Improving Bio-security in the United Kingdom Overseas Territories: Identification service for invasive alien invertebrate pests

2015-17

Dr Chris Malumphy & Sharon Reid

Fig. 1 Healthy Caicos pines (Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis) on the left and dead pines on the right in the Turks and Caicos Islands, killed by the non-native and pine-specific pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvicornis). The endemic Caicos pine, National of TCI, is under severe threat of extinction © C. Malumphy

Fera Science Ltd. National Agri-Food Innovation Campus Sand Hutton, York, UK YO41 1LZ

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POTENTIAL THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND AGRICULTURE IN THE UKOTs IDENTIFIED DURING 2015-17

© C. Malumphy © C. Malumphy Fig. 2 Lobate lac scale Paratachardina pseudolobata is a threat to all the UKOTs within the and to OTs with tropical climates elsewhere. It is suspected to be native to Asia and has recently spread widely in the Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands, both in natural and anthropogenic habitats. Samples were collected from elemifera, Annona reticulata, A. squamosa, Brysonima lucida, Chrysobalanus icaco, Conocarpus erectus var. sericeus, Guettarda krugii, brittonianus, H. rosa-sinensis, , Mangifera indica, Pimenta dioica, Psidium guajava and Syzygium samarangense. New host species are highlighted in bold and Malpighiaceae is recorded here as a new host family. Hibiscus brittonianus is endemic to the Bahamas archipelago. The full impact is yet to be determined as this is a recent arrival. Lobate lac scale has also recently been found in BVI.

© C. Malumphy © C. Malumphy Fig. 3 A fluted scale Crypticerya genistae, native to South America, is spreading in the Caribbean and represents a potential threat to all the UKOTs in the region. It is common in the Turks and Caicos Islands, and specimens suspected to represent this species were also identified from the Cayman Islands for the first time this year. Samples were received from Acacia choriophylla, Bidens alba, Chamaecrista chapmonii, Coccoloba uvifera, Corchorus sp., Euphorbia blodgettii, Jacquinia keyensis, Savia bahamensis and Tridax procubens, and suspected from chinense, Eugenia foetida, Lysiloma latisiliquum and Myrica cerifera. Most of these are new host records.

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© Fera © Fera Fig. 4 South African pit scale Planchonia stentae Fig. 5 A soft scale Protopulvinaria found for the first time in the Turks and Caicos longivalvata found on Malay rose apple Syzygium Islands, on Cassia sp. and Lantana involucrata; malaccense, new for the Cayman Islands; polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 15 polyphagous pest, feeding on plants belonging to families. 13 families, including several crops.

© Jorge Peña and Rita Duncan, University of Florida © Frank Peairs, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org Fig. 6 Red palm mite Raoiella indica is a pest of Fig. 7 Western palms, native to Asia which is becoming occidentalis is an important pest in agriculture, established throughout the Caribbean. The native to the Southwestern US.. It was intercepted invasion of this species is the biggest mite in the Cayman Islands on imported Alstroemeria, explosion ever observed in the Americas. Aster, Bellis, Chrysanthemum, Rosa, Scaveola and Samples were received from BVI and TCI. Zantedeschia

© Fera © Ted C. MacRae 2013 Fig. 8 Lesser snow scale strachani was Fig. 9 Seagrape flatid planthopper Petrusa found on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis in the Cayman epilepsis is very common in TCI and this year was Islands on which it frequently causes dieback recorded on Coccoloba, Ernodea, Eugenia, and mortality. It is polyphagous, feeding on Lantana, Randia, Tabebuia and unspecified plants belonging to 84 families. . It feeds on many native plants.

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Fig. 10 Croton scale Phalacrococcus Fig. 11 Solanum whitefly Aleurotrachelus howertoni continues to spread in the trachoides has been found on in the Cayman Cayman Islands and was recorded from Islands and TCI on the crops Capsicum annuum Carica papaya, Coccoloba uvifera, Codiaeum and Solanum lycopersicum, and on native plants variegatum, Eugenia uniflora and Ficus. It has Coccoloba uvifera and Eugenia foetida. It has also also recently been found in BVI. recently been found in BVI.

Fig. 12 Ehrhorn's palm mealybug Palmicultor Fig. 13 Mango scale Radionaspis indica is new for palmarum is recorded from the Cayman the Cayman Islands. It is highly cryptic and often Islands for the first time; it is oligophagous on overlooked although it is increasing in importance Arecaceae, and can kill germinating palms. as a pest of mango in Florida

Fig. 14 Hemispherical scale Saissetia coffeae Fig. 15 Coconut whitefly Aleurodicus pulvinatus is was found in large numbers on a range of widespread in TCI and a serious pest of coconut plants in TCI; the specimen in the picture has and ornamental palms. been parasitized and there are 5 emergence holes from which the adult wasps escaped

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© Lauren Banks - Backbone Valley Nursery © Nancy Woodfield Pascoe - NPTVI Fig. 16 Agave snout weevil (Scyphophorus Fig. 17 Agave snout weevil has wiped out the acupunctatus) is currently the most important endemic Agave missionum plants in most areas of terrestrial invasive alien species in the British the BVI, changing the landscape Virgin Islands

© Gary R. McClellan © Chris Malumphy Fig. 18 Sri Lankan weevil Myllocerus Fig. 19 Stellate scale Ceroplastes stellifer is undecimpustulatus undatus is a polyphagous common in BVI and a frequent pest of pest, first detected in the Cayman Islands in ornamental and native plants 2016; it poses a major threat to all UKOTs in the Caribbean

© Nancy Woodfield Pascoe - NPTVI © Chris Malumphy Fig. 20 Huge populations of cactus scale Diaspis Fig. 21 Papaya whitefly Trialeurodes floridensis, echinocacti were found infesting native cacti in found in the BVI for the first time, is an economic the BVI pest of cassava and papaya

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© Arab Pest Control © urjsa Fig. 22 The highly invasive Argentine ant Fig. 23 Heterobostrichus sp. is a wood-boring Linepithema humile was found in the Falkland beetle that was found on wooden pallets in the Islands infesting a yacht that had arrived from Cayman Islands Australia

© Chris Malumphy © Chris Malumphy Fig. 25 The Kew bug Insignorthezia insignis, a Fig. 24 Red wax scale Ceroplastes rubens polyphagous pest, was found on native plants was found on the threatened endemic plant in the BVI kiaerskovii in the BVI

© Chris Malumphy © Lyle J Buss, University of Florida Fig. 26 whitefly Dialeurodes citri , native Fig. 27 Red-banded thrips Selenothrips to Asia but now widespread in the tropics and rubrocinctus was found on Terminalia in the subtropics, was found on Citrus in the Cayman Cayman Islands Islands

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Contents 1.0 Executive summary …………………………………………………………………………………… 8 2.0 Background ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10 3.0 Introductions and Aims ……………………………………………………………………………. 10 4.0 Methods …………………………………………………………………………………….……………. 11 4.1 Service launch and publicity ……………………………..…..…...... 11 4.2 Project delivery …………………………………………………………………………………. 11 5.0 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………..………….. 11 5.1 The number of samples received and identifications made ……….…….. 11 5.2 Summary of findings ………………………………….…………………………………….. 11 5.3 New geographical and host records, and potential plant health threats ....……………..……………………………………………………………………………. 12 5.3.1 British Virgin Islands …………………………………………………………………….. 12 5.3.2 Cayman Islands ……………………………………………………………………………. 14 5.3.3 Falkland Islands …………………………………………………………………………… 16 5.3.3 Saint Helena ...…………....……………………………….…….………………………. 17 5.3.4 Turks and Caicos Islands ...……………………………….…….…………………… 18 5.4 Bio-security advice provided ...... ……………………………………………….. 19 5.5 Scientific publications ……………………………………………………………………… 19 5.6 Building diagnostic capacity in the UKOTs ……………………………………….. 20 5.7 Further services requested by UKOTs ……………………………………………… 20 6.0 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………………..………. 21 7.0 Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………. 22 8.0 References ……………………………………………………………………………….…………… 22 9.0 Appendices ……………………………………………………………………….…….……………. 23 9.1 Summary of invertebrate identifications 2015-2017

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1.0 Executive summary

Biodiversity in the UK Overseas Territories (UKOTs) is recognised as being under threat from invasive alien plant pests. The UK Government wishes to ensure that the rich environmental assets of the Overseas Territories are protected. The Overseas Territories Biodiversity Strategy has the overarching objective: “to enable the UK and Overseas Territory Governments to meet their international obligations for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in the Overseas Territories.” Preventing the establishment of invasive alien species in the UKOTs is a strategic priority. Rapid and accurate identification of potential invasive alien species is the essential first step. The Plant Protection Programme (PPP) at Fera Science Ltd. provides diagnostic and training services for the England and Wales Plant Health Service, and has a wealth of experience and expertise in the identification of all plant-feeding , mites and nematodes. The Invertebrate Identification Team within the PPP has led a Defra-funded project to provide an identification service for invasive invertebrate plant pests for the UKOTs since November 2009. During 2015-17, six territories (Ascension Island, British Virgin Islands (BVI), Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Saint Helena, and Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI)) used the service with 347 samples and 22 photos submitted to Fera for diagnosis. The majority of the samples (281) were submitted between April 2015 and March 2016, which was a record number of samples received in a single year. Rapid identifications enabled prompt and appropriate action to be taken against highly invasive pests. Provision of the service has helped identify potential threats and prioritise conservation efforts in some of the UKOTs. For example:

 In May 2016 the Falkland Islands Government’s Biosecurity Officer contacted us in need of urgent advice to confirm the identity of a colony of ants found aboard a yacht that had arrived from Australia. We were able to confirm from photographs that the ants were in fact a highly invasive species, the Argentine Ant, Linepithema humile (Fig. 22). The Biosecurity officer took appropriate action to prevent the ants from disembarking. See section 5.3.3. for details and further examples.

 In BVI, the agave weevil (Scyphophorus acupunctatus) (Fig. 16) is threatening the existence of the endangered endemic Agave missionum. This weevil is a highly invasive and destructive pest of agave that is expanding its geographical range in the Caribbean. Kew Gardens are working in collaboration with The National Parks Trust of the Virgin Islands and Fera to develop a mitigation plan to conserve the endemic agave.

 Rapid identification (from photographs) of live maggots intercepted with pumpkins imported from South Africa found during quarantine inspections in Saint Helena. On one occasion the maggot was rapidly confirmed as a fly (Tephritidae), of quarantine significance, and the second occasion the maggot was suspected to be a lesser house fly (), of no quarantine significance. This enabled prompt and appropriate action to be taken in both occasions.  In Saint Helena, Nigra scale (Parasaissetia nigra), cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi) and a mealybug (Paracoccus sp.) were found infesting Saint Helena ebony Trochetiopsis ebenus, an endemic species of that is critically endangered in the wild (ICUN red list).

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 The Sri Lankan weevil (Myllocerus undecimpustulatus undatus Marshall) (Fig. 18), is a polyphagous plant pest that is native to Sri Lanka that was first detected in the Cayman Islands in 2016 on buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) and poses an economic and environmental plant health risk to all the UKOTs in the Caribbean.

 In TCI, scale insects were collected from West Indian satinwood (Zanthoxylum flavum) and small leaved mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) which are classed as ‘vulnerable’ and ‘endangered’, respectively (ICUN red list).  The Caicos pine is the national tree of TCI which has been decimated by the introduction of pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvicornis) (Fig. 1). Although the tree is not endangered elsewhere it is at risk of extirpation in TCI, where the remaining were found to be also infested with the introduced aphid Cinara pinimaritimae.  The fig whitefly (Singhiella ficus), native to Asia, was found in TCI for the first time and is a threat to native Ficus in all the UKOTs in the Caribbean. The identifications provided by this Service, will help target limited resources to where they will be most beneficial.

The report includes many new examples of exotic insects found on native plants, identified during 2015–2017. The immediate challenge, in addition to directing resources to appropriate management of pests in situ, will be to assess the risk and map the extent and impact of these recently discovered pests and ensure that endangered plant species are well represented in ex-situ collection/nurseries in preparation for a worst-case scenario.

One of the outcomes applicable to all the UKOTs that have used the service is the recording of new geographical records. This primary data (or regional occurrence of pests) is critical for the compilation of checklists of species for each Territory. Such checklists provide essential baseline data by which future faunistic changes, due to factors such as international trade, tourism and climate change, can be monitored and accurately assessed. Early detection of exotic introductions improves the chances of eradication and can thus protect the environment, biodiversity and local economy. This geographical data is also beneficial to other OTs and other countries as it can be used to monitor the spread of invasive species and identify potential future threats enabling mitigation actions to be put in place to reduce the risk of entry, and to develop contingency plans to determine appropriate management actions if the pest is detected. This data is essential for horizon scanning, pest risk analysis and contingency planning, which will help reduce the risk of further environmental disasters in the UKOTs, such as the recent decimation of the pineyards in the TCI and the extirpation of Agave missionum in parts of BVI. Key achievements of the 2015/16 – 2016/17 project include:

 347 samples and 22 photos were received during 2015/2017-2016/17 from six territories (Ascension Island, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Saint Helena and Turks and Caicos).

 More than 250 distinct taxa of invertebrate of invertebrate were studied.

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 More than 2000 individual specimens were examined; found in association with 65 plant species.

 Four scientific papers and two conference proceedings were published and several others are in preparation.

 Eleven species are reported as new for the Cayman Islands.

 Nine species are recorded from BVI for the first time.

 Seven species are recorded from TCI for the first time.

2.0 Background Since November 2009, the Invertebrate Identification Team within the Plant Protection Programme at Fera Science Ltd, has lead a Defra-funded project providing an identification service for invasive plant pests which threaten biodiversity and agriculture in the UKOTs: The latest funding period was for 2015-2017. The project has also provided emergency assistance in the form of control/re- exportation advice for territories facing immediate biosecurity threats.

3.0 Introduction and Aims

The UKOTs are recognised as having a rich biodiversity that is under threat from the introduction of non-native species. Non-native species are a major cause of the loss of biodiversity globally, and island ecosystems typical of UKOTs are particularly vulnerable (Cheesman et al., 2003; Varnham, 2006). A recent example of an accidental introduction of an invasive pest in a UKOT resulting in an environmental disaster has been the effect of pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvicornis) (Fig. 1) on the pineyards in the Turks and Caicos Islands (Malumphy et al., 2012). The scale has killed the majority of the mature pine trees changing the ecosystem. Measures are being taken to conserve the Caicos pine tree through the Caicos Pine Recovery Project (see Sanchez et al, 2015; Appendix 6). The Overseas Territories Biodiversity Strategy has the overarching objective: “to enable the UK and Overseas Territory Governments to meet their international obligations for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in the Overseas Territories.” Preventing the establishment of invasive alien species in the UKOTs is a strategic priority. Accurate and rapid species identification for suspect non-native species is fundamental to the enforcement of eradication and quarantine measures to protect biodiversity and agriculture. The PPP at Fera provides diagnostic and training services for the Plant Health and Inspectorate within the and Plant Health Agency (APHA) and has a wealth of experience and expertise in the identification of all plant-feeding insect orders, plant-feeding mites and plant-parasitic nematodes. This Defra funded project was conducted to provide an identification service for invasive invertebrate plant pests that may threaten biodiversity and agriculture in all of the UKOTs.

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Fera has over 50 scientists dedicated to providing fast and accurate identifications of plant pests and diagnosis of plant diseases to an international standard. The Programme provides comprehensive technical support and advice to the Plant Heath authorities of England and Wales, supporting the work of both the PHSI and the Defra’s Animal and Plant Health Department. This project was managed and largely delivered by the entomologists in the Invertebrate Identification Team.

The aims of the project were to: 1. To provide an identification service for invasive invertebrate plant pests for all of the UKOTs: including invasive non-native invertebrate plant pests which impact on biodiversity and commercial interests. 2. To provide rapid advice, wherever possible, when bio-security threats are detected, in the form of guidance on appropriate measures. 3. Provision of remote (e.g. online) basic training to colleagues in overseas territories so that local capacity is developed where resources permit this.

4.0 Methods 4.1 Service launch and publicity The main contacts within the UKOTs that have used the service previously were notified that the pest identification service had secured Defra funding for a further two years (2015-2017). The identification service is promoted on the JNCC website, the GB Non-Native Species Secretariat website, the Caribbean Invasive Alien Species Network website and is acknowledged on the Royal Botanic Garden’s website. 4.2 Project delivery All samples submitted by the UKOTs were scanned and triaged, and those representing plant-feeding groups that might pose the greatest economic or biodiversity threat were identified as a priority. Incidental invertebrates were not identified beyond family. Following identification, the UKOTs were provided with a report identifying the sample and providing detail on risk and if the information was available, potential mitigation measures.

5.0 Results

5.1 The number of samples received and identifications made A total of 347 samples and 22 photos were received from six territories between April 2015 and March 2017: Ascension Island (1); British Virgin Islands (23); Falkland Islands (68); Saint Helena (56); Turks and Caicos Islands (68); and the Cayman Islands (153).

5.2 Summary of findings More than 250 distinct taxa of invertebrate were identified at Fera during 2015-2017, of which more than 140 were identified to at least generic level. The invertebrates identified belong to the following classes and orders:

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ANNELIDA (2 sp.). GASTROPODA (4 sp.). ARANEAE (13 spp.). ACARINA: Oribatida (1 sp.); Prostigmata (2+ spp.); Mesostigmata (3+ spp.); Sarcoptiformes (1 sp.); Trombidiformes (4 spp.). ENTOGNATHA: Entomobryomorpha (1 sp.); Poduromorpha (1 sp.) DIPLOPODA: Polyxenida (1 sp.) INSECTA: Blattodea (2 sp.); Coleoptera (55 spp.); Diptera (12 spp.); (106 spp.); Hymenoptera (12 spp.); Isoptera (2 spp.); Lepidoptera (8 spp.); Neuroptera (5 spp.); Orthoptera (1); Psocoptera (1 sp.); Siphonaptera (1 sp.); Thysanoptera (10 spp.); Thysanura (1 sp.). In terms of the number of species identified, the dominant group was the Hemiptera, in particular the scale insects (Coccoidea). This is not surprising as they are one of the most commonly transported groups of insects in plant trade and one of the most successful invasive insect groups (Miller & Miller, 2003; Pellizzari & Dalla Montá, 1997; Smith et al., 2007; Thomas, 2006). In total more than two thousand individual organisms were examined, collected from more than 150 host plant species. A full list of the taxa identified during the reporting period can be found in Appendix 1. Many taxa are still being studied and have not been listed at species level. For certain invertebrate groups, World specialists were consulted when reliable keys or descriptions were not available. Further details regarding the individual samples, such as collector’s name, location, date collected, has been recorded through Fera’s Plant Health Information Warehouse Diagnosis Database and may be obtained by contacting the authors.

5.3 New geographical and host records, and potential plant health threats Published faunistic catalogues, regional checklists and taxonomic literature were examined to determine the validity of the new geographical records. For some groups, for example the scale insects and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Coccoidea and Aleyrodidae), there are accurate, up-to-date catalogues available online to check the distribution of species, whereas for some groups, the data is disparate and unreliable.

5.3.1. British Virgin Islands Twenty three samples (including photographs) were received from the British Virgin Islands. The most significant were photos of dying and dead Corita (Agave missionum) plants (Fig. 17), an endemic plant facing local extinction since the introduction of the Agave snout weevil (Scyphophorus acupunctatus) (Fig. 16). The Agave snout weevil is currently the most significant terrestrial invasive alien species in the BVI and has decimated the endemic Agave missionum, a keystone species in the dry tropical scrubland. The plant faces extirpation and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew are working in collaboration with the National Parks Trust Virgin Islands and Fera to assess the extinction risk and develop a mitigation plan.

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Fig. 28 Palm tree dying in BVI Fig. 29 Blotch mines on Coccoloba uvifera in BVI

Also significant were photos of dying and dead coconut and palm trees (Fig. 28). Photographs of the invertebrates found in association with the palms were all secondary (worms, , mites, fly larvae) and not responsible for the mortality. Based on the host and geographical region, Fera specialists suggested that the plant health service in BVI investigate the possibility of palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp., Cucurlionidae) or Palm lethal yellowing phytoplasm vectored by an insect. Relevant information on detection and diagnosis of these pests and diseases were sent to BVI. Photographs of extensive blotch mines on the foliage of Coccoloba uvifera (Fig. 29) were diagnosed as caused by the larvae (caterpillars) of a species of micro moth (?Gracillaridae), which is likely to be an undescribed species. The same symptoms have been observed on C. uvifera in the Turks and Caicos Islands. A total of eight species of and one species of whitefly are recorded here for the first time from the British Virgin Islands: Coccoidea: (Ceroplastes nakaharai on Myrcia citrifolia; Ceroplastes stellifer (Fig. 19) on Ixora ferrea; Ceroplastes rubens (Fig. 24) on Calyptranthes kiaerskovii; Coccus sp. on Psychilis macconnelliae; Milviscutulus mangiferae on Ixora ferrea; Lopholeucaspis cockerelli on Ixora ferrea; Paratachardina pseudolobata (Fig. 2) on Calyptranthes thomasiana and Diaspis echinocacti (Fig. 20) on a cactus). Aleyrodidae: (Aleurothrixus flocossus on Guapa fragans) Other significant records:

 Photographs were received of a species of Cactaceae heavily infested with cactus scale or prickly pear, Diaspis echinocacti (Fig. 20). The scale insect is native to parts of Central and North America but now occurs worldwide, wherever cacti are grown. It is restricted to indoor plantings in cooler regions. It has been recorded from and the US Virgin Islands.  Ceroplastes nakaharai is a very rarely recorded species of Coccid that is only known from the USA (Florida) and Cuba. Myrcia citrifolia is a new host record. [Scalenet]  Three species of scale insect were found on Calyptranthes kiaerskovii, a ‘critically endangered’ species of Myrtacea that is restricted to Gorda Peak National Park, a nationally declared protected area. (Clubbe et. al 2003a). Ceroplastes rubens () (Fig. 24) and

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Paratachardina pseudolobata (Kerriidae) (Fig. 2) have not previously been recorded on this host.  Three species of scale insect were found on Calyptranthes thomasiana, an ‘endangered’ species of Myrtacea that is also restricted to Gorda Peak National Park (Clubbe et. al 2003b). Ceroplastes rubens (Coccidae) (Fig. 24) has not previously been recorded on this host.  Ixora ferrea is a new host record for Milviscutulus mangiferae and Lopholeucaspis cockerelli.  Stigmaphyllon emarginatum is a new host record for Insignorthezia insignis (Fig. 25).

5.3.2 Cayman Islands One hundred and fifty three samples were received from the Cayman Islands. Eight species of scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) are recorded for the first time from the Cayman Islands: Coccus hesperidum on Phoenix dactylifera and Adenium odesum; Crypticerya ?genistae (Fig. 3) on Capsicum chinense; Nipaecoccus annonae on Annona squamosa; Nipaecoccus filamentosus on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; Palmicultor palmarum (Fig. 12) on Cocos nucifera; Protopulvinaria longivalvata (Fig. 5) on Syzygium malaccense; Pseudococcus sp. on Mangifera indica; and Radionaspis indica (Fig. 13) on Mangifera indica. This is remarkable as Fera has already received hundreds of samples from the Cayman Islands. A total of 31 species of scale insect have been recorded as new for the Cayman Islands by this project since 2009, several of which are highly invasive pests. Many of the species identified this year represent potential threats to agriculture and biodiversity. This is significant as almost half of the native flora in the Cayman Islands is classed as endangered and many of the invertebrate species that are new to the Islands have the potential to negatively impact biodiversity. There are 415 plant species and varieties native to the Cayman Islands, of which 46% have been assessed as endangered, this includes 20% as ‘Critically Endangered’, 15% ‘Endangered’ and 11% ‘Vulnerable’ (OTEP: CAY-001, Red-List Assessment of Cayman Islands' native flora for legislation and conservation planning). Examples of the species that pose a potential plant health threat include:  Sri Lankan weevil, Myllocerus undecimpustulatus undatus found feeding on Conocarpus erectus (fig. 18). The weevil is a polyphagous plant pest that is native to Sri Lanka. It is also sometimes known as ‘Yellow-headed Ravenous Weevil’ or ‘Asian grey weevil’. It has spread into India and Pakistan where various subspecies of M. undecimpustulatus are reported to be among the most serious of all weevil pests in the region, attacking 20 different types of crop. In the Americas, it was first detected in 2000 on Citrus sp. in Florida, USA, and spread rapidly through the county (Thomas, 2005). It was first detected in the Cayman Islands in 2016 on buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) and poses an economic and environmental plant health risk to all the UKOTs in the Caribbean.  Solanum whitefly Aleurotrachelus trachoides (Fig. 11) is native to parts of the Neotropical region and has spread to Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Large populations have been found on Capsicum crops in the Cayman Islands.  Green soft scale Coccus viridis is also native to parts of the Neotropical region and has spread widely in tropical areas throughout the world. Enormous populations were found on Manilkara zapota in the Cayman Islands. The foliage and fruit of infested trees become

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covered in sooty mould growing on the honeydew eliminated by the scale. The honeydew attracts ants that can bite/sting humans.  Croton scale Phalacrococcus howertoni (Fig. 10) has been spreading rapidly in the Cayman Islands in recent years and this year was collected from Carica papaya, Coccoloba uvifera, Codiaeum variegatum, Eugenia uniflora and Ficus sp.. It is a major destructive pest of Codiaeum variegatum and causes severe dieback and mortality (Stocks, 2013).  Urbicola soft scale Pulvinaria urbicola was found on Capsicum crops in the Cayman Islands. It occurs widely in the tropics and subtropics, with the exception of Asia, and it’s polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 43 families. It is a pest of many crop and ornamental plants.  Oriental scale Aonidiella orientalis was found on Coccoloba uvifera and Laurus nobilis in the Cayman Islands. It occurs widely in the tropics and subtropics and is polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 74 families. It is a serious pest of several crops including citrus, tea, date palm, papaya, mango, and ornamentals.  Lesser snow scale (Fig. 8) was found on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis on which it frequently causes dieback and mortality. It is cosmopolitan, being restricted to indoor plantings in cooler temperate regions, and is polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 84 families. It a serious pest of many crops and ornamentals. The male tests (protective covers for the immature stages) form conspicuous white patches on the host, hence the reference to snow in its common name.  False oleander scale Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli was collected from Carica papaya and Mangifera indica. It widely in tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and the Pacific. It is polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 78 families, and is a serious pest of many woody ornamental plants.  Lobate lac scale Paratachardina pseudolobata (Fig. 2) was found on Chrysobalanus icaco, Conocarpus erectus var. sericeus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Laurus nobilis, Mangifera indica, Pimenta dioica, Psidium guajava and Syzygium samarangense. The threat posed by this scale is discussed briefly on page 2. It has spread rapidly through natural habitats and continues to expand its host range in the Cayman Islands. It is broadly polyphagous and attacks more than 300 species of mostly woody plants assigned to 70 families.  Pink hibiscus mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus was found on Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. It is an Asian species that has spread widely in the Neotropical region since the 1990s and in Africa since the 1980s. It is polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 78 families, including many crop and ornamental plants. It is major economic agricultural and horticultural pest. Ornamental Hibiscus rosa-sinensis cannot be grown in parts of the Caribbean because this pest rapidly kills the plants. However, in many areas in the Caribbean this destructive pest is being successfully controlled by the introduction of a parasitoid wasp.  Citrus whitefly, Dialeurodes citri (Fig. 26), was recorded here for the first time from the Cayman Islands. It is native to Asia but is now found throughout the warmer parts of the world. In the Caribbean it has been recorded from the Bahamas, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, although it is probably much more widespread. Broadly polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 30+ families, but with a strong preference for citrus. It is an important economic pest of citrus in many parts of the World.  Frankliniella schultzei (Thysanoptera: ) was identified on Chrysanthemum sp. Known as the common blossom or cotton thrips, F. schultzei is a polyphagous species now

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widely distributed throughout the tropics and sub-tropics; It has previously been recorded from both Cuba and Jamaica. It is commonly found on plants being transported in international trade, and is mainly found associated with the of plants. The species is a known vector of spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Tomato chlorotic spot virus (TCSV), Groundnut ringspot virus (GRSV), Tobacco streak virus (TSV) and Chrysanthemum stem necrosis virus (CSNV).  A number of leafhopper (family Cicadellidae), predominantly immatures, were seen on a number of host plants, often with other Hemipteran pests. The second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species. With very little literature on the leafhoppers of the Cayman Islands available we have not been able to determine this species. Many species are vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas and consequently are important economic pests. Regarding the species intercepted with imported plant material, two species of thrips were found to be abundant:  Western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis (Fig. 7) is a highly invasive, major agricultural pest. It was intercepted on imported Alstroemeria, Aster, Bellis perennis, Chrysanthemum, Rosa, Scaveola and Zantedeschia rehmanii.  Frankliniella panamensis is an invasive, major agricultural pest. It was intercepted on imported Aster, Bellis perennis, Chrysanthemum and Dianthus caryophyllus.

5.3.3. Falkland Islands Sixty-eight samples were received from the Falkland Islands. One of the most significant finds was the cucurbit beetle Diabrotica speciosa intercepted on Chinese cabbage imported from Uruguay. In Spanish it is known as ‘vaquita de San Antonio’ or ‘Saint Antony’s calf!’ It is native to South America where it is a pest as the larvae feed on the roots of a wide range of vegetable crops. The adult beetles feed on the foliage. Two photographic samples were received from the Falkland Islands during 2016/2017. In May 2016 the Falkland Island’s Government’s Biosecurity Officer contacted us in need of urgent advice to confirm the identity of a colony of ants found aboard a yacht that had arrived from Australia. We were able to confirm that the ants were in fact a highly invasive species, the Argentine Ant, Linepithema humile (Fig. 22). Native to Northern Argentina, and now globally distributed in most regions with a Mediterranean climate or with mild winters and moderate to high humidity, it is a pest in urban, natural, and agricultural habitats. In its introduced range, the Argentine ant often displaces most or all native ants. This in turn threatens native plants that depend on native ants for dispersal, or lizards that depend on native ants for food. Argentine ants are also an economic threat because of their potential to tend plant pest insects, such as mealybugs, scale insects, and aphids. In return for honeydew secretions from these plant feeding insects, ants provide protection from natural enemies.

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We advised that it would be wise to take measures to prevent the ants from coming ashore. Given the ant’s current distribution it is unlikely to survive outdoors, but not impossible. It could probably survive indoors or under shelter.

5.3.3. Saint Helena Fifty six samples and photographs were received from Saint Helena. Several species of invasive scale insect were detected including:  Nigra scale Parasaissetia nigra was found on Saint Helena ebony Trochetiopsis ebenus, a species of flowering plant that is endemic to the island of Saint Helena and is critically endangered in the wild. Nigra scale occurs widely in the tropics and subtropics. It is polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 94 families, including many crop and ornamental plants. It is a regulated pest on citrus plants in the European Union.  Cactus scale Diaspis echinocacti (Fig. 20) was found on Opuntia. This is a serious and widespread pest wherever cacti are grown, and is particularly damaging to Opuntia.  Cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi was also found on Saint Helena ebony Trochetiopsis ebenus. Cottony cushion scale is almost cosmopolitan and broadly polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 70+ families. It is a serious pest, regularly killing susceptible host plants in the tropics.  Oleander mealybug Paracoccus burnerae was collected from an undetermined plant. It is a pest of citrus and ornamentals in sub-Saharan Africa. It is potentially a serious pest.

Six species of spider were identified from the St Helena samples, most were associated with imported produce or vehicles. The most frequently identified species was Zygiella x-notata, the Missing sector orb weaver. This species is commonly found around human habitation in the UK, webs are often spun in the corners of windows hence the common name. It is a cosmopolitan species found across Europe SE Asia, and in large parts of North and South America. It is not considered dangerous to humans. Spiders are a very diverse and large group of invertebrates; they are mainly generalist non-specialist predators, which are found across a wide variety of habitats, this coupled with their efficient aerial dispersal makes them exceptional colonisers. Spiders are usually some of the first to colonise new pieces of land such as volcanic islands, spiders were some of the first colonisers of the Island of Rakata (Formally Krakatau) floating down on silken threads after being carried over the water on the air currents (Wilson 2002). The potential for alien spiders to become established is quite high. Once established the likelihood of them becoming invasive (having an impact on the environment) is the result of a few contributing factors such as available ecological niches, competition from other species, predation and life/cycle history (Lowe et al 2000). The invasiveness of spiders is a subject that has not had a lot of attention over the years, and has only relatively recently started to be studied. So far there is little data on the long term impact of invasive spiders on the environment, but from the data that has been gathered to date it is thought to be low (Nentwig 2015 & Nedved et al 2011). The spider species identified by Fera are closely associated with human habitation and in their native ranges are often found in and around buildings often reaching a high density in a localised area, this can lead to the replacement of native species such as in the case of Pholcus phalangodes in Europe.

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P. phalangodes is an alien invasive araneophagic (spider eating) species of spider from Asia that is now present in high densities in Europe and has had a considerable impact on the local spider communities in the areas where it is found (Nentwig 2015). The spider species identified may have an impact within the immediate area that they are found in large densities (such as buildings, sheds etc...) but out in the wider environment where individuals would tend to have a lower density their impact will be less. Therefore the potential for the spiders species to establish on St Helena are high with the potential of those species becoming “invasive” (i.e. impacting on the environment) being low. 5.3.4. Turks and Caicos Islands Sixty-eight samples were received from the TCI. Five species are recorded from TCI for the first time: Singhiella simplex; Metaleurodicus griseus; Trialeurodes abutiloneus; Planchonia stentae (Fig. 4) and Leptoglossus?caicosensis. Several species of potential plant health risk were detected including:

 Solanum whitefly Aleurotrachelus trachoides (Fig. 11, see comments above). Large populations were found on the crops Capsicum annuum and Solanum lycopersicum, and on native plants Coccoloba uvifera and Eugenia foetida in TCI  The Ficus whitefly Singhiella simplex is an Asian insect that has recently spread rapidly in the Americas. Large populations can cause complete defoliation.  South African pit scale Planchonia stentae (Fig. 4) found for the first time in the Turks and Caicos Islands, on Cassia sp. and Lantana involucrata; polyphagous, feeding on plants belonging to 15 families.  Pine tortoise scale Toumeyella parvicornis (Fig. 1) was again collected from Caicos or Caribbean pine. As stated in the introduction, this species has had a devastating effect on the pineyards in TCI (Malumphy et al., 2012).  Duplachionaspis divergens was found infesting Paspalum blodgettii (new host plant). This is an Asian species that has a patchy distribution in tropical areas of North and South America, and Australia. It is oligophagous on grasses and a minor pest of sugarcane and lemon grass.  Seagrape flatid planthopper Petrusa epilepsis (Fig. 9) is very common in TCI and this year was recorded on Coccoloba, Ernodea, Eugenia, Lantana, Randia, Tabebuia and unspecified shrubs. It feeds on many native plants.  Lobate lac scale Paratachardina pseudolobata (Fig. 2) was collected from Amyris elemifera, Annona reticulatea, A. squamosa, Brysonima lucida, Guettarda krugii and Hibiscus brittonianus. Hibiscus brittonianus is endemic to the Bahamas archipelago.  The fluted scale Crypticerya genistae (Fig. 3) was collected from Acacia choriophylla, Bidens alba, Chamaecrista chapmonii, Coccoloba uvifera, Corchorus sp., Euphorbia blodgettii, Jacquinia keyensis, Savia bahamensis and Tridax procubens, and suspected from Eugenia foetida, Lysiloma latisiliquum and Myrica cerifera. The threat posed by this scale is discussed briefly on page 2.  Citrus orthezia Praelongorthezia praelonga was collected from several native plants Angadenia berteroi, Cassytha filiformis, Erithalis fruticosa and Ernodea serratifolia. This is a highly invasive polyphagous pests that continue to spread in the UKOTs in the Caribbean.  A mealybug Leptococcus eugeniae was found on Eugenia axillaris, Eugenia foetida (new host) and Eugenia sp.. The only published records for this species are from Costa Rica and th3e USA.

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 Evergreen bagworm Thyridopteryx ?ephemeraeformis was found feeding on Acacia choriophylla, Erithalis fruticosa and Pinus caribaea var bahamensis in TCI. The bagworm feeds on many native plants and has a voracious appetite and can be a serious pest.

5.4 Bio-security advice provided A summary of the distribution, host range, biology and economic importance is provided to the UKOTs when new pests are recorded. This information will assist the UKOTs to make a rapid assessment of the potential risk posed by the organism. If available, photographs of the pest and symptoms are also provided to aid detection and identification. Emergency biosecurity advice was provided to the Falkland Islands in December 2015 regarding the identity of a flea which jumped off a cat. The Falklands are free from cat and dog fleas hence the immediate concern. Photographs of the flea were sent to Fera and we could immediately rule out the possibility of the flea being a dog or cat flea. The flea was suspected to be the European rat flea Nosopsyllus fasciatus. This saved the Falkland Islands Government significant time, money and resources in taking un-necessary eradication action against a non-quarantine insect. Advice was also provided on the possible causes of mortality on palms in BVI (see section 5.3.1).

5.5 Scientific publications Four papers and two conference proceedings relating to the samples were published during the reporting period. Scientific Papers: Malumphy, C., Hamilton, M. A., Sanchez, M. D. & Green, P. W. C. (2016) Trapping confirms aerial recruitment of Pine Tortoise Scale (Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell)) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 2016 Vol.152 No.3 pp.193-200 Malumphy, C., White, L.F., Hall, J., Hodgetts, J. & Hamilton, M. 2015. Five invasive mealybug species new for Ascension Island (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), with a revised checklist of scale insects for the island. Entomologist’s Monthly magazine 151: 131-138. Malumphy, C., Sanchez, M.D. & Hamilton, M.A. 2015. First report of lesser snow scale Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley) (Hemiptera: ) killing rupicola (Urb.) Britton in the British Virgin Islands. Entomologist’s Monthly magazine 151: 285-288. Green, P.W.C., Hamilton, M.A., Sanchez, M.D., Corcoran, M.R., Manco, B.N. & Malumphy, C.P. 2015. The scope for using the volatile profiles of Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis as indicators of susceptibility to pine totoise scale and as predictors of environmental stresses. Chemistry & Biodiversity 12: 652–661.

Conference proceedings:

Hamilton, M. A., Monsegur, O., Sustache, J., Velez, J., Pascoe, N. W., Harrigan, N., Linsky, J., Corcoran, M., Barrios, S., Heller, T., Clubbe, C., Bradley, K., Malumphy, C. & Sanchez, M. 2015. Varronia rupicola: conserving a threatened species endemic to the Caribbean. (Eds. Pienkowski M. & Wensink, C.) Proceedings for Sustaining Partnerships: a

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conference on conservation and sustainability in UK Overseas Territories, Crown Dependencies and other small island communities. Gibraltar, 11th to 15th July 2015. UKOTCF: 105-106. Sanchez, M. D., Green, P., Barlow, S., Corcoran, M., Martinez-Suz,, L., Baena, S., Moat, J., Manco, B. N., Blaise, J., Malumphy, C. & Hamilton, M. A.. 2015. Caicos Pine Recovery Project: an overview. (Eds. Pienkowski M. & Wensink, C.) Proceedings for Sustaining Partnerships: a conference on conservation and sustainability in UK Overseas Territories, Crown Dependencies and other small island communities. Gibraltar, 11th to 15th July 2015. UKOTCF: 108-111.

5.6 Building diagnostic capacity in the UKOTs A range of approaches for developing diagnostic capacity and up-skilling in the UKOTs were considered but these were restrained by the limited diagnostic resources of many of the territories (e.g., laboratories, microscopes, trained staff, information centres and reference collections). Most of the reports contain key diagnostic references and links to websites which can be used to develop diagnostic capacity. A series of original papers on red palm weevil were sent to BVI to assist with the diagnosis of the dying palm trees (see Section 5.3.1, Fig. 30). In addition, pictures of fruit fly larvae were sent to Saint Helena to help distinguish fruit fly larvae (Tephritidae), which are primary plant pests, from vinegar (Drosophilidae), which are secondary pests. Funding from another Defra project was used to fund the production of 10 UKOT Plant Pest Factsheets, all on which have been made available online on the GB Non-Native Species Secretariat website http://www.nonnativespecies.org/index.cfm?pageid=609:  Holopothrips tabebuia UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Myllocerus undecimpustulatus UKOT PP Factsheet v1  Pseudacysta perseae UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Praelongorthezia praelonga UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Paratachardina lobata UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Phalacrococcus howertoni UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Metaleurodicus cardini UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Bemisia tabaci UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Aleurotrachelus trachoides UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1  Lissachatina fulica UKOT PP Factsheet 2017 v1

5.7 Further services requested by UKOTs Some UKOTs expressed an interest in the following services if Fera were able to provide them in the future.

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1. Training in plant health inspection and plant pest identification. 2. Assistance with horizon scanning and producing rapid risk assessments in order to help decide on appropriate action when a pest has been found. 3. Producing regional or commodity based pest lists.

6.0 Conclusions

Preventing the establishment of invasive alien species in the UKOTs is a strategic priority of the UK Government’s Overseas Territories Biodiversity Strategy. Accurate and rapid species identification for suspect non-native species is fundamental to the enforcement of eradication and quarantine measures to protect biodiversity and agriculture. There continues to be a clear demand for an identification service for invasive invertebrate plant pests to improve bio-security and support the preservation and conservation of biodiversity in the UKOTs and the service has produced a wealth of new and useful data. IN addition to providing inventories of pests present in each territory, the service has demonstrated practical benefits during the 2015/2017 reporting period, including: 1. The service helped identify and evaluate immediate threats so that appropriate action could be taken. For example, ants on a yacht in the Falkland Islands; and the flea associated with a cat the Falkland Islands. 2. The service helped identify potential threats and prioritise conservation efforts in some of the UKOTs. In BVI for example, pests of two ‘critically endangered’ and ‘endangered’ (ICUN red list) plants were identified. 3. A total of eight species of scale insect and one species of whitefly were recorded for the first time from the BVI and one for the first time in the Cayman Islands, including a number of highly invasive polyphagous pests that continue to spread in the UKOTs in the Caribbean. 4. In each case where a new pest is recorded, a summary of the distribution, host range, biology and economic importance is provided to assist with the UKOT making a rapid risk assessment and deciding upon appropriate action. 5. The presence of natural enemies in the samples have been recorded which over the longer term may be investigated and used to help suppress the numbers of invasive pests. 6. The service has provided data for the compilation of checklists of species for each Territory. Such checklists provide essential baseline data by which future faunistic changes, due to factors such as international trade, tourism and climate change, can be monitored and accurately assessed. The early detection of exotic introductions improves the chances of eradication and can thus protect the environment, biodiversity and local economy.

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Since the identification service was launched in February 2010, nine UKOTs have made use of the service and submitted more than 1000 samples. More than 100 of the invertebrate species examined to date have never before been reported from the UKOTs. A total of seventeen species apparently new to science have been observed and are being studied further. One new species from the Cayman Islands has been described: Scirtothrips cocolobae Collins & Evans (Collins & Evans, 2013).

7.0 Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Natural Environment Evidence Programme, Defra for funding of the project, and everyone within the UKOTs who submitted samples. Thanks are also due to those people who gave advice and support in compiling a list of contacts in the Overseas UKOTs, in particular Martin Hamilton (RBG Kew). We would also like to thank our colleagues Dan Pye, Mark Delaney, Duncan Allen, Dom Collins and Joe Ostoja-Starzewski for all their hard work with processing and identifying the samples.

8.0 References

Cheesman, O.D., Clubbe, C., Glasspool, A.F. & Varnham, K. 2003. Dealing with invasive species: sharing knowledge and experience. In: M. Pienkowski ed. A Sense of Direction: a conference on conservation in the UK Overseas Territories and other small island communities. Over Norton: UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum, 257-272. Available from: http://www.ukotcf.org. Clubbe, C. & Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N. 2003a. Calyptranthes kiaerskovii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2003:e.T34418A9866241. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T34418A9866241.en. Downloaded on 29 March 2017. Clubbe, C. & Pollard, B., Smith-Abbott, J., Walker, R. & Woodfield, N. 2003b. Calyptranthes thomasiana. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2003: e.T43895A10830915. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2003.RLTS.T43895A10830915.en. Downloaded on 29 March 2017. Collins, D W. & Evans, G. B. 2013. Scirtothrips coccolobae sp. nov. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), a Leaf-Feeding Thrips on Sea Grape Known from Florida and the Cayman Islands. Florida Entomologist 96 (4): 1359-1364. Lowe S., Browne M., Boudjelas S., De Poorter M. (2000) 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. Published by The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), 12pp.

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Malumphy, C., Hamilton, M.A., Manco, B.N., Green, P.W.C., Sanchez, M.D., Corcoran, M. & Salamanca, E. 2012. Toumeyella parvicornis (Hemiptera: Coccidae), causing severe decline of Pinus caribaea var. bahamensis in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Florida Entomologist 95, 113-119. Miller, G.L. & Miller, D.R. 2003. Invasive soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and their threat to US Agriculture. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 105, 832-846. Nedved O., Pekar S., Bezdecka P., Liznarova E., Rezac M., Schmitt, M & Sentenska M (2011). Ecology of Arachnida alien to Europe. BioControl 56: 539-550. Nentwig W.(2015) Introduction, establishment rate, pathways and impact of spiders alien to Europe, Biological Invasions 17: 2757-2778. Pellizzari, G. & Dalla Montá, L. 1997. 1945-1995: Fifty years of incidental insect pest introductions to Italy. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica, 32, 171-183. Smith, R.M., Baker, R.H.A., Malumphy, C.P., Hockland, S., Hammon, R.P., Ostojá-Starzewski, J.C. & Collins, D.W. 2007. Recent non-native invertebrate plant pests establishments in Great Britain: origins, pathways, and trends. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 9, 307–326. Stocks, I. 2013. Recent adventive scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) and whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in Florida and the Caribbean region. In: Peña, J.E. (Ed.), Potential invasive pests of agricultural crops. CABI International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 342–362. Thomas, M. C. 2005. Myllocerus undatus Marshall, a weevil new to the Western Hemisphere. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Pest Alert, DACSP-01635. (http://freshfromflorida.s3.amazonaws.com/myllocerus-undatus.pdf) (accessed 31 January 2017). Thomas, M.C. 2006. The exotic invasion of Florida. A report on immigration into the sunshine state. Available from: http://www.freshfromflorida.com/Divisions- Offices/Plant-Industry/Science/The-Exotic-Invasion-of-Florida Varnham, K. 2006. Non-native species in UK Overseas Territories: a review. JNCC Report 372. Peterborough: United Kingdom. Wilson, E.O. (2002) The Diversity of Life. Harvard University Press. Pages 16-23.

9.0 Appendices

9.1 Summary of invertebrate identifications made during 2015-2017

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