uber Cup squad 43 12:13 PM drawn in tough pool 75 Sun, 08/16/2009 Forestry student's brainstorm 33 12:23 PM in Bogor 80 Thu, 02/18/2010 SBY proposes revamp of 34 10:44 AM social services system 85 Thu, 02/18/2010 Hospital warned about hiring 15 11:03 AM aliens 90 Thu, 02/18/2010 PPP admits lobbying on 18 3:59 PM Century intensifying Table 3.2 Description of Research Data

The first column of the table shows the number of The Jakarta Post online article.

The second column shows the date when the article was uploaded. The third column

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shows the title of the article. The fifth column shows the number of definite descriptions found in the article.

C. Research Procedure

The procedures in administering the research are elaborated in the following steps.

1. The theories on definiteness, definite article, and the uses of definite

descriptions were collected and studied.

2. The newspaper articles from The Jakarta Post online were randomly

retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/.

3. All titles of the articles were put in a list.

4. The systematic sampling technique was applied to select the articles.

5. The definite descriptions were extracted from the selected articles and

they were used as the source of data.

6. Four English speakers of Indonesia were asked to classify the definite

descriptions according to Hawkins’ list of definite description uses. They

had to assign each definite description to one type. All speakers were the

graduate linguistic students of English Language Studies in Sanata

Dharma University. The background of the speakers is very significant in

that they were expected to use their linguistic background in doing the

annotation although some discussion to make them familiar with the terms

of definite description uses was still needed. They did the coding from

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Monday, 19 April 2010 until Monday, 26 April 2010. It was expected that

the coders had enough time to finish the coding.

7. The result, then, was presented in the form of tables and diagram.

8. The results were computed using the Krippendorff’s α statistics to

measure the agreement among the coders about the meaning of definite

descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses.

9. The coding result done by the coders as the data was analyzed to find the

significance of the knowledge of definite description uses for English

speakers of Indonesia to be able to use the definite article the

appropriately.

10. The some conclusions on the theories of definiteness and definite

description uses in general and on the result of the analysis in particular

were presented.

D. The Krippendorff’s α Statistics

Partly, the present study aims to find out the agreement among the human subjects on the interpretation of definite descriptions uses. The Krippendorff’s α statistics (Krippendorff, 2004) is a test suitable for the cases when several subjects have to assign items to one category of a set of classes. The computation of the α coefficient of agreement among subjects takes into account the possibility of chance agreement. α is dependent on the number of coders, the number of items being classified, and the number of choices of classes to be ascribed to items. The α coefficient of agreement among coders is defined as:

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where Do is a measure of the observed disagreement and De is a measure of the disagreement that can be expected when chance prevails.

According to Krippendorff when there is perfect agreement and disagreement is observed to be absent, Do = 0 and α = 1. This indicates perfect reliability. On the other hand, “when agreement and disagreement are matters of chance and observed and expected disagreements are equal, De = Do, α = 0 indicating the absence of reliability” (Krippendorff, 2004: 222). He also suggests that there is a possibility for α to become negative, -1 for instance. However, he mentions that negative values may result from two kinds of errors: sampling errors and systematic disagreement.

Krippendorff suggests that sampling errors happen for some reason. It may because sample sizes are too small or observations that should be done are few making the task seem easy. Each of them causes large effects on α. He further mentions that “these deviations from the true value of α occur when it turns out to be impossible for observed disagreements to equal the expected disagreement, causing α values to dance above and below zero” (Krippendorff, 2004: 222). On the other hand, systematic disagreement, as Krippendorff suggests, refers to a particular case when coders

agree to disagree or pursue opposing interpretation of the instructions given to them. All observed disagreements distract from perfect reliability, but systematic disagreements can cause α values to drop below what could be expected by chance (Krippendorff, 2004: 222)

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The present study applies the Krippendorff’s α because the statistic can be applied to any number of values per variable. The statistics is suitable for the current study which involves the work of 4 English speakers of Indonesia as the coders uses because it accommodates any number of coders. In addition, the statistics is considered as the perfect tool for the study because it can be applied to small and large sample sizes.

The illustration of the computation using Krippendorff’s Α statistics is as follows:

Definite Description Coder A Coder B phrase 1 1 1 phrase 2 2 2 phrase 3 2 3 phrase 4 3 3 phrase 5 1 1 phrase 6 2 1 Table 3.3 A Sample of Coding Result

The first column in table 3.2 shows the definite description being classified. The next two columns contain the coding result done by coder A and B. In this example both coders were asked to classify 6 phrases to 3 different types of definite descriptions uses.

Definite Description type 1 type 2 type 3 phrase 1 2 0 0 phrase 2 0 2 0 phrase 3 0 1 1 phrase 4 0 0 2

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phrase 5 2 0 0 phrase 6 1 1 0 ∑ 5 4 3 Table 3.4 Frequencies for Both Coders

Krippendorff’s α is computed with the following formula:

______nm - 1 ______Ʃpfu m - 1 (Ʃpmt )

where

pfu = product of any frequencies for a given unit that are different (i.e.

show disagreement,

pmt = each product of total marginals,

n = number of units coded by coders,

m = number of coders.

pfu = (1x1) + (1x1) [disagreement for the-phrases 3 and 6]

= 2 and

pmt = (5x4) + (5x3) + (4x3) [all pairings are added]

= 20 + 15 +12

= 47

Therefore, the value of Krippendorff’s α to show the level of agreement between the coders above can be computed as follows.

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nm - 1 = 1 - ______(Ʃpfu : Ʃ pmt ) m - 1

(6) (2) - 1 = 1 - ______(2 : 47) 2 - 1 11 = 1 - ______(0.042) 1 = 1 - 11 (0.042)

= 1 - 0.46

= 0.54

The result shows that the α value is still between 1 and 0. The level of agreement between the coders is shown by the value of α within the range of 1 ≥ α ≥ 0. The closer is the value of α to 1, the higher is the level of agreement among the coders. A distribution of bootstrapped α values and the interpretation of agreement level employed in the study is as follows:

α values agreement level 1.00 perfect agreement 0.95 0.90 very high 0.85 0.80 0.75 high 0.70 0.65 0.60 not very high 0.55 0.50 0.45 low 0.40 0.35 0.30 very low 0.25

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0.20 0.15 extremely low 0.10 0.05 0.00 perfect disagreement Table 3.5 Bootstrapped Distribution of α Values and the Agreement Level

Therefore, according to table 3.5, the most possible interpretation of 0.54 as the α value is that the level of agreement among coders about the meaning of definite descriptions is low.

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CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents the analysis of the research data and detailed discussions of the findings gathered during the investigation. The discussion specifically covers three main sections, namely (a) the identified types of definite description, (b) the level of agreement among English speakers of Indonesia, and (c) the significance of knowledge of definite description uses.

A. The Identified Types of Definite Description Uses

This section deals with the first objective of the current study. It is to find out how four English speakers of Indonesia as the coders for the current study interpreted the meaning of definite description by classifying definite descriptions found in The

Jakarta Post online articles based on their uses. The task of these four coders is to do the coding based on a classification scheme that was developed based on Hawkins’ theory of definite description uses. In his theory Hawkins mentions a list of definite description uses which includes 6 types of definite description uses. They are (1) anaphoric use, (2) associative anaphoric use, (3) immediate situation use, (4) larger situation use, (5) unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, and (6) unexplanatory modifiers use.

The definite descriptions that the coders should classify were extracted from

The Jakarta Post online articles, retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/, from

Tuesday, 16 February 2010 until Thursday, 18 February 2010. The study collected 90

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online articles during that time. The topics and issues brought in the articles are quite varied. There is a wide range of topics such as politics, law and justice, environment, and sports. After a systematic sampling process where every fifth article chosen there were 18 articles left as the sample of the recent study. All together, these systematically selected articles contain 418 definite descriptions to be classified.

The classification done by the coders produced a result which indicates that according to coders A, B, and D all six types of definite description uses were found in definite descriptions collected from the selected The Jakarta Post online articles.

Only coder C did not assign the unexplanatory modifiers use to any definite descriptions in the collection of definite descriptions.

Coder A successfully assigned all types of definite descriptions uses to all definite descriptions. The classification result produced by coder A is as follows:

Class the-phrases % a. anaphoric use 155 37% b. associative anaphoric use 8 2% c. immediate situation use 44 11% d. larger situation use 76 18% e. unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers 27 6% f. unexplanatory modifiers use 108 26% Total 418 100% Table 4.1 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder A

As Table 4.1 indicates, coder A assigned the highest number of the-phrases or definite descriptions to the anaphoric use. This first type of definite description uses in Hawkins’s list was assigned to 155 definite descriptions or 37% cases of all

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definite descriptions. It is followed by the unexplanatory modifiers use of definite descriptions with 108 definite descriptions, the larger situation use with 76 definite descriptions, the immediate situation use with 44 definite descriptions, and the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers with 27 definite descriptions. The associative anaphoric use according to coder A was only assigned to 8 definite descriptions.

The distribution of all 6 types of definite description uses identified by coder

A can be seen in the following diagram.

180 a) anaphoric use 160 b) associative anaphoric 140 use 120 c) immediate situation use 100 d) larger situation use 80 e) unfamiliar uses with 60 explanatory modifiers 40 f) unexplanatory modifiers 20 use 0 a b c d e f

Diagram 4.1 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder A

Diagram 4.1 indicates that according to coder A the anaphoric use has the highest distribution, followed by the unexplanatory modifiers use of definite descriptions, the larger situation use, the immediate situation use, and the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. The associative anaphoric use is in the lowest position in the distribution of types of definite description uses.

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With regard to the first type of definite description uses, the annotation done by coders A and B produced a slightly similar result. Both of them agreed that the anaphoric use should be ascribed to a large number of definite descriptions placing this type of definite description uses at the highest position of distribution in the collection of definite descriptions. However, coder B produced relatively different coding result with coder A in most other types of definite description uses. The following is the coding result produced by coder B.

Class the-phrases % a. anaphoric use 152 36% b. associative anaphoric use 68 16% c. immediate situation use 21 5% d. larger situation use 132 32% e. unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers 36 9% f. unexplanatory modifiers use 9 2% Total 418 100% Table 4.2 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder B

It can be seen in table 4.2 above that according to coder B the highest number of definite descriptions should be assigned to the anaphoric use. The coder classified

152 definite descriptions or 36% of the total number of definite descriptions collected from the articles. Unlike the coding result produced by coder A, coder B placed the larger situation use under the anaphoric use by assigning the larger situation use to

132 definite descriptions. It is followed by the associative anaphoric use with 68 definite descriptions, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers with 36 phrases,

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and the immediate situation use with 21 phrases. Coder B assigned the unexplanatory modifiers use to 9 definite descriptions only.

There are several cases where coders A and B ascribed the unexplanatory modifiers to the same definite descriptions. However, there is an extreme difference when the figure for the type of unexplanatory modifiers use in table 4.2 is compared to the one in table 4.1 which shows coder A’s annotation result. It is obvious that coder A ascribed the type to more definite descriptions than coder B. It is very likely that the difference is caused by the different ways coders A and B interpret the type.

It can be seen in the following examples.

86) But the deforestation rate in Indonesia is the highest on the planet with

more than 1 million hectares cleared per year…(article 10, par. 10)

87) In the past 10 years, we have prepared everything to make the Ijen-Raung

area a national park, but things went wrong at the last moment after we

met most of the requirements… (article 15, par. 3)

88) …that simple airstrip has become the second-busiest gateway into

Indonesia… (article 50, par. 2)

Coders A and B classified the definite description the highest (rate) in (86) as an unexplanatory modifiers use. It is in line with Hawkins’ theory of definiteness that a description with an unexplanatory modifiers use takes its definiteness from certain modifiers such as the superlative highest in the description the highest (rate). The same coders, however, did not classify the definite descriptions the last moment in

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(87) and the second-busiest gateway in (88) as the same type of definite description uses.

Coder A assigned the unxplanatory modifiers use to the first description and the larger situation use to the second, while coder B classified the first description as an associative anaphoric use and the second as an unexplanatory modifiers use. With the coding it seems that coder A classified the description the second-busiest gateway as a larger situation use because she used her background knowledge to find the referent of the description. This reason, however, should be unacceptable since the information about the referent cannot be categorized as shared knowledge.

Quite similarly, in the classification of the definite description the last moment in (87) coder B may have a baseless reason in ascribing an associative anaphoric use to the description. It is because the head noun moment in the description the last moment cannot be associated with any preceding noun phrases in the initial position of the text. Based on Hawkins’ theory on definite description uses it should be more acceptable to classify the descriptions the last moment and the second-busiest gateway as unexplanatory modifiers uses since the head nouns moment and gateway are modified by last and second-busiest respectively. Therefore, by referring to the structure of the ideas in the text it should be sufficient for the coder to produce acceptable annotation.

The following diagram provides a general overview of the distribution of types of definite description uses identified by coder B.

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200 a) anaphoric use b) associative anaphoric use 150 c) immediate situation use d) larger situation use 100 e) unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers 50 f) unexplanatory modifiers use 0 a b c d e f Diagram 4.2 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder B

Diagram 4.2 shows that coder B classified most of the definite descriptions as an anaphoric use, making this first type of definite description use the type with the highest distribution. It is followed by the larger situation use, the associative anaphoric use, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, and the immediate situation use. The unexplanatory modifiers use of definite descriptions is in the lowest position in the distribution of types of definite description uses.

The coding done by coder C produced a very different result from the first two coders. The coding done by coders A and B resulted in the anaphoric use of definite descriptions as the type with the highest distribution. Coder C, on the other hand, considered the associative anaphoric use as the type with the highest distribution. The figure representing the distribution of this second type of definite description uses is even bigger than the biggest figures identified by coders A and B.

Coder C classified 57.4% of the total definite descriptions as an associative anaphoric use, while the highest figures of coders A and B only reach 37% and 36%, both for

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the anaphoric use. The following table shows the complete result of the coding done by coder C.

Class the-phrases % a. anaphoric use 86 20.5% b. associative anaphoric use 240 57.4% c. immediate situation use 2 0.5% d. larger situation use 23 5.5% e. unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers 67 16% f. unexplanatory modifiers use 0 0% Total 418 100% Table 4.3 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder C

According to coder C the associative anaphoric use was identified in most definite descriptions. The coder identified 240 definite descriptions with this type.

This figure is significantly much higher than any other figures in table 4.3. The anaphoric use came with 86 definite descriptions, followed by the larger situation use with 67 definite descriptions, the larger situation use with 23 definite descriptions, and the immediate situation use with 3 definite descriptions only. Coder C did not assign the last type of definite description uses - unexplanatory modifiers use - to any definite descriptions. This should be quite problematical since coder A assigned an unexplanatory modifiers use to 26% of the definite descriptions in the collection of definite descriptions and coder B assigned the type to 2% of the descriptions.

A rough picture of the distribution of types of definite description uses identified by coder C can be seen in the following diagram.

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300 a) anaphoric use 250 b) associative anaphoric use 200 c) immediate situation use 150 d) larger situation use e) unfamiliar uses with 100 explanatory modifiers 50 f) unexplanatory modifiers use 0 a b c d e f

Diagram 4.3 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder C

Diagram 4.3 indicates that according to coder C the associative anaphoric use has a significantly very high distribution. It looks very prominent compared with the distribution of the other types. It is followed by the anaphoric use, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, the larger situation use, and the immediate situation use.

There is no bar for the unexplanatory modifiers use since the coder did not assign the type to any descriptions.

Coder D agreed with coders A and B concerning the first type of definite description uses. The annotations done by coders A, B, and D produced a quite similar result in that the anaphoric use was identified in a large proportion of definite descriptions. It can be seen from the percentage of the anaphoric use as shown in table 4.1 (37%), table 4.2 (36%) and in the following table (30%). The percentage is not as big as the one in the first two tables, but still it is bigger than any other percentage from the other types in table 4.4 as follows.

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Class the-phrases % a. anaphoric use 126 30% b. associative anaphoric use 71 17% c. immediate situation use 45 11% d. larger situation use 122 29% e. unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers 50 12% f. unexplanatory modifiers use 4 1% Total 418 100% Table 4.4 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder D

As it was mentioned before, table 4.4 indicates that coder D assigned the anaphoric use to 30% of the definite descriptions or to 126 the-phrases. This figure is just slightly bigger than the one of the larger situation use with 122 definite descriptions.

It is followed by the associative anaphoric use with 71 phrases, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers with 50 phrases, and the immediate situation use with 45 phrases. Quite similarly to coder B, coder D ascribed the unexplanatory modifiers use to a relatively small number of definite descriptions, i.e. 4 definite descriptions only.

It should be noted here that coder B assigned the same type of definite description uses to these 4 descriptions. In other words, coders B and D produced agreement in classifying the same definite descriptions as an unexplanatory modifiers use. See the following examples.

89) At the same time, Australian airline Qantas Empire, plying the Singapore-

Darwin route, proposed transiting at Bali. (article 50, par. 9)

90) …they are placed in the same group with top teams such as South Korea

and Thailand. (article 70, par. 1)

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Coders B and D classified the definite descriptions the same time in (89) and the same group in (90) as an unexplanatory modifiers use. It is very likely that they considered the modifier same as the element in the phrase that determines the meaning of definiteness of the noun phrase.

The distribution of types of definite description uses identified by coder D can be seen in the following diagram.

140 a) anaphoric use 120 b) associative anaphoric 100 use 80 c) immediate situation use 60 d) larger situation use 40 e) unfamiliar uses with 20 explanatory modifiers 0 f) unexplanatory a b c d e f modifiers use

Diagram 4.4 Classification of definite descriptions according to coder D

The diagram indicates that according to coder D the anaphoric use has the highest distribution. Although it is the highest, it is not significantly higher than the larger situation use. They are followed by the associative anaphoric use, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers, the immediate situation use, and the unexplanatory modifiers use with relatively low distribution.

It can be seen in all tables and diagrams above that all coders do not have complete agreement on the distribution of the types of definite description use. In fact

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they disagreed on most types. A better picture on the comparison of annotations done by the coders can be seen in the following diagram.

300 a) anaphoric use 250 b) associative anaphoric use 200 coder A c) immediate situation use 150 coder B d) larger situation use coder C e) unfamiliar uses 100 coder D with explanatory modifiers 50 f) unexplanatory 0 modifiers use a b c d e f

Diagram 4.5 Classification of definite descriptions according all coders

Diagram 4.5 indicates that in general coders A, B and D produced relatively similar annotations, especially for the anaphoric use, the immediate situation use, the larger situation use, and the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. On the other hand, the annotation made by coder C seems quite problematic in that it shows a quite extreme figure for the associative anaphoric use. The high bar indicates that coder C has a very high tendency to classify definite descriptions as associative anaphoric use.

The tendency, however, is not supported by strong evidence that coder C always agrees to the meaning of the associative anaphoric use as suggested by

Hawkins. There are many cases which show that the coder did not share the same interpretation of associative anaphoric as Hawkins suggests. Consider the following examples.

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91) Leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee on the Bank

Century bailout will visit the Central Jakarta District Court for

consultation over a possibility to get access to data on Bank Mutiara’s

depositors suspected of receiving the bailout fund. (article 5, par. 6)

92) “By doing so, Malaysia can reap financial incentives from the UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) of carbon trade,”

he said. (article 10, par. 5)

Coder C classified the definite description the Bank Century bailout in (91) as an associative anaphoric use. It seems quite dubious since the referent of the description cannot be found elsewhere in the preceding phrase. The same thing happens to the description the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in (92). It is very likely that Hawkins would classify the descriptions the Bank Century bailout and the

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change as larger situation uses since the information about the existence of the referents which is signaled by the use of the proper nouns should be shared by the readers of the texts.

The high bar representing the classification on the type of unexplanatory modifiers use by coder A in diagram 4.5 is also problematic. The bar is prominently higher than any bars from the other coders in the same type of use. It obviously shows that coder A assigned more definite descriptions as unexplanatory modifiers use than coder B or D. Some cases indicate that coder A’s interpretation on this type is in line with the theory of unexplanatory modifiers use suggested by Hawkins. One such example is the highest (rate) in (93).

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93) But the deforestation rate in Indonesia is the highest on the planet…(article

10, par. 10)

Hawkins suggests that definite descriptions with unexplanatory modifiers use is the ones with modifiers which always appear following the definite article the. One such modifier is the superlative highest in (93).

On the other hand, some other cases show that coder A interpreted the meaning of unexplanatory modifiers use differently from Hawkins. Consider the following examples.

94) But it does not have to be that way, according to the environmental

management department head of Jember University School of

Agriculture, R. Soedrajad. (article 15, par.1)

95) …the act of violence displayed a huge gap between democratization and

the development of a political society in the country. (article 20, par. 2)

Coder A classified the definite descriptions the environmental management department head in (94) and the development in (95) as unexplanatory modifiers use.

The reason is quite dubious since the head nouns are not preceded by particular modifiers such as a superlative in (93). Based on Hawkins’ theory on this type of use the two descriptions should be classified as unfamiliar uses since the definite descriptions are followed by prepositional phrases of_. These cases should indicate that the coder used different information background in that the meaning of definite description uses was interpreted quite differently from Hawkins.

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In general diagram 4.5 indicates that the distribution of the types of definite description uses in the data according to the coders is not very similar. Coders A, B and D agreed that anaphoric use has the highest distribution. They also produced quite similar classification result for the immediate situation use, the larger situation use, and the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. On the other hand, they did not agree on the distribution of the other types. Coders B and D agreed on quite similar distribution of larger situation of use and associative anaphoric use, but they did not agree on the other three types of definite description use.

Diagram 4.5 also shows that in the case of anaphoric use all coders produced relatively similar result of annotation. The result might come from the meaning of the type itself which to a certain extent is not very problematic as the coders were only required to find the referent of a particular definite description in the antecedent. The presence of such a big number of anaphoric uses in the annotations done by coders A,

B and D may imply that the use of definite descriptions in anaphorical linkage is very crucial.

Finally, diagram 4.5 indicates that coders A, B and D classified relatively similar number of larger situation use definites. This use of definite descriptions according to the 3 coders reached the second highest distribution after the anaphoric use. The locality of the content of The Jakarta Post online articles which were retrieved for the samples of the study might be the key factor for this case. As it is mentioned before the meaning of the larger situation use relies on the background knowledge shared by the participants of a particular discourse. Therefore, it is very

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likely that the coders used their knowledge to locate the referents of the definite descriptions.

B. Level of Agreement among English Speakers of Indonesia

Partly, the current study is aimed to observe how good English speakers of

Indonesia are in classifying definite descriptions based on their uses. As it was mentioned in the introductory chapter the term how good in the study should particularly refer to how much the coders agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions which is determined from the types of definite description uses.

The agreement and also disagreement among the coders about the meaning of definite descriptions might be seen from the tables and diagrams presented in the previous section. The study, however, is projected further to produce a figure that can be used as an indicator to show the value of coders’ level of agreement. This figure should be met by a computational process using Krippendorff’s alpha statistic. Before applying the formula of alpha the number of agreement and disagreement cases among the coders should be counted.

Table 4.5 shows the result of coding done by the coders. The first column shows the number of the article from The Jakarta Post online where definite descriptions were identified and should be classified by the coders. The column pfu shows the number of coded units which the coders coded differently, i.e. show disagreement. The last column contains the total number of definite descriptions found in the articles.

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No Article # agreement disagreement (pfu) ∑ n 1 5 5 16 21 2 10 6 22 28 3 15 12 40 52 4 20 0 16 16 5 25 1 7 8 6 30 0 10 10 7 35 0 36 36 8 40 0 8 8 9 45 3 17 20 10 50 1 36 37 11 55 1 23 24 12 60 3 7 10 13 65 3 2 5 14 70 2 41 43 15 75 4 29 33 16 80 6 28 34 17 85 4 11 15 18 90 4 14 18 Total 55 363 418 Table 4.5 Distribution of disagreement (pfu) among coders

For instance, it can be seen in the table that there are 21 definite descriptions found in article 5. All coders made perfect agreement, i.e. ascribing the same type of definite description uses to 5 definite descriptions, but they did not have the agreement on the other 16 definite descriptions. From 418 definite descriptions found in all sample articles there are 363 cases which show disagreement among the coders. To fill the place of ∑ pfu all figures in the cases of disagreement were counted. For example in article 5 paragraph 1 there are 2 cases of disagreement where 3 coders agreed to classify a definite description as a particular type of use and the other coder classified the description as another type of use. The pfu for the disagreement in this paragraph

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can be met by counting (3x1) + (3x1) = 6. Therefore, after all figures in disagreement cases from all articles were counted the figure 897 was met.

Table 4.6 shows the frequency of distribution of each type of definite description uses that coders assigned to definite descriptions found in each article.

No Article # a b c d e f 1 5 33 23 6 21 1 0 2 10 34 22 6 39 8 3 3 15 83 56 16 18 30 5 4 20 9 8 9 19 17 2 5 25 7 6 4 5 10 0 6 30 9 9 6 5 11 0 7 35 38 38 12 25 22 9 8 40 7 14 2 3 4 2 9 45 24 16 0 36 3 1 10 50 50 40 3 23 15 17 11 55 31 17 5 25 14 4 12 60 14 8 4 6 4 4 13 65 15 0 1 2 1 1 14 70 28 56 22 26 15 25 15 75 37 35 8 29 10 13 16 80 49 24 6 32 6 19 17 85 28 10 1 11 4 6 18 90 23 6 0 30 3 10 total 519 388 111 355 178 121 Table 4.6 Frequencies of all coders

The first row in the table above, for instance, indicates that in article 5 the anaphoric use was assigned 33 times by the coders, the associative anaphoric use was assigned

23 times, the immediate situation use was assigned 6 times, the larger situation use was assigned 21 times, the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers was assigned 1 time, and no coders assigned the unexplanatory modifiers use to any definite

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descriptions found in article 5. After adding all pairings in the last row the figure of

1095504 was met to fill the place of ∑ pmt.

Therefore, the computation to find the Krippendorff’s alpha value to show the level of agreement among coders in the present study is as follows.

(418) (4) - 1 = 1 - ______(897:1095504) 4 - 1

(1671) = 1 - ______(0.0008) 3

= 1 - 557 (0.0008)

= 1 - 0.45

= 0.55

The result shows that the alpha value which is symbolized by α is still between 1 and

0. According to table 3.5 in chapter III, the most possible interpretation of 0.55 as the

α value is that the level of agreement among the coders about the meaning of definite descriptions is relatively not very high. This value serves as a confirmation to the disagreement among the coders shown in diagram 4.5 in the previous section. The relatively low value of agreement among the coders is mainly caused by two factors, i.e. the ambiguity in Hawkins’ theory of definite description uses and the coders’ misinterpretation of the theory of definite description uses.

Firstly, to some extent the theory of definite description uses proposed by

Hawkins is quite ambiguous. Finding the difference between an anaphoric use and an associative anaphoric use, for instance, can be problematic. Hawkins suggests that an anaphoric definite description refers to a definite description which refers back to an

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antecedent. The antecedent is a noun phrase mentioned previously in the discourse and both the definite description and the antecedent refer to the same entity. On the other hand, an associative anaphoric definite description also relies on the existence of linguistic element which occurs in the initial position to which the definite description can be associated.

When the linguistic environment of a definite description is simple like in the sentence I travelled to Jakarta last week but the journey was terrible it is not very problematic to classify the definite description the journey as an anaphoric use since this description is the result of nominalization of the verb travel which serves as the antecedent. However, in much longer and complex texts many cases indicate that it is not very easy for the coders to draw the rigid line of difference between these two anaphoric definite description uses. Consider the following sentences:

96) Bank Mutiara is the rebranded Bank Century… (article 5, par.1)

97) … the oil palm industry did not relate to deforestation. (article 10, par.12)

Coder A classified the definite description the rebranded Bank Century in (96) as an anaphoric use while coders B, C, and D made an agreement by classifying the definite noun phrase as an associative anaphoric description. It is very likely that according to coder A the phrases Bank Mutiara and the rebranded Bank Century refer to the same entity. On the other hand, coders B, C, and D might have considered that the referent of the definite description the rebranded Bank Century could be identified by creating an associative relationship between the description and another phrase in the initial position. There are 47 similar cases in which one coder classified

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a definite description as an anaphoric use and the other 3 coders classified it as an associative anaphoric use, or the other way around.

There are 15 cases observed in the data in which two coders classified a definite description as an anaphoric use and two other coders classified the description as an associative anaphoric use. Sentence (97) is one such example.

Coders A and B classified the definite description the oil palm industry in (97) as an anaphoric use while coders C and D classified it as an associative anaphoric use. It is very certain that coders A and B had picked one noun phrase in the initial position of the text as the antecedent for the description, although through a careful observation there is no noun phrase which can serve as a perfect antecedent for the description.

Coders C and D, on the other hand, must have tried to associate the definite description the oil palm industry with the phrase oil palm plantations in the preceding paragraph.

The study also found that it is not always easy to find a clear-cut distinction between an anaphoric use and a larger situation use. There are 16 cases in which one coder classified a definite description as an anaphoric use and 3 other coders classified the description as a larger situation use. Consider the following sentence:

98) The Agriculture Ministry issued a 2009 decree to allow oil palm

plantations … (article 10, par.15)

Coders B, C, and D classified the definite description the Agriculture Ministry in (98) as an anaphoric use. The reason is obvious in that they identified the antecedent of the phrase in the preceding paragraph. Coder D, on the other hand, classified the

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description as a larger situation use. It is very likely that the coder considered the information about the referent of the description as shared knowledge.

Secondly, there are many cases which serve as evidence that the coders quite often misinterpreted the theory of definite description uses, thus producing unacceptable classification. Consider the following sentences:

99) …the committee plans to force executive director Maryono to break the

bank secrecy regulation to facilitate the inquiry into the controversial

bailout… (article 5, par.2)

Coders A, B, and C produced acceptable classification by identifying the definite description the controversial bailout in (99) as an anaphoric use. The reason is very obvious in that they considered the phrase the Bank Century bailout as the antecedent for the description the controversial bailout. On the other hand, it is very likely that coder D misinterpreted the theory of large situation use. She classified the description as a larger situation use while the information about the referent of the definite description cannot be categorized as shared knowledge.

Another example of the coders’ misinterpretation can be observed in (100).

100) The Forestry Ministry claims the country’s total forested area has

increased to 134 million hectares… (article 35, par.1)

Coders A, B, and D classified the definite description the Forestry Ministry in (100) as a larger situation use. This can be understandable since the definite article is followed by proper nouns and according to Hawkins a definite description with proper nouns should better be classified as a larger situation use. On the other hand,

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coder C classified the description as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers. It is very obvious that this classification is unacceptable since the definite description is not accompanied by any syntactic or lexical properties which function as its modifier.

There are 13 cases with this kind of classification.

C. The Significance of Knowledge of Definite Description Uses

The second intention of the current study is to identify how significant the knowledge of definite description uses is for English speakers of Indonesia to be able to identify the meaning of the definite article the appropriately. In the theoretical framework of the current research it is mentioned that if the coders make agreement on the types of uses in group one (anaphoric and associative anaphoric uses) and three (unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use) where the predictability of the meaning is relatively high the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia should be considered not significant. On the other hand, if the coders fail to make agreement on the types of uses in group one and three it should be concluded that the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia is considered significant.

Therefore, the next focus of the study is to analyze the annotations to find out the answer of the second research question. The analysis is divided into 2 main parts, namely (1) agreement among coders, and (2) disagreement among coders. The first part of analysis includes the data presentation on the agreement among the coders and the possible reason behind the agreement. The latter involves the presentation on the varieties of disagreement produced by the coders and the discussion on how it

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becomes the evidence on the significance of the knowledge of the semantic functions of the definite article.

1. Cases of Agreement among Coders

Table 4.6 in the previous section indicates that from 418 definite descriptions found in the sample articles of The Jakarta Post online there are 363 cases of disagreement among the coders. It means there are 55 cases where all 4 coders ascribe the definite descriptions to the same types of uses. It also indicates that only in these cases where all coders produced perfect agreement.

Table 4.7 below shows the distribution of all perfect agreement made by the coders. It can be obviously seen in this table that the coders made perfect agreement mainly on the anaphoric use. There are 44 cases of perfect agreement made on the first type of definite description uses. It makes 80% of perfect agreement from the total number of 55 cases of perfect agreement made by the coders. This partly confirms the assumption made in theoretical framework of the current study that the coders would make more agreement on the types in group one (anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use) since the determinant elements of the meaning can be found in the discourse.

No Article Agreement on each type of agreement disagreement # definite description uses a b c d e f 1 5 3 1 0 1 0 0 5 16 2 10 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 22 3 15 8 2 0 0 2 0 12 40 4 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 5 25 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 7

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6 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 7 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 8 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 9 45 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 17 10 50 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 36 11 55 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 23 12 60 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 7 13 65 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 14 70 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 41 15 75 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 29 16 80 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 28 17 85 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 11 18 90 4 0 0 0 0 0 4 14 total 44 3 0 5 3 0 55 363 % 80 5.45 0 9.1 5.45 0 100 Table 4.7 Distribution of agreement among coders

One example of perfect agreement that the coders made on the anaphoric use is the definite description the committee in (101).

101) He insisted that the committee would remain unmoved by recent

pressures and threats targeting its members. (article 5, par. 6)

All coders agreed to classify the definite description the committee as an anaphoric use. It is because the description refers back to an antecedent which is in the form of noun phrase with the same head noun mentioned previously in the first paragraph of the article.

A similar case of perfect agreement on the anaphoric use can be observed in the following case.

102) A number of committee members and lawmakers from parties that

support the inquiry have recently been linked to past legal cases…

(article 5, par. 9)

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The definite description the inquiry in (102) was classified as anaphoric by all coders since the referent of this description with the same head can be found in paragraph 1 and paragraph 2 in the article.

A different case in which the coders made perfect agreement on classifying definite descriptions as anaphoric uses was found in (103).

103) As someone involved in efforts to turn the Ijen-Raung reserve into a

national park…(article 15, par.2)

All coders classified the definite description the Ijen-Raung reserve in (103) as an anaphoric use. The reason is very likely because the coders found the same definite noun phrase in sentence (104) in the preceding paragraph.

104) He was responding to a decision to cut a large section of the Ijen-Raung

natural reserve area for a geothermal mining site… (article 15, par.1)

This, however, should be unacceptable since a definite description with a proper noun would be classified as larger situation of uses by Hawkins. Therefore, if a definite description which involves a proper noun appears several times in a particular discourse it should always be classified as a larger situation of use. This can be seen in (104) where two coders agreed that the description should be classified as a larger situation use.

A quite similar case happened with the definite description the Blawan-Ijen area in (105).

105) But in November 2009, Perhutani found the map for geothermal mining

in the Blawan-Ijen area… (article 15, par. 7)

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All coders agreed that the description should be classified as an anaphoric use. Again, it is very likely because they found the same description with the same head noun in the previous paragraph. It is a bit different from the previous case, however, in that there was a perfect disagreement among all coders about the antecedent. Unlike the description the Ijen-Raung natural reserve area in (104) which was classified as a larger situation use by two coders, each coder classified the Blawan-Ijen area in

(106) which they might have considered as the antecedent for the description in (105) as different types of uses.

106) Late last year, the East Java Region III Natural Resources Conservation

Center (BKSDA) received a copy of a ministerial decree citing the

presence of geothermal potential in the Blawan-Ijen area. (article 15,

par. 4)

A case where all coders classified a definite description as an anaphoric use with an antecedent in the form of a different word was also found in the study. One such example is the airport in (107).

107) The airport became one of his mega projects… (article 50, par.11)

It is very likely that all coders used the definite description the airfield in (108) in the preceding paragraph as the referent for the description the airport in (107).

108) In 1942, Japanese troops took over the airfield and extended the airstrip

to 1,200 meters. (article 50, par.9)

The definite descriptions the airfield and the airstrip are the hyponyms for the airport. The coders, however, did not have the agreement on assigning the definite

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description the airstrip to anaphoric use. Three coders classified the description as an anaphoric use and the other classified it as an associative anaphoric use. This should be questionable since the description refers to the airfield as its antecedent.

Several cases of agreement happen in associative anaphoric use. One such example can be seen in (109).

109) Leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee on the

Bank Century bailout will visit the Central Jakarta District Court for

consultation over a possibility to get access to data on Bank Mutiara’s

depositors suspected of receiving the bailout fund. (article 5, par.1)

All coders agreed that the referent of the definite description the bailout fund in (109) can be associated to the definite noun phrase the Bank Century bailout in the initial part of the sentence. The coders would not classify the description as an anaphoric use since it has different head noun from its antecedent.

A similar case in which all coders produced agreement on classifying a definite description as an associative anaphoric use can be seen in (110).

110) The Ijen-Raung forest is currently in a critical state, as almost 75 percent

of the ecosystem has been damaged due to forest conversion into

farmland. (article 15, par.10)

It should be true that the coders associated the description the ecosystem in (110) with the antecedent the Ijen-Raung forest explicitly mentioned previously in the text. The coders’ classification on this particular description is in line with the theory suggested by Hawkins that in an associative anaphoric use the antecedent functions as the

100

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trigger for the related definite description. In this case the description the Ijen-Raung forest becomes the trigger to create the referent of the description the ecosystem.

Several cases of perfect agreement were produced by the coders in larger situation use. One such example is the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee in (111).

111) Leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee on the Bank

Century bailout will visit the Central Jakarta District Court for

consultation over a possibility to get access to data on Bank Mutiara’s

depositors suspected of receiving the bailout fund. (article 5, par. 1)

All coders had perfect agreement that the description the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee should be classified as a larger situation use. The reason should be that this definite description relies on what Hawkins calls as a kind of specific knowledge about the larger situation. In this particular case the coders shared knowledge of the existence of the referent by being members of the same community.

It should be the case that all coders have known the information that such political body exists in their society.

Another case of perfect agreement in which all coders classified a definite description as a larger situation use can also be seen in (112).

112) The Forestry Ministry is drafting a decree to include oil palm plantations

in the forest sector to comply with international standards in mitigating

climate change. (article 10, par.1)

101

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The best interpretation on the annotation of the description the Forestry Ministry should be that all coders shared knowledge of the existence of the referent of the definite description. It is very unlikely that the coders would refer the description with a forestry ministry from different country, if there are any, because it is commonly known that Indonesia is one of many countries with large forests and it has a special government office that deals with forestry. Thus, the description is quite similar with the one in (111) in that the coders shared knowledge of the existence of the referent by being the members of the same community.

Finally, a small number of cases of perfect agreement were produced by the coders in the type of unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. One such example is the best solution in (113).

113) “The best solution is to keep the national park’s area and set the mining

site at its exploitation zone,” he said. (article 15, par.11)

Classifying the description the best solution as an unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers is unacceptable. Hawkins mentions that the main characteristic of definite descriptions that can be classified as unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers is the fact that they posses some syntactic and lexical properties, such as NP complements, nominal modifiers, referent establishing relative clauses, and associative clauses. This characteristic cannot be found in the description the best solution in (113). Since the description has the superlative best preceding the head noun solution, it should be best classified as an unexplanatory modifiers use.

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A better case of perfect agreement on the type of unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers was found in the definite description the code of ethics in

(114).

114) Bagir said that the code of ethics for the press and 1999 Press Law,

especially the right to refuse and right to reply, had not been

successfully implemented in the country. (article 25, par. 2)

The best interpretation of the perfect agreement is that all coders seemed aware of the prepositional phrase of ethics following the head noun code in (114). This is in line with Hawkins’ theory on the uses of definite descriptions that a definite description should best be classified as unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers when it involves an associative relationship between two phrases separated by the preposition of.

A similar case in which all coders made perfect agreement about an associative relationship between two phrases can also be seen in (115).

115) But he warned that the environmental impact analysis for the mining site

should be carefully carried out. (article 15, par. 13)

The reason why all coders classified the description the environmental impact analysis for the mining site in (115) as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers might be that they considered the preposition for to associate the noun phrase environmental impact analysis and the noun phrase the mining site.

In general table 4.7 indicates that all coders made a very small number of perfect agreement cases. It is very different in comparison with a large number of

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disagreement cases among the coders. From the discussion above it can also be summarized that when the coders made perfect agreement by classifying a particular definite description as the same type of definite description use they follow Hawkins’ theory on definite description uses. Some other cases, however, become the evidence that even when all coders made perfect agreement it was produced on a basis of background knowledge which is different from Hawkins’ theory of definite description uses.

2. Cases of Disagreement among Coders

Table 4.7 shows that in general the annotation done by the coders produced 4 kinds of disagreement. They are (a) the 3-1 disagreement, (b) the 2-2 disagreement,

(c) the 2-1-1 disagreement, and (d) the 1-1-1-1 disagreement. The 3-1 disagreement refers to the cases where 3 coders ascribed the same type of definite description uses to a definite description while the other coder classified it as a different type of definite description uses. The 2-2 disagreement should refer to the cases where 2 coders produced agreement in classifying a definite description as the same type of definite description uses while the other 2 coders produced another case of agreement by classifying the same definite description as another type of description uses. The

2-1-1 disagreement refers to the cases where 2 coders assigned a definite description to the same type of definite description uses, while 1 other coder assigned it to different type, and the other coder classified it as another different type of description uses. The 1-1-1-1 disagreement refers to the cases where perfect disagreement among

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the coders was observed. It means each coder classified a definite description as a different type of definite description uses.

The frequencies of disagreement among the coders based on the kinds of disagreement mentioned above can also be seen in table 4.8 below.

Kinds of Disagreement number of cases 3-1 144 2-2 28 2-1-1 164 1-1-1-1 27 total 363 Table 4.8 Distribution of disagreement among coders

Table 4.8 indicates that all four combinations of disagreement among coders were observed with different number of cases. It can be seen that the types of 3-1 disagreement and 2-1-1 disagreement are with higher frequency than the other two kinds of disagreement. The following sections include the discussion of analysis on some cases of each kind of disagreement. It is expected that the discussion would present the evidence on the significance of the knowledge of the types of definite description uses. a. The 3-1 Disagreement

Table 4.8 shows that there are 144 cases of the 3-1 disagreement. Many of them are the result of classification of definite descriptions that have particular characteristics by which all coders were supposed to produce perfect agreement. One

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such example is the disagreement on classifying the definite description the committee in (116).

116) …and the committee plans to force executive director Maryono to break

the bank secrecy regulation to facilitate the inquiry into the controversial

bailout… (article 5, par.2)

Coders A, B, and D classified the definite description the committee as an anaphoric use. The reason should be because paragraph 1 of the article provides the noun phrase the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee as the antecedent for the description.

On the other hand, coder C classified the description as an associative anaphoric use which should be questionable since the description and the antecedent refer to the same entity and therefore should be classified as an anaphoric use.

A similar case of disagreement can also be observed in (117).

117) …because the executive director is not cooperative with us… (article 5,

par. 3)

Coders A, B, and D classified the definite description the executive director in (117) as an anaphoric use. The reason is obvious that the coders use the phrase executive director Maryono in paragraph 2 as the antecedent for the description. Coder C classified the description as an associative use which cannot be true since an indirect association cannot be constructed between the description and the phrase executive director Maryono, unless the description is associated with the phrase Bank Mutiara in paragraph 2.

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There are 35 3-1 disagreement cases in which coders A, B, and D classified a definite description as an anaphoric use whereas coder C classified the same description as an associative anaphoric use just like 2 cases above. Some of the cases, however, show that even the agreement among coders A, B, and D was made on the basis of different background knowledge from Hawkins’ theory. Such an example is the definite description the House in (118).

118) …the team includes all parties represented in the House. (article 45, par.

Coders A, B, and D classified the description the House as an anaphoric use. It is very likely that they use the same description mentioned in the previous paragraph as the antecedent for the definite description in (118). The coders, however, did not identify the antecedent as the same definite description use. In line with Hawkins’ theory coders A and B classified it as a larger situation use. Coder C classified it as an associative anaphoric, and coder D classified it as an anaphoric use.

A quite similar case can be observed in (119).

119) The book touches on the airport's use as a military base by the Dutch.

(article 50, par.6)

Coders A, B, and D classified the description the Dutch as an anaphoric use. It is very likely that they considered the same description mentioned early in the text as the antecedent for the definite description the Dutch in (119). Again, the coders did not classify the antecedent as the same definite description use. Coders A and B classified

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it as an anaphoric use. Coder C classified it as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifier, and coder D classified it as a larger situation use.

The two cases above show that the coders used different background knowledge in classifying a definite description. Based on Hawkins’ theory the definite descriptions the House in (118) and the Dutch in (118) should be classified as larger situation uses because the readers of the text are expected to use their knowledge to identify the referents of these phrases. In this particular case when the same description is mentioned several times in the text, it should be classified as the same use of definite descriptions.

In the case of classifying a definite description as a larger situation use the

Bank Century bailout in (120) shows that coders A, B, and D seemed to be very aware of the reason behind their classification.

120) Leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee on the Bank

Century bailout will visit the Central Jakarta District Court for

consultation over a possibility to get access to data on Bank Mutiara’s

depositors suspected of receiving the bailout fund. (article 5, par. 1)

The annotation result shows that coders A, B, and D classified the definite description the Bank Century bailout as a larger situation use while coder C categorized the description as an associative anaphoric use. The reason why the 3 coders classified the definite description as a larger situation use might be that they considered the information about the entity of the referent to be shared knowledge. It means that the coders presupposed the existence of the referent by sharing the contextual knowledge

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with the writer of the text. On the other hand, classifying the description as an associative anaphoric use as what coder C did should be unacceptable since there is no antecedent in the text which can be associated with the definite description the

Bank Century bailout.

Another case of the 3-1 disagreement can be seen in (121).

121) Bagir said that the code of ethics for the press and 1999 Press Law,

especially the right to refuse and right to reply, had not been

successfully implemented in the country. (article 25, par.2)

The definite description the right in (121) was classified as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers by coders B, C, and D. The coders might have tried to associate the head noun right with the verb phrase to refuse which functions as a complement for the head noun. This is very much in line with Hawkins’ theory on the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. Coder A, on the other hand, classified it as an immediate situation use which might be quite dubious since the referent of the definite descriptions cannot be identified using immediate situation, i.e. the existence of the referent is not either a visible situation use or an immediate situation use.

The case where the coders might use different background knowledge in classifying definite description which resulted in 3-1 disagreement can also be observed in (122).

122) Registration for the national entrance selection of state universities will

be held online this year…(article 30, par. 1)

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Coders A, B, and C classified the definite description the national entrance selection in (122) as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers. On the other hand, coder D ascribed a larger situation use to the description. The reason behind the agreement among coders A, B, and C should be that the definite description the national entrance selection is followed by the preposition of which shows an associative relationship between the head noun and state universities. On the other hand, the other coder may also have a strong reason in that she and the writer of the article have shared the knowledge of the existence of the referent.

It can be concluded that in the 3-1 disagreement there is a high tendency that coders A, B, and D produced agreement by classifying 35 definite descriptions as an anaphoric use. Coder C, on the other hand, is also consistent in classifying the same descriptions as associative anaphoric. Some cases become the evidence that coders A,

B, and D made the classification based on background knowledge which is in line with Hawkins’ theory on definite description uses. Some other cases, however, become the evidence that the agreement among coders A, B, and D was produced on the background knowledge which is not in line with Hawkins’ theory. b. The 2-2 Disagreement

The study found 28 cases of the 2-2 disagreement. Many of these cases involve definite descriptions with particular linguistic arrangement which should enable the coders to produce perfect agreement. One example of this kind of disagreement is the inquiry in (123).

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123) Bank Mutiara is the rebranded Bank Century, and the committee plans

to force executive director Maryono to break the bank secrecy regulation

to facilitate the inquiry into the controversial bailout… (article 5, par. 2)

Coders A and D classified the definite description the inquiry as an anaphoric use, while coders B and C classified the description as an associative anaphoric use.

Coders A and D might use the phrase leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee in paragraph 1 of the article as the antecedent for the description the inquiry. This should unlikely be acceptable since both phrases have different head words and therefore refer to different entities. Hawkins suggests that a definite description can be classified as an anaphoric use if the description and its antecedent refer to the same entity which can be signaled by a noun phrase with the same head word, a hyponym, a nominalization, a summation, or a synonym. Coders B and C seemed to have much stronger reason in classifying the description as an associative anaphoric use. The coders must have drawn a relationship between the phrase leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee and the description the inquiry.

Another case of the 2-2 disagreement is shown by the classification of the definite description the oil palm industry in (124).

124) But the Agriculture Ministry, managing the sector, insisted that the oil

palm industry did not relate to deforestation. (article 10, par. 12)

Quite similarly with the previous case, coders A and B produced agreement by classifying the description the oil palm industry as an anaphoric use. On the other hand, coder C and D classified this description as an associative anaphoric use.

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Classifying the description as an anaphoric use is unacceptable since there is no appropriate antecedent for the description. An anaphoric definite description should refer to an antecedent which is entitled to the same entity. One of the signals showing the same entity is the use of the same head word. Hawkins himself would agree to coders C and D who classified the description as an associative anaphoric use since a relationship can be drawn between the definite description the oil palm industry and an indefinite noun phrase oil palm plantations in the initial paragraph of the text.

From the total number of 2-2 disagreement cases there are 11 cases in which coders A and B classified the descriptions as an anaphoric use, while coders C and D classified the same descriptions as an associative anaphoric use.

A quite different case of the 2-2 disagreement can be observed in (125).

125) Tachrir said many officials within the Forestry Ministry had questioned

the veracity of the data… (article 35, par. 7)

Coders A and C classified the definite description the veracity in (125) as an associative anaphoric description. It is very likely that the coders had tried to set up a relationship between the description and the verb verified mentioned in the sentence

If verified, the new figure would make Indonesia the world’s second-largest forest nation in paragraph 5 of the article. However, the structure of ideas of the text shows that the word veracity and the verb verified in the text are not related to each other.

The verb verified relates to the description the new data in paragraph 4, while the word veracity relates to the description the country’s high rate of deforestation in paragraph 7. Coders C and D might have observed the sentence more carefully and

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noticed that the description is followed by the prepositional phrase of the data before finally classifying it as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifier.

The cases above give evidence that in 2-2 disagreement 2 coders produced agreement based on strong background knowledge, while 2 other coders’ agreement was produced on baseless reason. There is one case of this type of disagreement, however, where both the cases of agreement were made based on unfounded reason.

It can be observed in the classification of the definite description the Ijen-Raung forest in (126).

126) The Ijen-Raung forest is currently in a critical state… (article 15, par.

10)

Coders A and D classified the definite description the Ijen-Raung forest as an anaphoric use. On the other hand, coders B and C classified the description as an associative anaphoric use. Obviously these both classifications are unacceptable because the description contains a proper noun and according to Hawkins it should be classified as a larger situation use. c. The 2-1-1 Disagreement

Table 4.8 shows that the 2-1-1 disagreement is the type of disagreement with the highest number of cases. It can be seen in the table that there are 164 cases of this kind of disagreement. Many of the cases are those which involve the definite descriptions with such characteristics that all coders were supposed to produce perfect agreement. One such example is the bank secrecy regulation in (127).

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127) …the committee plans to force executive director Maryono to break the

bank secrecy regulation to facilitate the inquiry into the controversial

bailout…(article 5, par. 2)

Coders B and C classified the definite description the bank secrecy regulation in

(127) as an associative anaphoric use. Coder A classified the description as an immediate situation use and coder D classified it as a larger situation use. The agreement that coders B and C produced should be on a strong reason, inasmuch as the coders found a perfect antecedent for the description in the text. Hawkins suggests that an associative anaphoric description requires a linguistic item in the discourse as a trigger to which the description can be associated.

Coder A might have considered the referent of the description the bank secrecy regulation in (127) as an object which was not required to be visible and classified it as an immediate situation use. The coder should have categorized the referent of the description as an immediate one since it is known to exist in the context of banking system in Indonesia. On the other hand, coder D classified the description as a larger situation use. It can be interpreted that the coder considered herself to be in such a situation where she and the writer viewed the information of the existence of the referent as such a shared knowledge.

Another case of the 2-1-1 disagreement is shown by the classification of the definite description the world’s second biggest palm oil producer in (128).

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128) He argued that many countries such as Malaysia, the world’s second

biggest palm oil producer after Indonesia, had included oil palm

plantations in its forest sector. (article 10, par. 4)

Coder C and D classified the definite description the world’s second biggest palm oil producer as an associative anaphoric description. The coders might have tried to draw an association between the description and the phrase oil palm plantations mentioned several times in the initial paragraphs of the text. However, according to Hawkins’ theory on associative anaphoric use the phrase oil palm plantations cannot function as the trigger for the description since the referent of the world’s second biggest palm oil producer is Malaysia.

Coder A classified the definite description the world’s second biggest palm oil producer as a larger situation use, while coder B classified it as an anaphoric use.

Classifying the description as a larger situation use might be true considering that the information about the referent can be categorized as being common. On the other hand, coder B might observe that the text provides the word Malaysia as the antecedent for the description and classified the description as an anaphoric use.

It is, however, more acceptable to classify the description the world’s second biggest palm oil producer as an unexplanatory modifiers use. The reason is obvious that the definite description the world’s second biggest palm oil producer contains a superlative which modifies the head noun producer. In other words, by observing the structure of the definite description itself it should be sufficient for the coders to make

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the most acceptable classification. Therefore, perfect agreement should be produced in classifying the description.

Finally, the 2-1-1 disagreement was also found in some definite descriptions which belong to the second group of definite description uses. One such example is the world in (129).

129) South Korea’s two women’s doubles pairs of Ha Jung Eun/Kim Min

Jung and Lee Hyo Jung/Lee Kyung Won are ranked 5th and 6th in the

world. (article 70, par. 4)

Coders B and D classified the definite description the world as a larger situation use.

The coders considered the referent of the description as a common object which should be commonly viewed as a definitely unique entity.

Coder A classified the description the world as an unexplanatory modifiers use and coder C classified it as an associative anaphoric use. Classifying the description as an unxplanatory modifiers use is unacceptable since there are no words accompanying the head noun world as its modifiers except the definite article itself.

On the other hand, classifying the definite description the world as an associative anaphoric use is also unacceptable due to the absent of any linguistic items which function as its antecedents. Therefore, from this particular case it can be inferred that coder A and C were not very successful in putting their classification of this definite description on any strong basis.

As a conclusion it should be mentioned here that many cases in the 2-1-1 disagreement indicates that the coders failed to produce agreement by classifying

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definite descriptions as the same type of uses. Some cases show that 2 coders made the classification based on background knowledge which is in line with Hawkins’ theory on definite description uses. Some other cases, however, become the evidence that even the agreement between 2 coders was produced on the background knowledge which is not in line with Hawkins’ theory. d. The 1-1-1-1 Disagreement

The annotation in the present study produced 27 cases of perfect disagreement. It can be observed in the previous three types of disagreement, viz., the types of 3-1, 2-2, and 2-1-1 disagreement that there are many cases where all coders should have made perfect agreement due to the specific linguistic arrangement of the definite descriptions. The same condition was observed in the 1-1-1-1 disagreement which can be referred as perfect disagreement. One example of this kind of disagreement can be seen in the classification of the definite description the office in

(130).

130) The Commission for Disappeared People and Victims of Violence

(Kontras) has urged the police to investigate the motive behind the

attack on the office of the Democratic People’s Bastion (Bendera) on

Friday. (article 20, par. 1)

A case of perfect disagreement is observed in the coding of the definite description the office where all coders classified the description as 4 different types of uses.

Coder A classified the description as a larger situation use, coder B classified it as an

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unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers, coder C classified it as an associative anaphoric use, and coder D classified it as an immediate situation use.

From the structure of the noun phrase itself, it is very obvious that coder B had stronger evidence in classifying the definite description as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers. The coder should have learnt that the head noun office is followed by the prepositional phrase of the Democratic People’s Bastion. On the other hand, classifying the definite description as a larger situation use, an associative anaphoric use, or an immediate situation use should be considered unacceptable due to the theory of each type of uses. The description cannot be classified as a larger situation use since the information about the entity of the referent should not be categorized as shared knowledge. As an associative anaphoric use the description misses a trigger to which the referent can be associated. While classifying the description as an immediate situation use seems dubious since the referent is neither in visible situation nor in immediate situation.

Another case of the 1-1-1-1 disagreement where perfect agreement should have been made by all coders can be observed in the classification of the online system in (131).

131) The online system should enable senior high school students to receive

equal information. (article 30, par. 2)

Coder A classified the definite description the online system in (131) as an immediate situation use. The coder might have considered the referent of the description to exist in the related context. Coder B, on the other hand, classified the description as an

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anaphoric use which cannot be acceptable since there is no perfect noun phrase to be the antecedent for the description in the text.

It is also considered unacceptable to classify the description as an unfamiliar use with explanatory modifiers like what coder C did because the head noun is not modified by any other phrases. Coder D classified the definite description the online system as an associative anaphoric use. This classification is in line with Hawkins’ theory. Hawkins suggest that if a speaker and a hearer are in a position of being able to draw a relationship between a definite description and other elements mentioned in the discourse the description should be classified as an associative anaphoric use.

A very similar case of the 1-1-1-1 disagreement where perfect agreement should have been produced can be seen in the classification of the definite description the immigration division in (132).

132) The problem with the immigration division at Ngurah Rai International

Airport, especially its visa on arrival service, looks like a severe

disease… (article 40, par. 2)

Coder A classified the definite description the immigration division as an anaphoric use. Coder B classified the description as a larger situation use. Coder C classified it as an associative anaphoric use and coder D assigned an immediate situation use to the description.

Classifying the description the immigration division as an anaphoric use like what coder A did should be unacceptable due to the fact that the description has no perfect antecedent. It is also unacceptable to classify the description as a larger

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situation use since the information of the referent of the description cannot be categorized as shared knowledge. The description should not be classified as an immediate situation use either since its referent is not in visible or immediate situation. The information about the referent, on the other hand, can be drawn by associating the description and the noun phrase immigration officers located in paragraph 1 of the text. It might be the reason why coder B classified the description as an associative anaphoric. However, since the description is followed by the prepositional phrase at Ngurah Rai International Airport according to Hawkins’ theory it should be classified as an unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers.

Finally, to end the discussion in this section it should be concluded here that the significantly high number of disagreement cases is mainly caused by different knowledge background among the coders. Many cases become the evidence which indicate the coders’ failure to produce perfect agreement on the types in group one

(anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use) and group three (unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use) where the determinant elements of the meaning can be found in the discourse.

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This chapter presents two major areas of concerns, namely (a) conclusions which are mostly drawn from the analysis result and discussions in chapter IV, and

(b) suggestions which are directed to further linguistic studies and English language teaching.

A. Conclusions

It has been mentioned before that the current research is intended to elaborate and analyze how English speakers of Indonesia understand the meaning of the definite article the by identifying the uses of definite descriptions found in The

Jakarta Post online articles. The research is projected to reveal what types of uses of the-phrases or definite descriptions that English speakers of Indonesia can identify.

Furthermore, the investigation also aims to determine how much the coders of the study agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses. Based on the research problems formulated and research objectives in Chapter I, some conclusions are presented as follows.

First, the coding result shows that three coders, i.e. coders A, B, and D were successful in identifying all six types of definite description uses. They agreed that all the types of uses were found in 418 definite descriptions. On the other hand, the annotation result also shows that coder C identified all types of uses in the data

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collection except the type of an unexplanatory modifiers use. According to this coder not a single definite description from 418 descriptions collected from the articles should be classified as an unexplanatory modifiers use.

Coder A identified 155 anaphoric uses (37%), 8 associative anaphoric uses

(2%), 44 immediate situation uses (11%), 76 larger situation uses (18%), 27 unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers (6%), and 108 unexplanatory modifiers uses (26%). Coder B identified 152 anaphoric uses (36%), 68 associative anaphoric uses (16%), 21 immediate situation uses (5%), 132 larger situation uses (32%), 36 unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers (9%), and 9 unexplanatory modifiers uses

(2%). Coder C identified 86 anaphoric uses (20.5%), 240 associative anaphoric uses

(57.4%), 2 immediate situation uses (0.5%), 23 larger situation uses (5.5%), and 67 unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers (16%). Coder D identified 126 anaphoric uses (30%), 71 associative anaphoric uses (17%), 45 immediate situation uses (11%), larger situation uses (29%), 50 unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers (12%), and

4 unexplanatory modifiers uses (1%).

The annotation results show that all coders did not reach complete agreement on the distribution of the types of definite description use. The annotations done by coders A, B, and D produced a quite similar result in that the anaphoric use should be ascribed to a large proportion of definite descriptions. Coders A, B and D also produced relatively similar annotation results for the immediate situation use, the larger situation use, and the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. According to the 3 coders these 3 types of definite description uses have slightly similar

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distribution. Coder C, on the other hand, produced different annotation in that a large number of definite descriptions were assigned to associative anaphoric use.

The annotation results from all coders also show that there are more cases of disagreement than agreement. There are only 55 or 13.2% cases of perfect agreement from the total number of 418 definite descriptions collected from The Jakarta Post online articles. It means there are 363 cases of disagreement produced by all coders.

The disagreement among the coders came in four variations. They are the 3-1 disagreement (142 cases), the 2-2 disagreement (28 cases), the 2-1-1 disagreement

(164 cases), and the 1-1-1-1 disagreement (26 cases). The study, then, needed to see how much the coders of the study agree among themselves about the meaning of definite descriptions.

The agreement among the coders is represented in a figure that was gained through a computational process using the Krippendorff’s alpha statistic. The computational process resulted in the α value of 0.55. Although the figure is still between 1 and 0 where 1 represents perfect agreement and 0 means the absence of agreement, the best interpretation of 0.55 as the α value is that the level of agreement among coders about the meaning of definite descriptions by assigning definite descriptions to the types of their uses is relatively not very high. The present study identified two main factors that led to the relatively low value of agreement among the coders. They are the ambiguity in Hawkins’ theory of definite description uses and the coders’ misinterpretation of the theory of definite description uses.

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When the theory of definite description uses is applied in a simple text like I travelled to Jakarta last week but the journey was terrible, it is not too problematic to classify the definite description the journey as an anaphoric use although an associative link between the description and the verb travel can also be identified.

However, in much longer and complex texts many cases indicate that it is not very easy for the coders to draw the exact difference between an anaphoric use and an associative anaphoric use, or between anaphoric definite descriptions and larger situation descriptions.

The study found many cases which serve as evidence that the coders quite often misinterpreted the theory of definite description uses and as a result producing unacceptable classification. It can be observed in these cases that the coders misinterpreted the semantic functions of the definite article by ignoring the fact that some particular functions require certain linguistic elements such as an antecedent, syntactic or lexical properties, or shared knowledge among the participants of the discourse.

From 55 cases of perfect agreement, there are 44 cases of perfect agreement made on the anaphoric use, 3 cases of perfect agreement on the associative anaphoric use, 5 cases on the larger situation use, and 3 cases on the unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers. A big number of perfect agreement cases on the anaphoric use should partly confirm the assumption that the coders would produce more agreement on the types of definite description uses which are characterized with particular determinant elements of meaning such as anaphorical linkage (anaphoric use and

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associative anaphoric use), and syntactic and lexical properties (unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use). Some cases become the evidence that when all coders produced perfect agreement by classifying a particular definite description as the same type of definite description use they follow Hawkins’ theory on definite description uses. On the other hand, some other cases show that even perfect agreement could be produced by the coders based on different background knowledge from the one that was developed by Hawkins.

The annotation result also shows that there is a significantly great number of disagreement cases produced by all coders. During the data analysis the study revealed that there are two main reasons for the disagreement. Firstly, some cases are the evidence that the coders classified a definite description based on insufficient theoretical background. Therefore, the annotation should be considered as unacceptable. Secondly, some other cases show that the coders quite often misinterpreted the theory of definite description uses and produced questionable annotation.

The second conclusion deals with the second research question on the significance of the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of

Indonesia to be able to use the definite article the appropriately. The analysis of the data has proved that the knowledge of definite description uses for English speakers of Indonesia is considered significant. It can be obviously seen from the fact that there are many cases where the coders failed to produce perfect agreement on the types in group one (anaphoric use and associative anaphoric use) and group three

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(unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers and unexplanatory modifiers use) where the determinant elements of the meaning can be found in the discourse. In other words, the coders would have produced more perfect agreement cases if they had interpreted the meaning of the definite description uses better.

B. Suggestions

The current study is trying to portray a small picture on how English speakers of Indonesia perceive the semantic functions of the definite article in the real use. As the study is not projected to be an extensive investigation of definite description use in the context of English as an international language in Indonesia it invites more studies to do much deeper researches on how English speakers of Indonesia use

English in general and try to understand every element of the language in particular.

An obvious direction in which to extend the study is by investigating the agreement about definiteness and indefiniteness among English speakers of Indonesia. A much deeper study that is projected to develop a mechanical identification in a translation machine based on the theory of definite description uses can be also worthy of mention.

The result of the present study can be used as an evidence of the importance of teaching English articles in English class. Besides providing students with good references on English grammar, teachers should be encouraged to stimulate students with plenty of spoken and written exposure. Therefore, not only the students but also the teacher themselves can internalize the English article system better. Students along with their teacher should experience the real use of English article system by

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spending more time in listening English texts or watching video with authentic

English utterance. As reading can be a good exposure for students, teachers should prepare more reading activities and invite students to write more publishable English texts. By doing so, it is expected that English speakers of Indonesia will actualize themselves in the context of international communication by producing more acceptable English.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbot, B. 2006. Definite and indefinite. Brown, K. (Ed) Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (ELL2), 392-399. Elsevier Ltd.

Abbot, B. Definiteness and Indefiniteness. Retrieved from http://www.msu.edu~abbottbdef_and_indef.pdf in March 19, 2009 at 1.23 PM.

Aitchison, J. 2003. Teach Yourself Linguistics. Berkshire: Cox & Wyman Ltd.

Brutt-Griffler, J. 2002. World English, a Study of Its Development. Clevedon: Cromwell Press Ltd.

Carletta, J. 1996. Assessing Agreement on Classification Tasks: the Kappa Statistic. Computational Linguistics. 22(2): 249 – 254.

Celce-Muria, M and Larsen-Freeman, D. 1999. The Grammar Book. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

Fraenkel, J.R. and Wallen, N.E. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Frawley, W. 1992. Linguistic Semantics. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Fromkin, V., Blair, D., Collins, P. 1996. An Introduction to Language (4th ed). New South Wales: Harcourt Australia Pty Limited.

Goto Butler, Y. 2002. Second Language Learner’s Theories on the Use of English Articles: an Analysis of the Metalinguistic Knowledge Used by Japanese Students in Acquiring the English Article System. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.

Hawkins, J.A. 1978. Definiteness and Indefiniteness. London: Croom Helm Ltd.

Inan, I. 2009. How Often Do We Use a Definite Description to Talk about Its Semantic Referents? Kriterion – Journal of Philosophy 22: 7-12. Retrieved from http://www.sbg.ac.at/kriterion/documents/22/inan09.pdf in February 6, 2010 at 9.09 AM.

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Ionin, T and Wexler, K. 2003. The Certain Uses of the in L2-English. In Juana M. Liceras, Helmut Zobl and Helen Goodluck (eds.). Proceeding of GASLA 6th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2002): L2 Links. Cascadilla Press.

Kaku, K. 2006. Second Language Learners’ Use of English Articles: a Case Study of Native Speakers of Japanese. CLO/OPL Janvier Vol. 34: 63-74.

Krippendorff, K. 2004. Content Analysis: an Introduction to Its Methodology (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Leech, G. 1981. Semantic: the Study of Meaning (2nd ed). Suffolk: Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd.

Lyons, C. 1999. Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2007. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. England: Pearson Education Limited.

Master, P. 1997. The English Article System: Acquisition, Function, and Pedagogy. System 25 (2), 215-232.

Master, P. 2002. Information Structure and English Article Pedagogy. System 30, 331-348.

Neal Snape, Y.K., Leung, I., Ting, H. 2006. Comparing Chinese, Japanese and Spanish Speakers in L2 English Article Acquisition: Evidence against the Fluctuation Hypothesis? In Mary Grantham O’Brien, Christine Shea, andJohn Archibald (eds.). Proceedings of the 8th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2006),. Cascadilla Proceedings Project.

Neuendorf, K.A. 2002. The Content Analysis Guidebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.

Ostertag, G. 2006. Descriptions, Definite and Indefinite: Philosophical Aspect. Brown, K. (Ed) Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (ELL2), 465-472. Elsevier Ltd.

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Poesio, M. and Veiera, R. 1998. A Corpus-based Investigation of Definite Description Use. Computational Linguistics, Vol 24 (2), 183-216.

Poole, S.C. 1999. An Introduction to Linguistics. New York: Palgrave.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. 1972. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman Group Limited.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman Group Limited.

Sellen, D. 2000. Grammar World. Canterbury: Black Cat Publishing.

Trenkic, D. Establishing the Definiteness Status of Referents in Dialog (in Languages with or without Articles). Heriot-Watt University. Retrieved from http://www.rceal.cam.ac.ukPublicationsWorkingVol7Trenkic.pdf in May 12, 2008 at 10.21 AM.

Umbach, C. 2001. (De)accenting Definite Description. Theoretical Linguistics. Vol. 27, No. 2/3.

Vieira, R. 1998. Definite Description Processing in Unrestricted Text. Ph.D. thesis. University of Edinburg, Edinburg. von Heusinger, K. 1995. Formal Aspects of a Pragmatic Theory of Definiteness. P. Bærentzen (ed.) 1995. Aspekte der Sprachbeschreibung. Akten des 29. Linguistischen Kolloquiums in Aarhus 1994. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 81-84. (Linguistische Arbeiten 342). Retrieved from http://www.ilg.uni- stuttgart.de/vonHeusinger/publikationen/pub95/formal.pdf in May 13, 2009 at 9.47 AM. von Heusinger, K. 2002. Specificity and Definiteness in Sentence and Discourse Structure. Journal of Semantics. 19: 245-274.

White, L. 2008. Different? Yes. Fundamentally? No: Definiteness Effects in the L2 English of Mandarin Speakers. In Roumyana Slabakova et al (eds.). Proceeding of GASLA 9th Generative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Conference (GASLA 2007): L2 Links. Cascadilla Press.

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Yano, Y. 2001. World Englishes in 2000 and beyond. World Englishes, Vol. 20, No. 2, 119-131.

Zandvoort, R.W. and Van Ek, J.A. 1970. A Handbook of English Grammar. London: Longman Group Limited.

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APPENDIX 1

The Annotation Result done by Coder A, B, C, and D on definite descriptions found in selected articles from The Jakarta Post online, retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/, from Tueday, 16 February 2010 until Thursday, 18 February 2010

a. Anaphoric Use b. Associative Anaphoric Use c. Immediate Situation Use d. Larger Situation Use e. Unfamiliar Uses with Explanatory Modifiers f. Unexplanatory Modifiers Use (5) Century team to obtain depositors’ data by force Hans David Tampubolon, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 11:09 AM | National Coders par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the House of Representatives’ inquiry committee d d d d the Bank Century bailout d d b d the Central Jakarta District Court d d b d the bailout fund b b b b 2 the rebranded Bank Century a b b b the committee a a b a the bank secrecy regulation c b b d the inquiry a b b a the controversial bailout a a a d 3 the district court a a b a the executive director a a b a the committee’s deputy chairman c d b b the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle d d b d 5 the Financial Transaction Report and Analysis d d e d Center 6 the committee a a a a 8 the pressure a a b a

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the committee a a a a the alleged irregularities c b b b the bailout c a a a 9 the inquiry a a a a the police c c d d

(10) Palm estate is forest, says ministry Adianto P. Simamora, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 10:09 AM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The Forestry Ministry d d d d the forest sector c d b d 2 The ministry a a a a the policy a a a b 3 the Agriculture Ministry d d d d the ministry a a a a The Jakarta Post d d c d 4 the world’s second biggest palm oil producer d a b b 5 the UN Framework Convention on Climate d d b d Change 6 the UN b a d d 7 the implementation c e b e the REDD scheme a d b c 9 the world’s third largest forest nation d a b b the Republic of Congo e d b d 10 the deforestation rate c b b b the highest f f b b 11 the increase f e e e 12 the Agriculture Ministry d a a d the oil palm industry a a b b 13 the country’s total forest area e b b d 15 The Agriculture Ministry d a a a 16 The Greenomics Indonesia d d d d the Forestry Ministry d a a a 17 The ministry’s much-promoted sustainable forest c b a e

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management The Forestry Ministry d a a a the Post a a c b 18 the Forestry Ministry d a a a the Environment Ministry d d d d

(15) Mining and conservation at the crossroads Luthfiana Mahmudah, The Jakarta Post, Jember, East Java | Mon, 02/15/2010 11:31 AM | The Archipelago par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the other a b e b the environmental management department head f e e b the Ijen-Raung natural reserve area d d e c the Energy and Mineral Resources Ministry d d b d 2 the Ijen-Raung reserve a a a a the new development a b b b 3 the Ijen-Raung area a a a a the last moment f b b e the requirements c b b b 4 the East Java Region III Natural Resources d d e c Conservation Center the presence a e b e the Blawan-Ijen area d a b c 5 The geothermal sources a a b a the Perhutani state forestry company’s forest d d b c preserve the Mount Ijen reserve a d b a the ministry a a a a the planned geothermal mining a b a a the area a a a a the fact e e b e the decree c a b c the forestry company a a b c the process f e b b 6 the Forestry Ministry d d a d the final requirement e a e b

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the area’s status a b e b the plan a b b b the Ijen-Raung National Park f d a a 7 the map c b e c the Blawan-Ijen area a a a a the area a a a b the prospective national park a a b b the mines a a b b 8 the Raung mountain region d a a a the area a a a e the national park a a b a the planned national park a a a a 9 The minimum area e b b b the Ijen-Raung a a a a 10 The Ijen-Raung forest a b b a the ecosystem b b b b the conservation area b b b b the sectors and ministries a a b b 11 The best solution e e e e the national park’s area a a a a the mining site a a b a the national park area a a b a 12 the land a b e b 13 the environmental impact analysis e e e e the mining site a a b a 14 the Javan hawk-eagle and green Javanese jungle d c e c fowl the Javan tiger d c e c the wild f c e c

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(20) Rights group seeks probe into attack on NGO office The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 12:10 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The Commission for Disappeared People and d d e d Victims of Violence the police c c b d the motive c c b c the attack d c b c the office d e b c the Democratic People’s Bastion d d b d 2 the rights group a d e b the act a e e b the development f e e e the country d d e d 4 the police d a e a the future f c e e the government d d e d 5 the nongovernmental organization’s office a e e b 6 the attack d a e a 7 The police d a e a

(25) Bagir to promote press code of ethics, law The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Mon, 02/15/2010 9:10 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 2 the code e e e e the press c c e b the right c e e e the country d d e d 5 the press d a b a the press d a b a the press code c b b a 6 the problem a a e b

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(30) This year's registration for state university entrance online Andi Hajramurni, The Jakarta Post, Makassar, South Sulawesi | Mon, 02/15/2010 3:22 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the national entrance selection e e e d 2 The online system c a e b 4 The education minister a d e a the remarks a a b b the signing e e b e the application c e b e the registration committee c d b c 5 the old system c d e c 6 the MoU a d b a the registration a a b b

(35) Forests expand by 14m hectares: Ministry Adianto P. Simamora, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 10:20 AM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The Forestry Ministry d d e d the country’s total forested area e d b d the previous figure c b b e 2 The ministry’s head c d b c the figure a a b a 4 the new data c c b b the official forestry statistics c d b c The Jakarta Post d d e d 5 the new figure a a b a the world’s second-largest forest nation f a b b 6 the Democratic Republic of Congo d d b d 7 the Forestry Ministry d a b a the veracity b e b e the data a a b a the country’s high rate c b b e

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8 the accuracy e e b e the equipment c c b c the past f d b e 9 the new figure a a b a 10 the ministry a a b a 11 the ministry a a b a the works f c b e 12 the figure a a b e 14 the issue f e e e 15 The bigger the forest f f b e the greater the financial incentives f f b e the host nation f d b d 17 the new statistic a a b a 18 The government d b e d the forestry sector d b b b 19 The NGO Greenomics Indonesia d d e d the ministry a a b a the new figure a a b a 20 the data a a b a the high deforestation rate e a b a the Post d d e a

(40) Tourists struggle to obtain visas at Ngurah Rai airport The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 4:54 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 2 The problem c e e e the immigration division a d b c 5 the inconvenient service a e b b the immigration booth a b b b 6 The Bali administration f d b b the central government f d b d the matter a a b b the trouble a a b b

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(45) Century committee sets up formulation team Hans David Tampubolon, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 3:07 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The House of Representatives’ inquiry committee d d b d the Bank Century bailout d d b d the formulation f e b e the House d d b a 2 the "small team" a a e a the team a a a a the House a a b a 4 The Democratic Party d d b d the Golkar Party d d b d the team a a a a the PKS d d b a the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle d d b d 5 The Democratic Party d a b a 6 The PDI-P d a b a the small team a a a a 7 The National Mandate Party d d b d the United Development Party d d b d the National Awakening Party d d b d the Greater Indonesia Movement Party d d b d the People's Conscience Party d d b d

(50) New book tells of Bali airport's humble beginnings Wasti Atmodjo, The Jakarta Post, Denpasar | Wed, 02/17/2010 2:14 PM | Bali par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The busy Ngurah Rai International Airport e d d d the Dutch colonial administration f d b d the early 1930s e f b e 2 the second-busiest gateway d f b b 3 The new dual-language book Ngurah Rai Airport e a b a

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Bali the history e e b e the airport a a b a 4 the 150-page book a a e a 5 the past f d b e the airstrip a a b b the Dutch a a e d the locals d c e c 6 The book a a b a the airport's use f b b b the Dutch a a b a 8 the airstrip a a b a the Netherlands Indies Airways e d b a 9 the same time f f b f the Singapore-Darwin route f d b d the airfield a d b a the Surabaya base f d b d the airfield a a b a the airstrip a a b a 10 the Bali airfield a a a a 11 The airport a a b a the Sanur Beach Hotel f d b d the Gelora Sports Complex f d b d the National Monument f d b d the latter two a b b b The airport a a b a the airstrip a a b a the terminal f d b b 13 the airport a a b a 14 The construction f e e e the airport a a b a 15 the time f c b b 16 The current domestic terminal f d b b

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(55) No transparency leads to school budget scam The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 11:40 AM | City par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the channeling f e e c the city f d b c 2 The government d d e d 3 the Anticorruption Education Coalition d d e d 4 The school a a e a the Independent Study Center d d e d 5 the BOP and BOS a a e a the funds a a a b the TKBM a d b a the City Education Agency d d b d 6 the agency a a b a the availability c e b e The Jakarta Post d d e d 7 the availability c a a e 8 the funds a a a a the government d a b d 9 the school a a b a the school’s BOS expenditure e e b b the city administration f d b c 10 the KKAP d a e a 11 The activists a b e b The school a a b a The potential losses f e b b the state d a b d

(60) Police question witnesses in missing university statue case The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 4:06 PM | Jakarta par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The Central Jakarta Police f d e d

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the campus f e b c the University of Indonesia f d b d 3 The Abdul Rachman Saleh statue f d e b the statue a a a a 4 the cause c b b e the case a a b b the statue a a a a the ground c c b d 5 the campus a a a a

(65) SBY tells regions to look up to Tangerang Multa Fidrus, The Jakarta Post, Tangerang | Tue, 02/16/2010 6:59 PM | Jakarta par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the Tangerang municipality f d e c 2 The President a d a a 4 the President a a a a 5 the President a a a a 6 The President a a a a

(70) Indonesia’s Uber Cup squad drawn in tough pool Agnes Winarti, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Fri, 02/12/2010 12:13 PM | Sports par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The country’s Uber Cup shuttlers f d e d the same group f f a f 2 the Thursday’s drawing f e b c the Thomas and Uber Cups Asia Zone qualifier f d b d the Badminton Asia Confederation (BAC)’s f d b b official website the female teams c b b b the male a b b b 3 the 10 countries f b e e the Uber Cup Asia Zone qualifier a a a a the Philippines f d b d

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4 the drawing announcement f b a c the world f d b d 5 the women’s singles f b b e the SEA Games f d b d 7 the Feb. 22-28 qualifier a a a d the Uber Cup Asia Zone pool’s winner e b b c the other pool’s runner-up e b b c The losers e b b c the semifinals c b b c The best three teams e b b c the Uber Cup finals d b b d 8 the 12 countries f b a e the Thomas Cup Asia Zone qualifier a a a a the Philippines f a a d 9 The Thomas Cup squad f b e b 10 the Thomas Cup team a b e a the cross-matches c a b c 11 The winner and runner-up c a b c the runner-up and winner e a b c 12 The same f f a f the winning two teams e b b c the Thomas Cup finals d b b c the two losing teams c b b c the finals a b a c 13 The six teams f b b b the finals c a a c the European Zone qualifiers f b b d the winners c b b e the Pan Am Zone f d b d the Oceania Zone f d b d the Africa Zone qualifiers f d b d the BWF World Ranking f d b d 14 the Thomas Cup and Uber Cup b b a d

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(75) Forestry student's brainstorm in Bogor Theresia Sufa, The Jakarta Post, Bogor | Sun, 08/16/2009 12:23 PM | Discover par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the 37th International Forestry Student f d e d Symposium The 90 students a d b b the Bogor Institute of Agriculture's (IPB) campus f d b d 2 The students a a a a the Netherlands f b b d The coordinator f b b b the event a b a b the IPB a b a a 3 the symposium a a a a the 48 member countries f d a e the International Forestry Students Association f d b d 4 The meeting a a a b the impacts f b b e the Earth's lungs c c b d 5 The students a a a a the Kerawang industrial zone f d b d the Alas Purwo National Park f d b d the Bogor Botanical Gardens f d b d 6 the challenge and opportunity f c b e the Indonesian forests c d b d the solution f e b e the global forestry issues c d b d 7 The success f e b e the government d d b d the people d d b d 8 the world's most beautiful tropical forests e b b b 9 the agro forestry a b b c the village a a b a the conservation project a a a c the Telaga Village project a a a a

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the work a c b e the Kerawang International Industry City b d b d 10 the industrial zone a d a a

(80) SBY proposes revamp of social services system Erwida Maulia, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 10:44 AM | Headlines par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The government f d d d the vulnerable f d b d the poorest f e b d the poor and disabled c c b d 2 The President a a a a the neglected elderly f c a d the new system a c b a the details c b b e 3 the program a a b b the law f d b d the Center for Social Protection Services for f d b d Children 4 the President a a a a the penitentiary f a a c the Jakarta satellite city f d b d the same treatment f f b f the country a d d d 5 the country a a a d the President a a a a the child protection center a a a a 6 the center a a a a 7 the existing social protection measures f b a b the government e a a d the last five years d d b e 8 the years f a b e 9 the amount f a b e 10 The Bambu Apus child service center f a a a

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12 the country’s poor a a a d the health sector f d b d the Jamkesmas program f d b d 13 The government a a a a the population f b b d 14 The World Bank f d d d the population a a a d the World Bank poverty line b b b d

(85) Hospital warned about hiring aliens The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 11:03 AM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 The Health Ministry f d d d 2 The ministry a a a a 3 the rules a b b b 4 the hospital a a d a the opening f e b e 5 the consultants f a b a the ministry a a a a the hospital a a a a 6 the recruitment a e b a the local health industry f d b c 8 the Indonesian Doctor Consulate f d b d 10 the Health Ministry a a a a 11 The workers a b b a 13 the 2004 Law f d d e 14 the KKI a d d a

(90) PPP admits lobbying on Century intensifying Hans David Tampubolon, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 3:59 PM | National par definite descriptions A B C D 1 the investigation f d e d the Bank Century bailout f d b d

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2 the case a d a b The Jakarta Post f d e d 3 the lobbying a b e a the case a a a a 4 the Democratic Party f d d d the intensifying political lobbying a a a a 5 the sessions f b b b the lobbying a a a a 6 The PPP a d d d the Democratic Party a a d d the government's coalition bloc f d d d the Golkar Party f d d d the Prosperous Justice Party f d d d the National Mandate Party f d d d the National Awakening Party f d d d 7 The case a a a a

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APPENDIX 2

Text Annotation Instructions

Dear colleague, You will receive a set of texts to read and annotate. You will find all the-phrases highlighted in the texts and you are to do a classification based on their uses. You must choose one of the following classes: a. Anaphoric Use The-phrases with anaphoric use are those which refer back to antecedents. An antecedent is a noun phrase mentioned previously in the discourse. In other words, both the-phrase and antecedent refer to the same entity. Antecedents can be in the same words, in the forms of hyponym, nominalization, summation, or synonym (the trousers). See the following examples: a) An old woman came here last week. The woman left a message for me. (same word) b) Tina visited a museum yesterday. The building was very old. (hyponym) c) I travelled to Jakarta last week. The journey was terrible. (nominalization) d) I meet a woman and a man on the way here. The couple seemed familiar to me. (summation) e) I bought a pair of pants yesterday, but the trousers did not fit me. (synonym) b. Associative Anaphoric Use The-phrases with associative anaphoric use are those which are created by associating them with the objects mentioned previously which functions as the triggers. See the following examples: a) Dan bought a car yesterday, but I don’t like the color (of the car). b) It certainly is a great book. Do you know the author (of the book)?

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c) I went to a wedding yesterday, but I didn’t meet the bride (in that wedding). In other words, the interpretation of the given the-phrase is based on this previous noun-phrase. c. Immediate Situation Use The-phrases with immediate situation use are put into two categories. They are visible situation use and immediate situation use. The-phrases with visible situation use refer to objects which can be seen by both the speaker and the hearer. The-phrases with immediate situation use refer to objects which are believed to exist in the related surrounding, without necessarily being visible. See the following examples: a) Can you hand me the hammer, please? b) Let’s move the table to that corner. c) Beware of the dog. d) Don’t feed the animals. d. Larger Situation Use The-phrases with larger situation use refer to situations in which the hearer is expected to use her knowledge to identify the referents of the the-phrases. There is no specific antecedent found in the text because the reference is based on basic common knowledge. See the following examples: a) I’m taking my relative from Jakarta to visit the palace. It opens at 8 am, isn’t it? (uttered between local residents of Yogyakarta) b) Have you met the doctor? (between two patients waiting outside a doctor’s surgery) e. Unfamiliar Uses with Explanatory Modifiers The-phrases with unfamiliar uses with explanatory modifiers refer to situations in which the hearer is expected to use her knowledge to identify the referents of the the- phrases. There is no specific antecedent found in the text because the reference is based on basic common knowledge. The uses are also characterized with particular syntactic and lexical properties, such as NP complements, nominal modifiers, referent

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establishing relative clauses, and associative clauses. Consider the following examples: a) Many couples refuse to face the fact that there are problems in their relationship. (NP complement) b) The meeting came to the conclusion that the company should raise the salary. (NP complement) c) The number seven is special for some communities. (nominal modifier) d) The name John is very popular in the United States. (nominal modifier) e) The girl we (that) met yesterday was a new student in this school. (referent establishing relative clause) f) Put this book on the table (that is) over there. (referent establishing relative clause) g) The end of the story is rather illogical. (associative clause) h) Did you notice the headline of the newspaper this morning? (associative clause) f. Unexplanatory Modifiers Use The-phrases with unexplanatory modifiers use are those with a small number of modifiers which cannot be explanained. Consider the following examples: a) My friend and I share the same interests. b) The first person walking on the moon was an American.

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All the following texts are taken from The Jakarta Post online. Every article consists of a number of paragraphs with the number shown the first column. Please classify all of the-phrases in the third column according to their classes and write the related alphabets in the provided space. a. Anaphoric Use b. Associative Anaphoric Use c. Immediate Situation Use d. Larger Situation Use e. Unfamiliar Uses with Explanatory Modifiers f. Unexplanatory Modifiers Use Your contribution to the present study is highly appreciated.

(5) Century team to obtain depositors’ data by force Hans David Tampubolon , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 11:09 AM | National 1 Leaders of the House of Representatives’ inquiry the House of Representatives’ committee on the Bank Century bailout will visit the inquiry committee (____) Central Jakarta District Court for consultation over a the Bank Century bailout possibility to get access to data on Bank Mutiara’s (____) depositors suspected of receiving the bailout fund. the Central Jakarta District Court (____) the bailout fund (____) 2 Bank Mutiara is the rebranded Bank Century, and the rebranded Bank Century the committee plans to force executive director (____) Maryono to break the bank secrecy regulation to the committee (____) facilitate the inquiry into the controversial bailout, the bank secrecy regulation which ballooned ten times to Rp 6.76 trillion (____) (US$716 million) from its original estimate. the inquiry (____) the controversial bailout (____) 3 "I and (committee chairman) Idrus (Marham) will go the district court (____) to the district court this afternoon because the the executive director (____) executive director is not cooperative with us," the the committee’s deputy committee’s deputy chairman Gayus Lumbuun from chairman (____) the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) the Indonesian Democratic told reporters on Tuesday. Party of Struggle (____) 4 Gayus said Maryono seemed to have covered up around 40 suspicious accounts. 5 “These accounts, according to the Financial the Financial Transaction

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Transaction Report and Analysis Center (PPATK), Report and Analysis Center have violated the banking law," Gayus added. (____) 6 He insisted that the committee would remain the committee (____) unmoved by recent pressures and threats targeting its members. 7 "It is foolish to threat us," he said. 8 Idrus added that he believed the pressure would not the pressure (____) deter the committee from digging deeper into the the committee (____) alleged irregularities surrounding the bailout. the alleged irregularities (____) the bailout (____) 9 A number of committee members and lawmakers the inquiry (____) from parties that support the inquiry have recently the police (____) been linked to past legal cases, including Idrus who was reported to the police on Monday for his alleged role in an illegal procurement of rice in 2003. 10 PDI-P senior politician Emir Moeis is also facing media scrutiny following a report saying that he had made numerous suspicious transactions with Bank Century.

(10) Palm estate is forest, says ministry Adianto P. Simamora , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 10:09 AM | National 1 The Forestry Ministry is drafting a decree to include The Forestry Ministry (____) oil palm plantations in the forest sector to comply the forest sector (____) with international standards in mitigating climate change. 2 The ministry said it believed the policy would not The ministry (____) lead to massive forest conversion into palm oil the policy (____) plantations as many critics feared. 3 “By definition, oil palm plantations will be defined as the Agriculture Ministry forest, but its management will be under the (____) Agriculture Ministry,” head of research and the ministry (____) development at the ministry, Tachrir Fathoni told The Jakarta Post (____) The Jakarta Post on Monday. 4 He argued that many countries such as Malaysia, the the world’s second biggest world’s second biggest palm oil producer after palm oil producer (____) Indonesia, had included oil palm plantations in its forest sector. 5 “By doing so, Malaysia can reap financial incentives the UN Framework from the UN Framework Convention on Climate Convention on Climate Change Change (UNFCCC) of carbon trade,” he said. (____)

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6 He said that the UN only categorized trees with a the UN (____) certain height as forest trees, without identifying their species. 7 “It is to anticipate the implementation of the REDD the implementation (____) scheme,” he said. the REDD scheme (____) 8 Reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) allows forestry countries to receive financial benefits by stopping tree lopping. 9 Indonesia is home to the world’s third largest forest the world’s third largest forest nation after Brazil and the Republic of Congo. nation (____) the Republic of Congo (____) 10 But the deforestation rate in Indonesia is the highest the deforestation rate (____) on the planet with more than 1 million hectares the highest (____) cleared per year due to illegal logging and massive forest conversion, including creating oil palm plantations. 11 Activists have said poor environmental management the increase (____) of oil palm plantations in Indonesia has led to the increase of greenhouse gas emissions. 12 But the Agriculture Ministry, managing the sector, the Agriculture Ministry insisted that the oil palm industry did not relate to (____) deforestation. the oil palm industry (____) 13 It said that palm oil trees covered only 7 million the country’s total forest area hectares or 6 percent of the country’s total forest (____) area. 14 Agriculture Minister Suswono earlier claimed that oil palm plantations utilized critical or marginal land into productive land. 15 The Agriculture Ministry issued a 2009 decree to The Agriculture Ministry allow oil palm plantations to be developed in (____) Indonesia’s peat land. 16 The Greenomics Indonesia urged the Forestry The Greenomics Indonesia Ministry to focus on its core business including (____) managing industrial forest concessions (HTI) and the Forestry Ministry (____) forest concession holders. 17 “The ministry’s much-promoted sustainable forest The ministry’s much-promoted management also remains in question. The Forestry sustainable forest Ministry should focus on its main core business,” management (____) Greenomics executive director Elfian Effendi told the The Forestry Ministry (____) Post. the Post (____) 18 He said that the Forestry Ministry should also the Forestry Ministry (____) resolve its different opinion of plantations to the the Environment Ministry Environment Ministry. (____)

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19 Greenpeace Indonesia media campaigner Hikmat Soeriatanuwijaya warned that the policy involving converting palm oil plantations into forest could lead to massive forest conversion.

(15) Mining and conservation at the crossroads Luthfiana Mahmudah , The Jakarta Post , Jember, East Java | Mon, 02/15/2010 11:31 AM | The Archipelago 1 Mining and conservation are two conflicting issues, the other (____) one is usually sacrificed for the other. But it does not the environmental have to be that way, according to the environmental management department management department head of Jember University head (____) School of Agriculture, R. Soedrajad. He was the Ijen-Raung natural reserve responding to a decision to cut a large section of the area (____) Ijen-Raung natural reserve area for a geothermal the Energy and Mineral mining site designated by the Energy and Mineral Resources Ministry (____) Resources Ministry. 2 As someone involved in efforts to turn the Ijen- the Ijen-Raung reserve (____) Raung reserve into a national park (initiated in 2000 the new development (____) but put on hold due to various licensing and political issues), Soedradjad confessed he could not help but feel disappointed with the new development. 3 “In the past 10 years, we have prepared everything the Ijen-Raung area (____) to make the Ijen-Raung area a national park, but the last moment (____) things went wrong at the last moment after we met the requirements (____) most of the requirements,” he said. 4 Late last year, the East Java Region III Natural the East Java Region III Natural Resources Conservation Center (BKSDA) received a Resources Conservation copy of a ministerial decree citing the presence of Center (____) geothermal potential in the Blawan-Ijen area. the presence (____) the Blawan-Ijen area (____) 5 The geothermal sources, estimated at a capacity of The geothermal sources 270 megawatt, are found in 29 places in a 62,620- (____) hectare area in the Perhutani state forestry the Perhutani state forestry company’s forest preserve in South Banyuwangi and company’s forest preserve forest management unit (KPH) in Bondowoso. Three (____) are located in the Mount Ijen reserve. the Mount Ijen reserve (____) BKSDA Region III Head Setyo Utomo, who had just the ministry (____) been appointed to his position, was surprised since the planned geothermal the ministry had never informed of the planned mining (____) geothermal mining in the area, despite the fact the the area (____) decree was issued and signed on Oct. 22, 2008. the fact (____) Since early last year, BKSDA has coordinated with the decree (____)

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various parties, including Banyuwangi, Jember and the forestry company (____) Bondowoso regents as well as the forestry company the process (____) in Bondowoso and West Banyuwangi to accelerate the process to make Ijen-Raung a national park. 6 In the middle of last year, the Forestry Ministry the Forestry Ministry (____) formed a team to study various aspects of the Ijen- the final requirement (____) Raung area before it could name it a national park. the area’s status (____) The team was the final requirement to be able to the plan (____) change the area’s status into a national park. Under the Ijen-Raung National Park the plan, the Ijen-Raung National Park was to be inaugurated this year. 7 But in November 2009, Perhutani found the map for the map (____) geothermal mining in the Blawan-Ijen area, the Blawan-Ijen area (____) prompting a decision on Dec. 15 last year to reduce the area (____) the area of the prospective national park to give the prospective national park space to the mines. (____) the mines (____) 8 Consequently, the Raung mountain region was the Raung mountain region excluded from the area that would later become the (____) national park. The area of the planned national park the area (____) has diminished drastically from 53,000 hectares to the national park (____) only 7,260 hectares. the planned national park 9 “The minimum area in the Ijen-Raung that must be The minimum area (____) tightly secured to maintain a stable ecology and the Ijen-Raung (____) ecosystem is 10,000 hectares,” Soedradjad said. 10 The Ijen-Raung forest is currently in a critical state, The Ijen-Raung forest (____) as almost 75 percent of the ecosystem has been the ecosystem (____) damaged due to forest conversion into farmland. the conservation area (____) Sacrificing the conservation area, he said, should not the sectors and ministries happen if communication between the sectors and (____) ministries were effective. 11 “The best solution is to keep the national park’s area The best solution (____) and set the mining site at its exploitation zone,” he the national park’s area said. “We can also plan so that geothermal plants (____) are not placed in the national park area.” the mining site (____) the national park area (____) 12 By doing this, he said, conservation and mining could the land (____) be carried out simultaneously, considering that the land needed for mining was not vast. 13 But he warned that the environmental impact the environmental impact analysis for the mining site should be carefully analysis (____) carried out. the mining site (____) 14 Ijen-Raung represents an untouched sub-alpine the Javan hawk-eagle and

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rainforest in Java and is home to endangered species green Javanese jungle fowl like the Javan hawk-eagle and green Javanese jungle (____) fowl. Some even believe it is home to the Javan the Javan tiger (____) tiger, thought to be extinct in the wild. the wild (____)

(20) Rights group seeks probe into attack on NGO office The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Tue, 02/16/2010 12:10 PM | National 1 The Commission for Disappeared People and Victims The Commission for of Violence (Kontras) has urged the police to Disappeared People and investigate the motive behind the attack on the Victims of Violence (____) office of the Democratic People’s Bastion (Bendera) the police (____) on Friday. the motive (____) the attack (____) the office (____) the Democratic People’s Bastion (____) 2 Deputy coordinator of the rights group, Haris Azhar, the rights group (____) said Tuesday the act of violence displayed a huge the act (____) gap between democratization and the development the development (____) of a political society in the country. the country (____) 4 Kontras, Haris said, demanded that the police the police (____) protect Bendera activists from any acts of violence in the future (____) the future, regardless of their opposition to the the government (____) government. 5 A group of people ransacked the nongovernmental the nongovernmental organization’s office on Jl. Diponegoro in Central organization’s office (____) Jakarta on Friday night as they were searching for Bendera activists Ferdi Semaun and Mustar Bona Ventura, who have been named suspects for defaming, among others, President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s son Edhie Baskoro. 6 Police arrested two people in connection with the the attack (____) attack. 7 The police nabbed Ferdi and Mustar in Bandung on The police (____) Monday night, saying they had twice defied a summons for questioning.

(25) Bagir to promote press code of ethics, law The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Mon, 02/15/2010 9:10 PM | National 1 Newly elected chairman of Press Board Bagir Manan plans to promote a journalistic self-regulation system to reduce legal matters between news

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sources and journalists. 2 Bagir said that the code of ethics for the press and the code (____) 1999 Press Law, especially the right to refuse and the press (____) right to reply, had not been successfully the right (____) implemented in the country. the country (____) 4 Therefore, most news sources that are not satisfied with published news, tend to use legal approaches instead of using journalistic self-regulation or code of ethics, he added. 5 “I’m not saying that journalists or the press are the press (____) immune to law. Yet, if the press makes mistakes, the press (____) please use the press code of ethics and its law to the press code (____) resolve matters,” said Bagir on Monday as quoted by kompas.com. 6 He added that should the problem remains the problem (____) unsettled, conflicting parties may use criminal law.

(30) This year's registration for state university entrance online Andi Hajramurni , The Jakarta Post , Makassar, South Sulawesi | Mon, 02/15/2010 3:22 PM | National 1 Registration for the national entrance selection of the national entrance state universities will be held online this year, selection (____) National Education Minister Muhammad Nuh said Monday. 2 “The online system should enable senior high school The online system (____) students to receive equal information. They can register themselves from their respective cities without traveling to bigger ones,” Nuh said. 4 The education minister made the remarks after The education minister (____) witnessing the signing of an MoU for the application the remarks (____) for an online registration system between the the signing (____) registration committee and state bank PT Bank the application (____) Mandiri in Makassar on Monday. the registration committee (____) 5 Under the old system, students intending to take the old system (____) part in entrance tests were required to directly register to universities they were interested in as they had to pay registration fees and fill out registration forms. 6 Based on the MoU for an online system, Bank the MoU (____) Mandiri will be in charge of providing its information the registration (____) system and technology equipment to handle various duties, ranging from the registration and payment to

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providing information on test results.

(35) Forests expand by 14m hectares: Ministry Adianto P. Simamora , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 10:20 AM | National 1 The Forestry Ministry claims the country’s total The Forestry Ministry (____) forested area has increased to 134 million hectares the country’s total forested from the previous figure of 120 million hectares. area (____) the previous figure (____) 2 The ministry’s head of research and development, The ministry’s head (____) Tachrir Fathoni, said Monday the figure was based the figure (____) on analysis of Landsat satellite images from 2009. 4 “We’ll publish the new data in the official forestry the new data (____) statistics,” he told The Jakarta Post. the official forestry statistics (____) The Jakarta Post (____) 5 If verified, the new figure would make Indonesia the the new figure (____) world’s second-largest forest nation. the world’s second-largest forest nation (____) 6 That spot is currently occupied by the Democratic the Democratic Republic of Republic of Congo with 133 million hectares, behind Congo (____) Brazil with 415 million hectares. 7 Tachrir said many officials within the Forestry the Forestry Ministry (____) Ministry had questioned the veracity of the data, the veracity (____) given the country’s high rate of deforestation, in the data (____) excess of 1 million hectares a year. the country’s high rate (____) 8 “It might be a matter of the accuracy of the the accuracy (____) equipment used to measure forest cover,” he said. the equipment (____) “In the past, we employed a manual system.” the past (____) 9 Tachrir added the new figure had been made the new figure (____) without ground checks. 10 Previously, the ministry claimed that based on the ministry (____) Landsat image analysis from 2000, Indonesia had 120.3 million hectares of total forested area, of which 59.7 million hectares were in a degraded state. 11 Also on Monday, the ministry said a decree was in the ministry (____) the works to count oil palm plantations as forests. the works (____) 12 In 1997, around 1.8 million hectares of forest were the figure (____) cut down, with the figure spiking to 2.8 million hectares a year between 1998 and 2000. 13 Since then, clearance rates have stabilized at 1.08

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million hectares annually. 14 Forests have become a key bargaining tool in dealing the issue (____) with the issue of climate change, because of their role in absorbing carbon dioxide. 15 The bigger the forest, and hence its capacity as a The bigger the forest (____) carbon sink, the greater the financial incentives the the greater the financial host nation stands to gain. incentives (____) the host nation (____) 16 Indonesia is currently seeking Rp 168 trillion (US$18 billion) in foreign aid to cut emissions by 15 percent by 2020 to meet its pledged emissions cut target of 41 percent. 17 Tachrir denied speculation the new statistic had the new statistic (____) been doctored toward a political end. 18 Indonesia is among a handful of developing The government (____) countries that have set emissions cuts targets. The the forestry sector (____) government says it will allot Rp 83 trillion to slash emissions by 26 percent by 2020, 14 percent of it coming from the forestry sector. 19 The NGO Greenomics Indonesia called on the The NGO Greenomics ministry to reveal how it came up with the new Indonesia (____) figure. the ministry (____) the new figure (____) 20 “We were surprised by the data; it’s a huge increase, the data (____) given the high deforestation rate,” Greenomics the high deforestation rate executive director Elfian Effendi told the Post. (____) the Post (____)

(40) Tourists struggle to obtain visas at Ngurah Rai airport The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 4:54 PM | National 1 Tourism authorities have asked immigration officers at Ngurah Rai International Airport in Bali to improve their visa on arrival service following complaints from foreign visitors. 2 “The problem with the immigration division at The problem (____) Ngurah Rai International Airport, especially its visa the immigration division on arrival service, looks like a severe disease,” Bali (____) Tourism Agency head Ida Bagus Kade Subhiksu told kompas.com on Wednesday. 4 He added that foreign tourists had to line up for hours in a heavily crowded booth to obtain their visas on arrival.

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5 “Once I received a report saying that a tourist went the inconvenient service mad because of the inconvenient service at the (____) immigration booth,” Subhiksu said. the immigration booth (____) 6 The Bali administration has been urging the central The Bali administration (____) government to fix the matter, but the trouble has the central government remained unaddressed, he added. (____) the matter (____) the trouble (____)

(45) Century committee sets up formulation team Hans David Tampubolon , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 3:07 PM | National 1 The House of Representatives’ inquiry committee on The House of Representatives’ the Bank Century bailout set up Wednesday a team inquiry committee (____) of 15 legislators responsible for the formulation of the Bank Century bailout its final report to be submitted to the House. (____) the formulation (____) the House (____) 2 Called the "small team" and chaired by deputy the "small team" (____) chairman Mahfudz Siddiq from the Prosperous the team (____) Justice Party (PKS), the team includes all parties the House (____) represented in the House. 4 The Democratic Party and the Golkar Party each The Democratic Party (____) have three legislators in the team, while the PKS and the Golkar Party (____) the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) the team (____) secure two seats apiece. the PKS (____) the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (____) 5 The Democratic Party will be represented by Benny The Democratic Party (____) Kabur Harman, Achsanul Qosasih and Radityo Gambiro, while Golkar by Ade Komarudin, Melchias Markus Melkeng and Bambang Soesatyo. 6 The PDI-P has named Hendrawan Supratikno and The PDI-P (____) Maruarar Sirait to the small team, while PKS sends the small team (____) Mahfudz and Andi Rahmat. 7 The National Mandate Party (PAN), the United The National Mandate Party Development Party (PPP), the National Awakening (____) Party (PKB), the Greater Indonesia Movement Party the United Development Party (Gerindra), and the People's Conscience Party (____) (Hanura) field Tjatur Sapto Edi, Muhammad the National Awakening Party Romahurmuziy, Agus Sulistyono, Ahmad Muzani and (____) Akbar Faisal respectively. the Greater Indonesia Movement Party (____)

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the People's Conscience Party (____)

(50) New book tells of Bali airport's humble beginnings Wasti Atmodjo , The Jakarta Post , Denpasar | Wed, 02/17/2010 2:14 PM | Bali 1 The busy Ngurah Rai International Airport in Tuban, The busy Ngurah Rai Bali, started out as a 700-meter-long airstrip built by International Airport (____) the Dutch colonial administration in the early 1930s, the Dutch colonial a new book reveals. administration (____) the early 1930s (____) 2 More than 80 years later, that simple airstrip has the second-busiest gateway become the second-busiest gateway into Indonesia, (____) serving around 77,000 domestic and international flights and almost 10 million passengers a year. 3 The new dual-language book Ngurah Rai Airport Bali: The new dual-language book Gateway to Paradise 1930-2010 recounts the history Ngurah Rai Airport Bali (____) of the airport, and has been launched to the history (____) commemorate airport operator PT Angkasa Pura I's the airport (____) 46th anniversary on Feb. 20. 4 Angkasa Pura general manager Heru Legowo said the 150-page book (____) the 150-page book was written in Indonesian and English. 5 "In the past, the airstrip was called South Bali by the the past (____) Dutch, while the locals called it Pelabuhan Udara the airstrip (____) Tuban, since it was located in Tuban village," he said. the Dutch (____) the locals (____) 6 The book touches on the airport's use as a military The book (____) base by the Dutch. the airport's use (____) the Dutch (____) 7 "However, it also expanded as a gateway for European visitors, artists and scholars visiting Bali in particular," Legowo said. 8 When finished, the airstrip could only handle small the airstrip (____) planes, but five years later, in 1935, the Netherlands the Netherlands Indies Indies Airways, or Koninklijke Nederlandsch-Indische Airways (____) Luchvaart Maatschappi (KLM), kicked off a regular flight to Bali. 9 At the same time, Australian airline Qantas Empire, the same time (____) plying the Singapore-Darwin route, proposed the Singapore-Darwin route transiting at Bali. Prior to World War II, the airfield (____) functioned as a transit military base for Dutch troops the airfield (____) from Java, particularly from the Surabaya base. the Surabaya base (____) In 1942, Japanese troops took over the airfield and the airfield (____)

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extended the airstrip to 1,200 meters. the airstrip (____) 10 Soon after independence in 1945, then president the Bali airfield (____) Sukarno decided to develop the Bali airfield into an international-standard airport serving long-haul flights. 11 The airport became one of his mega projects, in The airport (____) addition to the Sanur Beach Hotel, the Gelora Sports the Sanur Beach Hotel (____) Complex and the National Monument, the latter two the Gelora Sports Complex in Jakarta. (____) The airport began serving international flights from the National Monument 1959. Sukarno, himself half Balinese, commissioned (____) a team of engineers to extend and renovate the the latter two (____) airstrip and the terminal. The airport (____) the airstrip (____) the terminal (____) 12 Part of Kuta Beach had to be reclaimed for a 2,500- meter-long and 45-meter-wide runaway. On Aug. 10, 1966, Bali officially became as an international airport. 13 "When Mount Agung erupted, the airport served as the airport (____) an international relief center," said publisher Alex Pudjianto. 14 The construction of the airport was completed in The construction (____) 1969 and was inaugurated by then president the airport (____) Soeharto. It was named in honor of Balinese independence fighter I Gusti Ngurah Rai. 15 It cost US$13.19 million to build a the time, and is the time (____) now undergoing massive renovation to accommodate wide-bodied aircraft such as the Boeing 747, 757 and Airbus A340. 16 The current domestic terminal will be turned into an The current domestic terminal international terminal measuring 120,000 square (____) meters. 17 "We hope to serve 17 million passengers per year by 2020, and 25 million by 2025," Legowo said.

(55) No transparency leads to school budget scam The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 11:40 AM | City 1 A lack of transparency in the channeling of School the channeling (____) Operational Aid (BOS) and Educational Operational the city (____) Aid (BOP) has apparently contributed to many corruption cases involving public schools in the city, which many people complained about recently.

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2 The government provides these funds to public The government (____) schools to channel them to students living in poverty and study centers supported by schools. 3 However, the Anticorruption Education Coalition the Anticorruption Education (KKAP), whose members include Indonesian Coalition (____) Corruption Watch (ICW), revealed recently that some schools, including SMPN 28 state junior high school in Johar Baru, Central Jakarta, allegedly misappropriated funds. 4 The school allegedly misappropriated about Rp 390 The school (____) million (US$43,000) between 2007 and 2008, the Independent Study Center intended for the Independent Study Center (TKBM) (____) Johar Baru, Central Jakarta. 5 Head of the study center Novin Widyawati said she the BOP and BOS (____) was unaware that the BOP and BOS were available the funds (____) to her schools because no one notified her about the the TKBM (____) funds since she registered with the TKBM at the City the City Education Agency Education Agency in 2007. (____) 6 “Neither SMPN 28 or the agency told me about the the agency (____) availability of funds,” she told The Jakarta Post on the availability (____) Monday. The Jakarta Post (____) 7 She became aware about the availability of funds at the availability (____) a gathering with TKBM leaders early in 2009 where a colleague informed Novin that TKBM was entitled to BOS and BOP funds. 8 Novin then demanded the funds be returned either the funds (____) to TKBM or the government. the government (____) 9 But the school has not responded. She also accused the school (____) SMPN 28 of including false expenses in the school’s the school’s BOS expenditure BOS expenditure for TKBM. Head of Jakarta’s TKBM (____) Forum Ade Pujiati said that such cases occurred due the city administration (____) to apathy concerning corruption among leaders at the city administration. 10 Last week, the KKAP indicated that most public the KKAP (____) schools in greater Jakarta manipulated school budgets and financial reports. 11 The activists cited elementary school SDN Kompleks The activists (____) UNJ as an example. The school misused a Rp 500 The school (____) million grant in 2007 as part of its BOS and BOP The potential losses (____) allocation. The potential losses to the state could the state (____) allegedly reach Rp 151.8 million. (gzl)

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(60) Police question witnesses in missing university statue case The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Wed, 02/17/2010 4:06 PM | Jakarta 1 The Central Jakarta Police have questioned more The Central Jakarta Police witnesses to try to trace a statue missing from the (____) campus of the University of Indonesia. the campus (____) the University of Indonesia (____) 2 "We have interviewed five witnesses," Central Jakarta Police detective chief Comr. Suwondo said as quoted by tempointeraktif.com Wednesday 3 The Abdul Rachman Saleh statue went missing on The Abdul Rachman Saleh Saturday. A lecturer and a security guard, who first statue (____) noticed that the statue was gone, were questioned the statue (____) by police earlier. 4 Suwondo said he had not yet worked out the cause the cause (____) of the case. "There is a possibility that the statue fell the case (____) to the ground due to torrential rain and then was the statue (____) taken by someone," he said. the ground (____) 5 Police are still analyzing CCTV recordings of the the campus (____) campus.

(65) SBY tells regions to look up to Tangerang Multa Fidrus , The Jakarta Post , Tangerang | Tue, 02/16/2010 6:59 PM | Jakarta 1 President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono praised the the Tangerang municipality Tangerang municipality on Tuesday for its (____) development programs that focused on education and health. 2 The President also asked other regional The President (____) administrations to learn from Tangerang. 3 “This is a big achievement that I have to appreciate,” Yudhoyono said during a visit to SMK 3 state public vocational school on Jl. M. Yamin. 4 Tangerang Mayor Wahidin Halim told the President the President (____) that his administration had provided free education to children of 92,000 poor families. Each family receives a multi-purpose card that ensures its members will receive free access to education and healthcare. 5 Accompanying the President were First Lady Ani the President (____) Yudhoyono, nine Cabinet ministers and Banten Governor Ratu Atut Chosiah. 6 The President also visited a special detention center The President (____) for juveniles.

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(70) Indonesia’s Uber Cup squad drawn in tough pool Agnes Winarti , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Fri, 02/12/2010 12:13 PM | Sports 1 The country’s Uber Cup shuttlers face tougher The country’s Uber Cup prospects than their male Thomas Cup compatriots shuttlers (____) in the upcoming Asia Zone qualifiers in Thailand as the same group (____) they are placed in the same group with top teams such as South Korea and Thailand. 2 According to the Thursday’s drawing for the Thomas the Thursday’s drawing (____) and Uber Cups Asia Zone qualifier, which is avalable the Thomas and Uber Cups on the Badminton Asia Confederation (BAC)’s official Asia Zone qualifier (____) website www.badmintonasia.org, the female teams the Badminton Asia are drawn into two pools (X and Y), while the male Confederation (BAC)’s official into four pools (A, B, C, D). website (____) the female teams (____) the male (____) 3 Of the 10 countries participating in the Uber Cup the 10 countries (____) Asia Zone qualifier, third seed Indonesia is drawn the Uber Cup Asia Zone with first seed South Korea, Thailand, Singapore and qualifier (____) Sri Lanka in Group X, while second seed Japan, the Philippines (____) fourth seed Hongkong, Taiwan, India and the Philippines are drawn for Group Y. 4 “South Korea and Thailand will be our hardest the drawing announcement opponents, while on paper we will be able to (____) overcome Singapore and Sri Lanka,” Indonesia the world (____) Badminton Association (PBSI) head coach Christian Hadinata said Thursday of the drawing announcement. South Korea’s two women’s doubles pairs of Ha Jung Eun/Kim Min Jung and Lee Hyo Jung/Lee Kyung Won are ranked 5th and 6th in the world. 5 Thailand has steadily risen as emerging badminton the women’s singles (____) giant as its shuttlers, Salakjit Ponsana and Ratchanok the SEA Games (____) Intanon grabbed gold and silver medals respectively in the women’s singles at the SEA Games in Laos last December. 6 Indonesia’s women doubles Nitya Krishinda Maheswari/Greysia Polii are currently world No. 9, while Shendy Puspa Irawati/Meiliana Jauhary are ranked 10th. 7 In the Feb. 22-28 qualifier, the Uber Cup Asia Zone the Feb. 22-28 qualifier (____) pool’s winner will play the other pool’s runner-up. the Uber Cup Asia Zone pool’s The losers at the semifinals will duel for a third place winner (____) spot. The best three teams qualify for the Uber Cup the other pool’s runner-up finals in Malaysia. (____)

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The losers (____) the semifinals (____) The best three teams (____) the Uber Cup finals (____) 8 Meanwhile, the 12 countries that will participate in the 12 countries (____) the Thomas Cup Asia Zone qualifier are divided into the Thomas Cup Asia Zone Pool A (Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore), B (Taiwan, qualifier (____) Hongkong, the Philippines), C (India, Thailand, the Philippines (____) Srilanka, Cambodia) and D (Japan, Korea and Laos). 9 Indonesia is first seeded, followed by Japan (2nd), The Thomas Cup squad (____) India (3rd) and Taiwan (4th). “The Thomas Cup squad has a greater than 60 percent chance of qualifying,” PBSI secretary-general Yacob Rusdianto said. 10 “There is a great chance for the Thomas Cup team to the Thomas Cup team (____) win Pool A and the cross-matches,” Christian said. the cross-matches (____) 11 The winner and runner-up in Pool A will play against The winner and runner-up the runner-up and winner at Pool B, respectively. (____) the runner-up and winner (____) 12 The same goes for Pool C and Pool D. This will result The same (____) in four semifinalists, with the winning two teams the winning two teams (____) qualifying straight to the Thomas Cup finals while the Thomas Cup finals (____) the two losing teams will battle for one remaining the two losing teams (____) spot in the finals. the finals (____) 13 The six teams, three Thomas Cup teams and three The six teams (____) Uber Cup teams, making it to the finals will meet the finals (____) host Malaysia and defending champion China — the European Zone qualifiers both need not go through qualifying rounds — the (____) European Zone qualifiers, the winners of the Pan Am the winners (____) Zone, the Oceania Zone and the Africa Zone the Pan Am Zone (____) qualifiers, and one other country, either from the Oceania Zone (____) Europe or Asia, based on the BWF World Ranking as the Africa Zone qualifiers of March 4. (____) the BWF World Ranking (____) 14 Thomas Cup and Uber Cup are held jointly once the Thomas Cup and Uber Cup every two years. In 2008, China won both the (____) Thomas Cup and Uber Cup.

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(75) Forestry student's brainstorm in Bogor Theresia Sufa , The Jakarta Post , Bogor | Sun, 08/16/2009 12:23 PM | Discover 1 Forestry students from 32 countries got together in the 37th International Forestry Bogor, West Java, to attend the 37th International Student Symposium (____) Forestry Student Symposium (IFSS) from July 27 to The 90 students (____) Aug. 9. the Bogor Institute of The 90 students gathered at the Bogor Institute of Agriculture's (IPB) campus Agriculture's (IPB) campus to discuss various forestry (____) issues and to initiate reforestation programs. 2 The students came from Germany, Canada, Italy, The students (____) Japan, France, Finland, Australia, Hungary, the the Netherlands (____) Netherlands, Sweden, as well as host Indonesia, The coordinator (____) among other places. the event (____) The coordinator of this year's symposium, Akhmad the IPB (____) Viko Zakhary Santosa, a Gajah Mada University student, said that the event was jointly organized by his university and the IPB. 3 Viko said that the symposium was held annually to the symposium (____) unite forestry students from the 48 member the 48 member countries countries members of the International Forestry (____) Students Association (IFSA). Last year's event was the International Forestry held in Bulgaria. Students Association 4 The meeting was aimed at generating ideas about The meeting (____) how to sustain forests, mitigate the impacts of the impacts (____) climate change and conserve the Earth's lungs. the Earth's lungs (____) 5 The students also inspected a conservation project The students (____) in Telaga village, which is part of the Kerawang the Kerawang industrial zone industrial zone and visited a pulp and paper factory (____) in Kerawang regency, Gunung Walat, IPB's education the Alas Purwo National Park forest in Sukabumi, the Alas Purwo National Park in (____) Yogyakarta and, finally, the Bogor Botanical Gardens. the Bogor Botanical Gardens (____) 6 "Through this international symposium we students the challenge and opportunity want to deliver a message that the challenge and (____) opportunity the Indonesian forests are now dealing the Indonesian forests (____) with is part of the solution to the global forestry the solution (____) issues. the global forestry issues (____) 7 "The success of global environment preservation The success (____) depends on forestry management in Indonesia the government (____) where the government, industries and the people the people (____) are involved," Viko said. 8 Julie Venne of Laval University, Canada, said that the world's most beautiful Indonesia has the world's most beautiful tropical tropical forests (____)

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forests and that it was lucky to have such vast areas of forests, but cautioned that they should be protected. 9 "I also admire the agro forestry in Telaga village," the agro forestry (____) said Julie at the village. the village (____) Coordinator of the conservation project, IBG the conservation project Permana, said the Telaga Village project is the work (____) of 90 companies in the Kerawang International the Telaga Village project Industry City. (____) the work (____) the Kerawang International Industry City (____) 10 Various trees for harvest are planted in a 3-hectare the industrial zone (____) area of the industrial zone, which also features a model training facility for agro forestry, rice and fish cultivation.

(80) SBY proposes revamp of social services system Erwida Maulia , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 10:44 AM | Headlines 1 The government is setting up new social services The government (____) systems to support the vulnerable, including the the vulnerable (____) poorest of the poor and disabled, President Susilo the poorest (____) Bambang Yudhoyono said Wednesday. the poor and disabled (____) 2 The President added that the neglected elderly and The President (____) certain groups of children would also be covered the neglected elderly (____) under the new system, the details of which would be the new system (____) discussed in a Cabinet meeting on Thursday. the details (____) 3 “Children *covered by the program] will include the program (____) those having problems with the law, drug victims, the law (____) and or suffering from thalasemia,” Yudhoyono said the Center for Social while visiting the Center for Social Protection Protection Services for Services for Children (PPKS Anak) in Bambu Apus, Children (____) East Jakarta. 4 Earlier on Tuesday, the President inspected the the President (____) penitentiary for boys in the Jakarta satellite city of the penitentiary (____) Tangerang, where he called for special treatment for the Jakarta satellite city child inmates. In Indonesia, children who violate (____) laws get the same treatment as adults. Critics say the same treatment (____) the country should adopt more lenient or special the country (____) services for children. 5 “Why am I giving attention to these *troubled+ the country (____) children? They’ve already been burdened with their the President (____) past and troublesome present, so the country has to the child protection center

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give them the opportunity for a better future,” the (____) President said before officers welcomed him to the child protection center. 6 The center is home to some 300 troubled children, the center (____) including street kids as well as victims of trafficking and neglect. 7 Yudhoyono said in his speech that he considered the the existing social protection existing social protection measures for these measures (____) vulnerable groups adopted by the government in the the government (____) last five years as being not adequate. the last five years (____) 8 “For the years 2010 to 2014, I want us to revamp our the years (____) system, laws, policies and action programs to improve justice for our people. I want this to be a permanent system, so that there will be certainty, not an on and off effort.” 9 Yudhoyono said that with growing amounts of state the amount (____) and regional budgets, he hoped that the amount allocated for such social protection measures would also grow. 10 The Bambu Apus child service center said there were The Bambu Apus child service currently over 4.6 million children in trouble across center (____) Indonesia, including neglected infants and children, street kids, and children involved in crimes. 11 Children are defined as those under 18. 12 Government subsidies for the country’s poor cover the country’s poor (____) the health sector, via the Jamkesmas program. the health sector (____) Regions are also mandated by law to allocate at least the Jamkesmas program 20 percent of their budget for education to make (____) elementary and junior high state schools free of charge. 13 The government claims that less than 20 percent of The government (____) the population is living under its poverty line. the population (____) 14 The World Bank, however, has reported that more The World Bank (____) than half of the population lives under the World the population (____) Bank poverty line of below two dollars a day. the World Bank poverty line (____)

(85) Hospital warned about hiring aliens The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 11:03 AM | National 1 The Health Ministry has reprimanded a local hospital The Health Ministry (____) in Tangerang for recruiting foreign medical workers without meeting administrative requirements, a ministry official says.

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2 The ministry issued a warning to Mayapada Hospital The ministry (____) in Tangerang, Banten, after it recruited medical workers and advertised them without completing paperwork, Health Ministry Medical Services Director General Farid Husein said. 3 “We do not prohibit people from doing good things, the rules (____) but Mayapada has broken the rules,” Farid said at Health Ministry in South Jakarta on Wednesday. 4 Earlier this month, the hospital placed a one-page the hospital (____) advertisement in a local newspaper, announcing the the opening (____) opening of its cancer center, which featured “Singapore Oncology Consultants.” 5 After receiving inquiries about the consultants, the the consultants (____) ministry carried out an inspection of the hospital the ministry (____) before issuing the warning, Farid said. the hospital (____) 6 “There are regulations that limit the recruitment of the recruitment (____) foreign workers [in the local health industry+,” he the local health industry said. (____) 7 Indonesian Medical Council (KKI) chairman Menaldi Rasmin said foreign doctors hoping to practice in Indonesia needed to fulfill several legal requirements. 8 “They must obtain certificates from their collegium. the Indonesian Doctor They must report to the Indonesian Doctor Consulate (____) Consulate. 9 They must obtain a registration letter. That applies to local doctors as well as foreign ones,” he said. 10 According to ministerial regulations, health workers the Health Ministry (____) in Indonesia must forward a request to the Health Ministry to have foreign health workers come to Indonesia to work for them. 11 The workers must also obtain recommendations The workers (____) from professional organizations and a provincial health agency. 12 Such a permit applies for 1 year but can be extended four times. 13 According to the 2004 Law on Doctoral Practice, any the 2004 Law (____) doctor who practices in Indonesia without permits is subject to a maximum 3 years’ imprisonment or Rp 100 million (around US$10,000) in fines. 14 Hardianto from the KKI said there were currently no the KKI (____) permits issued for foreign doctors in Indonesia. 15 “There was once a request from a Japanese doctor

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working in a Japanese clinic, but we could not guarantee he would only treat Japanese patients,” he said. 16 Under certain circumstances, for example during university training or in a disaster situations, medical workers from outside Indonesia could be exempted from certain restrictions, Hardianto said. 17 “You can make your own conclusions,” he said when asked whether those who were practicing were unauthorized. 18 Farid said Mayapada had “shown good intentions” by saying it would issue an official apology in the media. (dis)

(90) PPP admits lobbying on Century intensifying Hans David Tampubolon , The Jakarta Post , Jakarta | Thu, 02/18/2010 3:59 PM | National 1 United Development Party (PPP) secretary-general the investigation (____) Irgan Chaerul Mahfiz says that political lobbying has the Bank Century bailout been intensifying now that the investigation on the (____) Bank Century bailout is nearing its finale. 2 "However, there is nothing unusual about political the case (____) lobbying, especially among coalition partners, The Jakarta Post (____) because the case is crucial and has become a nationwide issue," he told The Jakarta Post on Thursday. 3 Irgan stressed the lobbying would not change his the lobbying (____) party’s critical stance on the case. the case (____) 4 Separately, the Democratic Party's Ruhut Sitompul the Democratic Party (____) confirmed the intensifying political lobbying. the intensifying political lobbying (____) 5 "I heard about that. My colleagues asked me to join the sessions (____) the sessions, but I told them that I trusted them to the lobbying (____) do the lobbying," he said. 6 The PPP and the Democratic Party are part of the The PPP (____) government's coalition bloc, which also consists of the Democratic Party (____) the Golkar Party, the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS), the government's coalition the National Mandate Party (PAN) and the National bloc (____) Awakening Party (PKB). the Golkar Party (____) the Prosperous Justice Party (____) the National Mandate Party (____)

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the National Awakening Party (____) 7 The case is about a bailout that increased tenfold The case (____) from its original estimate to Rp 6.76 trillion (US$716 million).

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