Ecotourism Benefits and the Role of Local Guides at Masoala National Park, Madagascar

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Alison Ormsby Eckerd College, St Petersburg, USA

Kathryn Mannle Seattle, USA An investigation of ecotourism at Masoala National Park, a forested coastal area in northeastern Madagascar and the country’s largest national park, focused on ecotourism benefits and the role of local guides in promoting conservation awareness. Interviews, participant observation, and archival research were used to investigate the park’s guide association, resident attitudes toward Masoala National Park, and ecotourism as a method of park and rural development. Many factors make Masoala National Park a prime ecotourist destination, including the possibility of viewing its endemic species, such as red-ruffed lemurs. The park has a strong local guides’ association and currently combines conservation and development through a programme that returns a portion of tourism revenue to local communities. Actual or potential benefits received from the park, including ecotourism revenues, were found to influence the positive and negative perceptions of Masoala National Park held by residents living in the park periphery. However, limitations on ecotourism development include poor infrastructure and difficult access, a challenging climate including a hurricane season, and past national political instability.

Keywords: communities, ecotourism, Madagascar, Masoala National Park, revenue sharing, guides

Introduction The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and Ceballos-Lascurain (1996: 20) define ecotourism as: environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompa- nying cultural features – both past and present), that promotes conservation, has low visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local populations. This analysis of ecotourism at Masoala National Park in Madagascar explores how the park is achieving the various elements that characterise ecotourism, in particular economic benefits and conservation awareness raising amongst both visitors and the community. Ecotourism is one method of minimising people– park conflict and generating support for conservation by providing local benefits. Ideally ecotourism encourages natural resource conservation in return for

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local and national economic benefits, in addition to offering local, national and international tourists an opportunity to enjoy and learn about nature while respecting local culture (Brandon, 1996; Davenport et al., 2002; Emmons, 1991; Honey, 1999). Furthermore, training local guides to lead visitor education programmes can provide income for local residents and increase visitor environmental awareness (Paaby & Clark, 1995; Weiler & Ham, 2002). Ecotourism, while promoting the conservation of natural areas that are tourist destinations, can provide economic revenues through entrance fees, employ- ment of local residents of the park area, and tourist expenditures. Projects can generate foreign exchange and provide economic benefits to remote areas (Fennell, 1999). Ecotourism initiatives can attract investment capital for community infrastructure development, often including improved local social and educational services (Barnes et al., 1992). Initially, ecotourism does not require large capital investments, since ecotourists typically are willing to tolerate basic conditions and facilities. Park-based ecotourism often affects local community residents. Several attitu- dinal studies have been conducted to assess local opinions about conservation and tourism efforts in places such as South Africa (Infield, 1988), Tanzania (Newmark et al., 1993), Malawi (Mkanda & Munthali, 1994), Belize (Hartup, 1994), Ecuador (Fiallo & Jacobson, 1995), Nepal (Mehta & Kellert, 1998), and Madagascar (Peters, 1999). These studies correlated attitudes, perceptions, knowledge of ecology, conservation, and/or the purpose and benefits of the protected area with a variety of socio-demographic factors. People living in and around protected areas, as well as park tourists, often affect the ability of the protected area to meet objectives related to biodiversity conservation. Attitu- dinal surveys are a means of measuring the perceptions that local residents have of conservation areas and park staff, as well as the level of support for conservation initiatives. This study at Masoala National Park contributes to the body of literature on environmental attitudes. Ecotourism efforts in Madagascar are well underway. Madagascar has been a top priority on the agenda of international conservation groups during the past two decades, due to its simultaneously high levels of endemism and demands on its natural resources. Accordingly, Madagascar has been identified as a global biodiversity ‘hotspot’, one of the world’s richest countries for living organisms, but one that has also lost a significant amount of native habitat (Mittermeier, 1988; Wright, 1994). Madagascar’s natural resources are under intense pressures at a variety of scales of resource use, ranging from the extraction of precious woods for export to the practice of shifting cultivation using swidden practices to clear land, called tavy in Malagasy.1 The fourth largest island in the world, equivalent in size to the state of Texas, or twice the size of Great Britain, with a population of 17 million people, Madagascar contains habitats ranging from the spiny forest desert of the south to the rainforests of the east. In 2004, Madagascar was ranked 150th out of 177 nations in the world by the UN in terms of life expec- tancy, educational attainment and adjusted real income (http://hdr.undp.org/ statistics/indices). Masoala National Park is the largest of Madagascar’s protected areas, and suffers similar environmental threats as experienced countrywide. The park contains diverse habitats including low and mid-altitude rain forest, littoral

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forest, mangroves and coral reefs, giving tourists a unique opportunity to view a wide range of rare and endemic species in a relatively concentrated area. Masoala National Park is co-managed by a non-governmental organisation (NGO) and l’Association Nationale pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées (ANGAP), a parastatal department in charge of managing the protected areas of Madagascar, equivalent to the United States’ National Park Service (Gezon, 2000; Peters, 1998). One of the biggest strengths for ecotourism at Masoala is its local association of ecotourism guides. In preparation for an expected increase in tourism to the area, the guides’ association has recently expanded and undertaken additional training. Many factors make Masoala National Park a prime ecotourist destination, including its endemic species and lush forests and its partnership with Zoo Zurich in Switzerland (see www.zoo.ch/masoala.967.0.html). To draw attention to conservation issues in Madagascar and promote ecotourism to the Masoala region, the zoo has recreated an acre of Masoala rainforest as part of its ‘Masoala Regenwald’ exhibit. There are several possible negative aspects to ecotourism in any location, including Masoala National Park. Ecotourism may change cultural norms and cause detrimental ecosystem impacts, including stress to animal populations, trampling of vegetation, introduction of alien invasive species, soil erosion and compaction, water quality degradation, and coral reef destruction. Overuse of an area may result in a loss of wildlife and natural habitat (Barnes et al., 1992; Fennell, 1999; Honey, 1999). Higher volumes of visitors generally increase the potential for negative impacts. Once an ecotourism destination becomes popular and potentially overcrowded, it risks losing the qualities such as seclu- sion, beauty, and charm that initially made it appealing (Rosote et al., 1991). Another drawback of ecotourism is the potential for ‘leakage’, the loss of income from the host country to international investors and foreign-run tour companies (Fennell, 1999; Honey, 1999). This leakage can be minimised by promoting the use of inbound, or in-country, tour operators, keeping in mind that there is still a need to ensure that revenues stay at the local level and do not flow to a capital-based tour company. Ecotourism alone cannot provide conservation benefits to all residents of a protected area region, and therefore should be one aspect of a combination of natural resource protection strategies (Stem et al., 2003a). While ecotourism has economic and environmental promise at Masoala National Park, its potential is limited by several factors. Poor infrastructure creates difficulties in transportation and safety for tour operators. Road access is extremely limited on the Masoala peninsula. A general lack of training and stan- dards amongst local tour operators and rural hotel owners also hinders potential tourism in villages surrounding the park. Cultural differences, while in some ways a draw for tourism, are also a hindrance when the roles and expectations of tour operators and tourists are not clearly understood.

Research Site: Masoala National Park Masoala National Park (Figure 1) is one of the largest remaining contiguous blocks of rain forest in Madagascar at 2300 square kilometres (880 square miles)

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Figure 1 Map of Masoala National Park Source: WCS SIG, 2003

or 230,000 hectares (575,000 acres) in size, half the size of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. The park region, the wettest in the country, receives approximately 3.6 metres (12 feet) of rain each year. The area was officially gazetted as Madagascar’s eighth national park in October 1997.

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The park’s components consist of a large park parcel on the Masoala peninsula as well as three marine parks (6000 hectares or 15,000 acres in size), three detached parks on the eastern side of the peninsula, and the Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve, a 520 hectare (1300 acre) forested island located in the Bay of Antongil near the town of Maroantsetra (Figure 1). The protected area contains many endemic species, including red-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra), carnivorous pitcher plants (Nepenthes masoalensis), and tomato frogs (Dyscophus antongili). Each July to September, humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrate to the Bay of Antongil, an important whale mating and calving area (Rosenbaum et al., 1997). The park is divided into six management zones (Zones A to F, Figure 1), each patrolled by four to six park Agents of Conservation and Education (ACEs). According to organisations working in the area, approximately 82,000 people live on the Masoala peninsula (CARE & WCS, 1995). The two main population centres in the park area are the towns of Maroantsetra (population 16,000) west of the park and Antalaha (population 27,000) north- east of the park (Hatchwell, 1999). Residents of the whole peninsula are mainly from the same ethnic group, Betsimisaraka. Residents of villages in the park periphery primarily practise subsistence agriculture by cultivating rice through tavy and growing small plots of vegetables. Vanilla, coffee, and cloves are grown for export. Several non-governmental organisations have been involved with management of Masoala National Park, including ecotourism efforts, since 1992, when the area was initially under consideration for park creation. Project Masoala was an integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) from 1992 to 1997 that included butterfly farming and ecotourism efforts (WCS & CARE, 1993). The first report on ecotourism opportunities in the area was produced in January 1994 and outlined potential sites for hotels and tourist activities, as well as prob- lems for ecotourism at Masoala such as inaccessibility and communication difficulties (Odendaal, 1994). In 1999, CARE International and the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) held a round table discussion devoted to the technical aspects of developing ecotourism at Masoala. The meeting brought together potential beneficiaries of ecotourism from the local community to create a regional committee on ecotourism. The meeting also identified steps that would improve tourism in the area such as building a cell phone tower, improving road conditions, increasing the number of flights to Maroantsetra and constructing a visitors’ centre (CARE & WCS, 1999). Plans to create and manage many of the technical aspects of ecotourism such as the visitors’ centre are discussed and included in the park’s current management plan (Hatchwell, 1999). While the vision for ecotourism has been well-documented through park publications and outside critiques, the ability of the park to implement many of these initiatives has been impeded by several factors, ranging from difficulties in acquiring land for the visitors’ centre, to natural disasters, and the 2001–2002 political crisis. Following the December 2001 presidential elections in which neither candi- date received more than 50% of the vote, Madagascar was split into two rival governments, creating a political and economic crisis (Marcus & Razafindrakoto, 2003). Tension between coastal and central highlands peoples have long played into politics in Madagascar. The former president, Didier Ratsiraka, hails from

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the Betsimisaraka (the many inseparables) ethnic group that lives along the eastern coast of Madagascar including the Masoala peninsula. The traditional ruling class, the Merina, lives predominantly in the central highlands around the capital city of Antananarivo. During the political crisis, Marc Ravalomanana, of Merina descent, gained the support of the capital city, while Didier Ratsiraka retreated to the port city of Toamasina, the provincial capital and centre of the Betsimisaraka region. With two rival governments, international aid was frozen. As support for Ravalomanana grew and more details about the disputed elections became available, Ratsiraka’s grip on the country loosened. Ratsiraka finally admitted defeat and left the country for exile in August 2002. The political crisis shut down tourism for at least eight months.

Methods Research on ecotourism at Masoala National Park was conducted by Ormsby from July to December 2001 and by Ormsby and Mannle in April 2003. The multi-method research approach included semi-structured individual and focus group interviews using an interview guide, archival research, and participant observation of park staff, park guides, tourists, and community residents. The methods used derived from aspects of participatory action research (PAR) and ethnographic techniques (Greenwood & Levin, 1998; Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983; Peters, 1991; Weiss, 1994). Informants were selected based on their occupation and relation to ecotourism, to gather information from a wide range of respondents. Grounded theory and thematic analysis were used to develop codes and generate theory from data collected (Boyatzis, 1998; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Results were analysed by subgroup according to occupation and role in the community and park. For example, responses from different interviewee groups were compared, such as park guides, residents, and park staff. The study addressed two main research questions: (1) What is the role of ecotourism in providing a local source of revenue and economic justification for conservation? (2) What role do ecotourism guides play in raising community environmental awareness and support for ecotourism and conservation? The primary research objectives were to investigate:

• the specific role the interviewee plays in ecotourism, conservation, and the community; • the interviewee’s perceptions of ecotourism, park guides, and the park; and • how the interviewee thinks ecotourism at Masoala National Park might be improved in the future.

Ormsby conducted 102 semi-structured individual and group interviews with a total of 165 Masoala National Park staff, employees of non-governmental conservation organisations, and community residents, focusing on two villages on the periphery of Masoala National Park: Mahalevona and Ambohitralanana. Mannle conducted 33 semi-structured individual and group interviews with a total of 49 individuals: members of the local guides’ association (AGEM), Masoala National Park staff, employees of non-governmental conservation

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Table 1 Description of research sample

Interviewee Group Number of Number of Number of individual group people interviews interviews interviewed Community residents (excluding park 54 20 128 staff) Staff of Masoala National Park 21 2 33 Staff or researchers with the Wildlife 8113 Conservation Society (WCS) Staff of the Cooperative Assistance for 505 Relief Everywhere (CARE) Park guides 10 5 26 Employees of the Ministry of Water 303 and Forests (Eaux et Forêts) Staff of other non-governmental 606 conservation organisations Total 107 28 214

organisations, and community residents of Mahalevona and Ambanizana (Table 1).

Results

Ecotourism strengths and growth opportunities The appeal for visitors to come to Masoala National Park includes such factors as the guaranteed visibility of animals and the anticipated quality of tourist expe- rience in comparison to other parks in Madagascar that, although perhaps easier to access, less expensive, and more tourist-friendly in terms of infrastructure, are likely to be more crowded. Masoala National Park is composed of several units that attract a variety of visitors: the main park area on the peninsula that appeals to serious hikers or trekkers; three marine parks; three separate park parcels on the eastern area of the peninsula; and the island of Nosy Mangabe. Ecotourism at Masoala National Park is still minimal, with approximately 2000 visitors per year: the island of Nosy Mangabe receives the vast majority of visitors to the park complex (Figure 2). The park reports that 78.1% of visitors to Masoala go to Nosy Mangabe. This forested island is uninhabited, relatively easy to access by boat from Maroantsetra (weather permitting), and has tourism infrastructure and assured wildlife viewing. Tourism to the large park parcel on the peninsula and to the marine parks is less common than to Nosy Mangabe. The recent collaboration between Masoala National Park and Zoo Zurich, Switzerland, is expected to result in additional interest and a rise in tourism to the park. Zoo Zurich’s Masoala Regenwald (Rainforest) exhibit, opened in June 2003, provides publicity and potential investment support for Masoala National Park in Madagascar.

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Andranoanala (research station) 0.1% Masoala Marine Park 4.6% Nosy Mangabe West Coast 78.1% 10.5%

Grand Treks 6.6%

Figure 2 Destinations of visitors within Masoala National Park (Source: Parc National Masoala, Factsheet for Travel Agents, 2002)

Awareness raising and conservation functions of park guides Tourism depends not only on community services, such as places to eat and sleep, but also on park guides who are required to accompany visitors to the park. Masoala National Park staff work primarily with community residents and patrol the park; they are not directly involved with tourists. Representatives from a separate, independent guide association interact with park visitors. The guides of Masoala National Park are not park employees, although this distinc- tion may be unclear. Residents perceive the guides as having influence in getting park officials to support community development projects. The Maroantsetra-based Association des Guides Ecotouristiques de Maroantsetra (AGEM) was formed in 1995, composed of interested residents from the park area. ANGAP requires that tourists visiting any park in Madagascar be accompanied by a guide. Masoala’s guide system differs from other national parks in Madagascar where guides may be ANGAP employees. Because of their inde- pendence, the guides of Maroantsetra are in a unique and exciting position within the spectrum of ecotourism in Madagascar. The guides’ association has an exclusive contract with ANGAP, meaning that anyone visiting any part of Masoala National Park must be accompanied by a guide from AGEM (Figure 3). Even other tour operators, such as those from the capital city that employ their own guides, are required to use AGEM’s services when visiting the park. Each year the number of tourists increases and more guides are needed. The process of becoming a guide at Masoala National Park is rigorous, involving exams and required mentorships for new guides. Guides have to pass written and oral tests to be accepted into the association and must be fluent in at least one language in addition to French and Malagasy. Over the years, the park guides have had training classes about guiding methods, speaking with tourists, meeting visitors at the airport, different cultures (American, French, British and Japanese), map reading, first aid, and fauna and flora. In anticipation of the increased tourism that Zoo Zurich’s Masoala Regenwald

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Figure 3 Tourists, park staff and guide at Nosy Mangabe (Source: James MacKinnon, 2002)

is expected to create, WCS and ANGAP conducted a training programme for new ecotourist guides in early 2003. AGEM currently consists of seven male authorised guides, who were originally trained by Project Masoala in 1995, and 13 new stagiaires (10 men and 3 women), apprentice guides who completed the 2003 training programme provided by ANGAP and WCS and passed a written and oral examination. The main task of a guide, set out by the Manuel des Guides, is to explain local flora and fauna, the history of the region, and cultural aspects to visitors. In addition, the guides play a role in conservation by keeping visitors on designated paths, making sure visitors do not leave behind trash or take any plants and animals out of the park. The guides are also in charge of visitors’ safety (CARE & WCS, 1997/1998). When questioned about why they wanted to become a guide, common responses from the stagiaires included: ‘to help with the protection of the environment’ (50%), ‘to learn and practice languages’ (50%), ‘to increase personal knowledge’ (33%), ‘to explain to people the importance of the environment’ (33%), and ‘to be in contact with foreigners’ (16%). The guides play an important role in transferring their knowledge of Madagascar to visitors, and need to know the customs of a wide variety of other cultures as well so they can relate to foreign tourists. Guides provide a valuable service by explaining the park’s goals to visitors and community residents and by relieving some of the workload that otherwise would fall on park staff. The guides also have the potential to influence park perceptions through their presentation of park information to visitors and to

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communities through which visitors pass when trekking in the park. As one AGEM guide said, ‘guides have to explain to visitors the purpose of the park as well as species names and not to litter’. The role of educator in the community is one that the guides embrace with pride. AGEM in association with the Maroantsetra Environmental Youth Club (MEYC), the local environmental youth group, conducts a weekly hour-long radio programme at a local Maroantsetra radio station. As one of the original guides described, ‘The goal of the programme is to explain to the people the real reason that the tourists are coming to town, which is to see nature ...Weexplain that [tourists] come to see the forest and the animals because they don’t have them where they live’. Other topics that the guides have discussed on the radio have been medicinal plants, ecotourism, and general ecology. By explaining to local residents the potential park benefits from visitors, guides can play an inte- gral role in ecotourism success through encouraging conservation. The guides understand just how important the visitors are to Maroantsetra and to the villages surrounding the park, from which many of the guides origi- nate. One of the original guides observed, ‘If a thousand tourists come here each year and they each spend a million Malagasy francs in the market or the hotels, it adds up. That’s a lot of money for us, it goes to the people that live here, not even to ANGAP’. The guides are also essential in making connections with people in the villages and directing tourists’ money to the peripheral areas of the park. The guides accompany visitors to the local marketplace to buy food and supplies before visiting the park. The porters’ association of Mahalevona gets clients when the guides recommend porters. Some of the guides even have hopes of creating package trips to their villages, or to any village located near the park, in hopes of stimulating the local economy.

Economic incentives for conservation If the park is well-protected and maintained, tourists will come and bring income to the village. (A Mahalevona resident) Masoala National Park is currently combining conservation and development through a programme to bring tourism benefits to local committees. Half of park visitor entrance fees are allocated to local management committees, called COGES (COmité de GEStion), to be used for development projects of their choice. For example, in 1999, COGES projects included road improvements, construction of tables for a primary school, well and public toilet construction, and building rehabilitation (on a budget of approximately US$700). Although the COGES programme has the potential to be a success story in terms of public relations and tangible local benefits from the park, it has several drawbacks. At the moment, the revenue from tourism through COGES funds is only intended for use in places immediately adjacent to tourists’ destinations, or for communities that pose direct resource pressures on a certain tourism area. Thus, COGES has funded projects in Maroantsetra using half of entrance fees from the nearby island of Nosy Mangabe. Although Maroantsetra is indeed the closest community to Nosy Mangabe, interviewees noted that it is not the main source of pressures on the park. According to an AGEM member, the guides think COGES should benefit places other than just Maroantsetra, saying, ‘since

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residents of the park periphery pose the biggest pressures to the park, they should benefit from tourism in order to avoid the pressures’. One challenge is that there was only about US$500 in COGES funding in 2001 for the entire park. Therefore, partners are sought to supplement projects with inadequate COGES funds. Also, with fluctuating tourism levels due to unpredictable circumstances such as natural disasters and political events, the level of COGES funding changes from year to year.

Local resident attitudes toward ecotourism The park has advantages such as tourists, they bring improvements to the village and to life in general. (An Ambohitralanana store owner) Ecotourism has significant potential to generate direct community benefits from conservation of Masoala National Park. Residents interviewed in Mahale- vona and Ambohitralanana did perceive ecotourism as a park benefit. Tourism particularly benefits residents who own a hotel or café (hotely) or are employed as park guides. When posed an open-ended question about the possible benefits of the park, 15% of local residents specified tourism as a positive benefit. Yet, at least one Ambohitralanana resident held the misperception that the park was created for foreigners. Another Ambohitralanana resident more fully understood the park’s goals: ‘The park was established for everyone, locals and foreigners, and to protect the environment and save unique species. The park can bring money from tourists’. Residents and park staff supported efforts to increase tourism to the park and also recognised that improvements are needed for tourism to be successful. Restaurant and hotel owners interviewed expressed interest in expanding their businesses to better accommodate park visitors passing through villages near the park. But, many local entrepreneurs lack the monetary or material resources to invest in tourism infrastructure development. Villagers interviewed in Mahalevona thought that tourism is positive, and welcomed an increase. A local teacher and village leader noted that: ‘The passage of tourists through the village is good for development’. Residents are optimistic that increasing ecotourism would be possible for Mahalevona given the right marketing: ‘It’s a bit difficult to get here, the road is bad, the bridge is broken, but there are many beautiful sites on the way’. Others think that tourism will improve when the right connections are made between tour operators and local people. Promoting villages as ecotourist sites rather than just a stop on the way to the park is one idea that a recent ecotourist to the area had: ‘I think that a lot of people, especially older people, would like visiting the villages, visiting the vanilla and coffee plan- tations, seeing how they are grown, getting to taste it, and then maybe buying some at the end’. The development of peripheral villages as tourist destinations has potential because access to many of the ecotourist destinations within the park is difficult. Visiting sites on the peninsula by boat is expensive due to the high price of fuel. Trekking to the East Coast of the park and across the peninsula is inexpensive because it does not require fuel costs, but takes at least a week and traverses difficult terrain. The trekking option is popular with many younger visitors or

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‘adventure tourists’ (Middleton, 1998) but requires advance planning and is only recommended during the dry season. The villages of Mahalevona and Navana, in contrast, are a half-day from Maroantsetra by foot and canoe, accessed via a road unsuitable for driving but an easy walk or mountain bike ride with pleasant scenery of the forest and beach. The villages are also accessible by powerboat and are less expensive as they are closer to Maroantsetra and require less fuel. As many visitors arrive at Masoala without realising just how difficult it is to reach the park on the peninsula, the villages would most likely benefit from tourists looking for a way to spend a few extra days. Despite the difficulties in transportation to the peninsula, or perhaps because of the allure of its remoteness, Masoala will likely see an increase in tourism in the near future. Between the time when the initial inquiry on ecotourism was published in 1994, and 2000 when Hurricane Hudah hit, the park received a steady increase in total numbers of visitors each year, a trend that park representatives expect to continue.

Political and climatic ecotourism challenges Numerous factors limit tourism to the Masoala National Park complex and contribute to fluctuations in visitation rates, including: inadequate tourism infrastructure and rough living conditions; the high cost of hiring boats needed to access Nosy Mangabe and parts of the Masoala peninsula; the lack of accessi- bility due to Air Madagascar’s schedules and infrequent flight availability; the expense of travelling to and within Madagascar; the fact that Madagascar’s official languages are French and Malagasy; and extreme weather conditions. The park’s small number of officially trained and approved guides used to be a tourism limitation, but the 2003 training changed that. Although tourism has steadily increased at Masoala National Park, particularly Nosy Mangabe, natural disasters and political instability have had a direct impact on tourism rates (Figure 4). In April 2000, the Masoala peninsula was struck by Hurricane Hudah, with winds up to 300km/hour. This severe storm

Number of Visitors

1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year

Figure 4 Number of visitors to Nosy Mangabe, 1994 to 2003 (Source: Parc National Masoala, Factsheet for Travel Agents, 2002 and MacKinnon, personal communication)

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temporarily halted tourism to the area. A long-term effect of the hurricane was extreme damage to the only high-end hotel serving the eastern peninsula. In December 2001, the second major blow to tourism came in the form of Madagascar’s political crisis. After the disputed results of the presidential elections, Madagascar was sent into a political and economic crisis for almost eight months during 2002 as the two opposing governments struggled to gain power. Tourism to Masoala stopped almost entirely between the months of January and August 2002 and was significantly lower than normal in the months following as is evident from the number of visits to the park (Figure 4). Local hotel owners in Maroantsetra suffered during this period as the numbers of tourists during the crisis dropped. Tourism in 2002 was low not only directly from the negative perceptions of travel in a politically unstable country, but also compounded by a lack of flights to Maroantsetra. Thus, the tourism industry is a risky one, with uncertain benefits. Yet, despite the serious impacts of the political crisis, villagers remain optimistic. One Mahalevona resident observed, ‘tourism has gone down a lot, but I believe that each month there are a few more people’. Residents antici- pate the future potential benefits that ecotourists could bring to their village.

Conclusion Environmentally and culturally sensitive ecotourism programmes can play a key role in justifying the rationale for the existence, maintenance and future benefits of protected areas worldwide. They may also serve to mediate conflict by explaining to local residents the purpose of conservation and the roles of park personnel, and can be a means of strengthening park staff’s community visibility and credibility. The visions for ecotourism at Masoala National Park set out by the park literature and management plans have largely been accomplished, including local involvement in ecotourism development. Local participation is important, as people living in and around protected areas, as well as tourists, impact the ability of the protected area to meet its objectives relating to biodiversity conservation. The parastatal design of ANGAP is favourable in terms of keeping ecotourism as a future management priority (Eagles, 2002). Parastatals such as ANGAP may be even more effective in achieving ecotourism goals when collaborating with local community-based organisations such as AGEM. Ecotourism as a tool for development at Masoala National Park will be largely dependent on the ability of the guides and park managers to work together. Ecotourism is an important factor in generating both foreign and Malagasy interest in the conservation of Madagascar’s protected areas as well as pristine areas that are not yet protected. The guides’ association of Masoala has the ability to bring development and conservation together and act not only as guides to the park, but as guides to local communities and culture. There are several steps that could be taken by the guides and park staff in order to improve relations both within the guides’ association and with tourists. Based on observations and comments from residents, park staff, and tourists, there is a need for clarification of the protocol, procedure, and responsibilities of park agents regarding the sale, purchase, and collection from tourists of tickets for visiting the park. During interviews, several park employees expressed confu-

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sion over this process and noted that some park visitors are taking advantage of the lack of organisation and accountability in the park’s tourism protocols by avoiding payment of park entrance fees. Information on park prices, logistics, and guides should be prominently displayed at major entry points to the park. It is important that park staff coordinate with the guide associations to ensure accu- racy of information that is shared with tourists and residents. The potential profits from AGEM’s exclusive contract with ANGAP are large. The improved efficiency of the guides’ association could help to distribute the benefits of ecotourism to peripheral communities, such as when hiring porters and visiting local businesses. Similar to the findings of Jacobson and Robles (1992), training programmes such as those offered for AGEM guides, and the work of the guides themselves are valuable ways to minimise tourism’s ecological impacts and to provide local conservation education, such as through the AGEM radio programme. Masoala National Park periphery residents interviewed identified several benefits from the park, particularly the use of natural resources in the park area and income from tourism. Local involvement and participation in protected area activities and decision-making is an important factor in terms of the success of park initiatives, and seems to be working in the case of Masoala National Park. Community involvement in park activities, from boundary demarcation to ecotourism management committees, may be a factor in current favourable park attitudes. Residents interviewed who were recipients of benefits from the park, such as income from ecotourism, legal resource use, or direct recipients of park-funded development projects, had positive attitudes towards the park. It is important for park representatives to clearly communicate potential park benefits and drawbacks to communities. This is an information exchange as well as a means of fostering positive interaction between park staff and community residents. A combination of approaches that clarify for residents the benefits of the park, from tourism to water resources to legal resource use, will reinforce the value of the park’s existence. In addition, the programme for local management of tourism revenues (COGES) should be explained to tourists, who most likely would be pleased to know that 50% of their park admission is allocated to community development projects. Although some residents near Masoala National Park receive community development benefits in the form of projects such as well construction and school repairs that are funded by tourism revenues, presently there are not enough tourists to the main park to generate adequate funds for projects in all of the peripheral villages. Therefore, the system has current inequalities, and the promise of future funds through the COGES programme may create unrealistic resident expectations. Similarly, Peters (1998), working in Ranomafana National Park in Madagascar, found that distribution of tourism revenues and benefits in general were limited to a small number of villages in the general park area. Stem et al. (2003b) in Costa Rica also observed patterns of scalar differences in tourism impacts and economic benefits depending on village location and tourism dependence. If COGES is able to expand to additional villages, it would provide more equitable distribution of tourism benefits through projects that have community-level impact, such as wells, schools, or transportation improve-

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ments, and by extension, increase the likelihood of improving communities’ park perceptions and support. COGES is a step in the right direction in terms of providing a tangible community benefit from ecotourism at Masoala National Park. Hurricane events seasonally impact the forest of Masoala National Park and natural resource availability and affect residents of communities bordering the park who have to adapt to the resulting flooding and famine. These storms have the potential to halt tourism and to alter people’s use of park resources, trig- gering increases in the hunting of wildlife, collection of food, and harvest of valuable resources from within the park. Stochastic environmental events such as hurricanes negatively impact local livelihoods, including guides’ and hotel owners’ income as tourism numbers decline with the threat of, or after, natural disasters. One way that park staff are encouraging residents to prepare for future food shortages is to plant crops such as cassava, a less desirable food but one that can be eaten during times of rice shortage. Each of the AGEM guides, in addition to being called on to guide when the tourism season is busy, also maintains a family garden. The integration of local people into the ecotourism system is very important, and at Masoala, the guides do have personal connections with surrounding villages. Encouragement and assistance from the park to further develop these connections would help with community integration into ecotourism initiatives. With organisation and planning, both on the part of park managers and the local people themselves, there is a positive future for ecotourism as a tool for both conservation and development. The development of ecotourism, however, still faces challenges such as infrastructure and air-travel issues that plague the country as a whole. Despite these challenges, actions taken by the park, such as the COGES programme, and cata- lyst groups such as the Masoala guides’ association, could greatly improve the quality as well as the quantity of ecotourism at Masoala National Park and at other areas in Madagascar.

Correspondence Any correspondence should be directed to Dr Alison Ormsby, Eckerd College, Department of Environmental Studies, 4200 54th Avenue South, St Petersburg FL 33711, USA ([email protected]).

Acknowledgements Thanks to the residents of Mahalevona, Ambohitralanana, and Ambanizana, and to Peter Rogers, Richard Marcus, James MacKinnon, AGEM, and all of the ANGAP and WCS staff in Maroantsetra.

Note 1. Malagasy – one of the official languages of Madagascar. The term also refers to the people of Madagascar.

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