REPLANTING the SEEDS of HOME: SLAVERY, KING JAJA, and IGBO CONNECTIONS in the NIGER DELTA, 1821-1891 by Joseph Miles Davey A
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REPLANTING THE SEEDS OF HOME: SLAVERY, KING JAJA, AND IGBO CONNECTIONS IN THE NIGER DELTA, 1821-1891 By Joseph Miles Davey A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of History- Doctor of Philosophy 2015 ABSTRACT REPLANTING THE SEEDS OF HOME: SLAVERY, KING JAJA, AND IGBO CONNECTIONS IN THE NIGER DELTA, 1821-1891 By Joseph Miles Davey My dissertation argues that past examinations of West African slave systems have over- emphasized the importance of social, linguistic and cultural marginalization, highlighted by a lack of access to the enslaving society's kinship networks, as the defining factors of slavery in West Africa. By centering the narrative of renown nineteenth century slave-turned-king, Jaja of Opobo, my work argues that, as abolition took effect in the Atlantic world, Igbo slaves amassing in Niger Delta trading state of Bonny were increasingly able to maintain elements of their natal identities and, in cases like Jaja's, were able to reconnect with their natal kinship network in the Igbo interior. Furthermore, my dissertation argues that the slavery-to-kinship continuum model, first put forth by Miers and Kopytoff in 1977, is inherently flawed, inasmuch as it only accounts for the ability of the enslaved to be absorbed into the kinship networks of the slave-holding society, ignoring completely their ability to reconnect with their natal kinship groups in this increasingly turbulent period of West Africa's history. Copyright by JOSEPH MILES DAVEY 2015 This work is dedicated to my collaborators, my friends and all of the citizens of Umuduruoha. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like express my deepest appreciation for the support and input of Professor Nwando Achebe. Without her encouragement and tireless efforts, this study would not have been possible. Professor Achebe’s innovative and engaging approach to African history sparked in me the desire to pursue this degree at Michigan State University and to dedicate my career to engaging with Africa. Her support throughout my tenure as a graduate student has been, and always will be, deeply appreciated. I would also like to acknowledge my family for their unyielding support over the many years it took to complete my doctoral degree. My parents, Jim and Anne Davey, have contributed so much to my efforts emotionally, intellectually, and financially. They have always inspired in me a love of intellectual pursuits and education. Without their assistance and encouragement, this dissertation could not have come to fruition. There are number of scholars whose input over the years must be acknowledged here. Professor Walter Hawthorne’s work in West Africa and the Atlantic World has been a constant source of inspiration for my own work. Professor Pero Dagbovie’s uncompromising passion for pedagogy and engagement with his students has consistently encouraged me to think about my work more critically. Professor Gordon Stewart has, ever since I began working with him as an undergraduate at Michigan State University, always been a staunch supporter of my intellectual efforts and has never stopped challenging me to think of the themes of my work in wider scope. I would also like to specifically thank Prof. David Wiley, the former director of the African Studies Center at Michigan State University. When federal funding for the Fulbright Fellowship was cancelled and graduate students were left wondering how we were going to fund our various research projects, Prof. Wiley took it upon himself to secure funding for all us who v were left out in the proverbial cold. Furthermore, Professor Peter Limb, the Africana Bibliographer for MSU’s Library whose encyclopedic knowledge of the sources of African history never ceases to amaze, has been an invaluable asset in tracking down the sources for the completion of this study. In Nigeria, I was assisted by far too many people to account for in this brief acknowledgments section. However, I would like to thank Rev. Chinedu Nebo, former Assistant Chancellor of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. He was immense help to me and great a friend. Rev. Nebo helped put me in touch with contacts in Umuduruoha, payed for transportation and security to travel to Umuduruoha in 2010, and, seeing that I could use a home cooked meal every so often, invited me into his home for dinners and discussions on many occasions while I was in Enugu conducting archival research. Prof. O.N. Njoku and Prof. Uchenna Anyanwu at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka also extended their gracious support, both logistically and intellectually, while I was preparing to travel to from Enugu to Umuduruoha, for which I am truly grateful. Prof. E.C. Osuala and Dr. Walter Ofonagoro provided me with invaluable contacts in Umuduruoha. Dr. Ofonagoro, who has written about Jaja’s Igbo roots himself, also graciously took me into his home and helped me to get acquainted with potential collaborators during my 2010 pre-dissertation research trip. Finally, I would like to personally thank Dr. Ndubueze Mbah. Dr. Mbah has been a staunch supporter of my work since we first became colleagues at Michigan State University in 2008. His deep knowledge of Igbo history, language and culture has been a constant source of support for my intellectual engagement with the region and his friendship has been unyielding as I worked to complete this study. Without Dr. Mbah, my completion of this dissertation would have been impossible. To those I have identified here, and those I have missed, thank you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES x INTRODUCTION 1 Prelude 1 A Brief Outline of Jaja’s Life 6 Thesis 8 Organization and Layout 18 AFRICAN SLAVE SYSTEMS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 22 Introduction 22 Eighteenth Century Slave Narratives 22 African Slavery in Academic Literature 30 The Historiography of King Jaja of Opobo 52 CHAPTER ONE- “THE ACCIDENTAL RESEARCHER”: METHODS 80 Introduction 80 Getting Acquainted with Umuduruoha 80 “Onye Ocha bia ala Igbo” 84 Getting Reacquainted with Umuduruoha 90 The Accidental Researcher: Oral History Methods 94 Sources 99 Archival Sources 100 Oral Sources 106 Collaborators 106 Physical/Material Sources 124 Manufactured Sources of Jaja’s Past 126 Natural Landmarks as Sources of Memory 132 Naming 133 Conclusion 134 CHAPTER TWO- UMUDURUOHA AND JAJA’S ANCESTORS 135 Introduction: Umuduruoha Today 135 Umuduruoha in Historical Perspective: Duruoha and his Brothers 137 Amaigbo, Umuduruoha and Traditions of Igbo Origin 142 Situating Amaigbo and Umuduruoha within the Literature on Pre-Nineteenth Century Igboland 146 Umuduruoha in the Village-Group and Amaigbo 148 Social Structure of Umuduruoha during the Nineteenth Century 150 The Village 153 Headship in Umuduruoha 157 Age-Grades and Childrearing in Umuduruoha 162 Religion in Umuduruoha 166 Trade and Economics in Nineteenth Century Umuduruoha 170 vii Establishment of Arondizuogu 173 Fighting the Slave Trade 175 “Nations Fear Me” 176 Separating the Fact from the Fiction: Jaja’s Birth, Childhood, and Capture 182 Nineteenth Century Slave Routes: Jaja’s Internal Passage 188 Conclusion 191 CHAPTER THREE- BECOMING JAJA: BONNY AND THE CIVIL WAR 193 Introduction: What’s in a Name? 193 Bonny’s Settlement and Early History 194 The Early Kings of Bonny 196 Slavery and Political Authority in Bonny 207 Social Organization and Religious Institutions in Bonny 208 Slavery and the Economy in Bonny 211 Religion in Bonny 220 Jaja in Bonny 223 Dappa’s Exile and Conversion 231 “Drink Make Man Fool”: Rise to Chieftaincy 235 The Bonny Civil War and Jaja’s Rekindling of Connections with Home 241 Conclusion 249 CHAPTER FOUR- JAJA’S NEW BEGINNINGS AND OLD HOME 251 Introduction 251 Politics, Economics, and Religion in Opobo 252 “Ezealaonyekwele!” 261 The Scramble for Africa and the Fortification of Umuduruoha 266 The Jaja-Ibeno War (a.k.a the Kwa-Ibo Conflict) 267 Trial in Accra 282 Jaja in Exile 284 Conclusion 292 CONCLUSION: JAJA’S LEGACY IN UMUDURUOHA 294 Introduction 295 Douglas Comes Home 295 The Nigerian-Biafran War 298 1980-2002: Umuduruoha, Opobo, and the Supreme Court of Nigeria 301 Replanting the Seeds of Home and the Saga of Ite-Igwe: The Iron Pots 303 PYMAKS: The Progressive Youth Movement of Amaigbo Kingdoms 308 Conclusion 312 Recommendations for Future Action and Investigation 314 APPENDICES 317 Appendix I: British Treaty with Opobo (1873) 318 Appendix II: Treaty with the King and Chiefs of Opobo (1884) 319 Appendix III: Genealogical Table: The Ancestral Lineage of King Jaja and His Brothers 322 viii Appendix IV: Petition sent to the Umuduruoha Town Union by Richard Duruoshimiri on behalf of his father, Ignatius Enwerem Duruoshimiri 323 Appendix V: PYMAKS Application 324 Appendix VI: Photographs from the King Jaja Exhibit, 1997 325 Appendix VII: Glossary of Igbo and Ibani Terms 327 BIBLIOGRAPHY 328 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Southeastern Nigeria, showing Umuduruoha, Bonny and Opobo 6 Figure 2: Nigeria, showing Enugu and Imo State 80 Figure 3: King Jaja Road Sign 82 Figure 4: Igbongidi Newspaper Article 84 Figure 5: From Left to Right: Walter Ofonagoro, Joseph Miles Davey, H.O Ohaya 109 Figure 6: Mrs. Monica Igbokwe 113 Figure 7: Author with Dan Ihenetu 119 Figure 8: Left to Right: Richard Duruoshimiri, Author, and Anselem Obijiaku 122 Figure 9: The iron pots held in the Duruoshimiri compound 127 Figure 10: Shrine at Obi Okwara Ozurumba 131 Figure 11: (Left) Olu Duruoshimiri, (Right) iroko tree lining the Ozurumba compound 132 Figure 12: Imo State with Local Government Areas 135 Figure 13: