Gender and Development in the Middle

he situation of women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) presents a paradox. Decades of G ender and D MENA DEVELOPMENT REPORT Tinvestment and improved policies have greatly increased women’s education and health and have reduced their fertility rate. However, the expected payoffs in higher employment and economic growth have not materialized. Because of cultural and political barriers, only a third of women are in the labor force—the lowest rate in the world. Public Disclosure Authorized In a global economy that values mental power over physical might, the region’s new comparative Gender and Development advantage could well be its large, educated work force and, increasingly, its female work force. Future economic growth must rely on human resources rather than on the natural resources relied on in the past.Women e remain a huge, untapped reservoir of human potential. Gender issues have been seen as a peripheral con- v in the Middle East and cern that resided mainly within the realm of the social sectors.Yet gender is ultimately also an economic issue. elopment in the M Gender and Development in the Middle East and North Africa recognizes the complexity of gender issues, explores the causes of gender inequality, and proposes an agenda for change.The book has been endorsed North Africa by two tireless advocates for gender equality: Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of Jordan and Shirin Ebadi. Women in the Public Sphere “ ender inequality has a negative impact not only on women but also on society as a whole. It restricts Gthe ability of a country to efficiently allocate and use its most valuable resource—its human capital. Restricting the participation of women in public and economic life limits economic development and national potential. Empowering women and providing opportunities for their full integration into all aspects of iddle East and Nor Public Disclosure Authorized society is not just an issue of justice for women—it is a vital factor in creating a climate favorable to achieving sustainable progress and development....Empowerment of women—the mothers, daughters, sisters, and wives who are central to our family traditions—means stronger families and a richer sense of national community and pride....Encouraging and empowering women to take their place as an integral part of regional growth and progress is the wisest and most effective means of closing the development gap.” Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of Jordan, President of the Arab Women’s Summit “ o impede women’s participation in the political, social, economic, scientific, artistic, and cultural spheres Twould be tantamount to impeding social progress and human development....Nowadays,fortunately, many experts and other people have accepted the belief that real development cannot take place without th A the active participation and inclusion of women.This acceptance is indeed a great success, and all those who have emphasized the role of women in development and tried hard to move this belief from a theoretical f r concept to a public debate can rightfully take pride in this success.... To prepare the ground for women’s i ca active participation in development, we must remove the conceptual and tangible obstacles.” Public Disclosure Authorized Shirin Ebadi, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate 2003 his book is part of a series, the MENA Development Reports, prepared on the occasion of the 2003 World TBank–International Monetary Fund Annual Meetings in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.The series examines topics of importance to the Middle East and North Africa region: trade and investment, governance, gender, and employment. It aims to provide a comprehensive review of the challenges and opportunities the region faces as it strives to fashion a new development strategy to meet the evolving needs of its people. Public Disclosure Authorized ™xHSKIMBy356760zv":;:':=:' ISBN 0-8213-5676-3 Gender and Development in the Middle East and North Africa MENA DEVELOPMENT REPORT Gender and Development in the Middle East and North Africa Women in the Public Sphere THE WORLD BANK Washington, D.C. © 2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved. 1 2 3 4 07 06 05 04 This volume is a product of the staff of the World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, www.copyright.com. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail [email protected]. ISBN 0-8213-5676-3 Cover photos from the World Bank Photo Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for. Contents Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xv Glossary of Terms xvii Acronyms and Abbreviations xix Overview 1 The Gender Paradox 1 The Costs of Low Participation of Women in the Economy and the Political Sphere Are High . 1 ...But the Benefits of Enhanced Participation of Women Are Positive 4 Factors That Have Empowered Women in Other Parts of the World Have Been Less Effective in MENA 4 Achievements in Women’s Education and Health . 5 ...Are Not Matched by Gains in Women’s Participation in the Labor Force 6 What Has Slowed Women’s Entry into the Labor Force? 7 Even If Demand Factors Play a Role . 7 . Standard Labor Market Discrimination Does Not Explain Low Participation . 9 . But the Combination of Social and Economic Factors Does 10 A New Agenda about Gender 12 What Needs to Be Done . 12 . And Who Needs to Do It 14 1. Why Does Gender Inequality Matter in MENA? 17 A Historical Perspective on Gender Equality in MENA 19 Outline of the Report 21 Notes 22 v vi Contents 2. Closing the Gender Gap in Education and Health 25 Increasing the Achievements in Women’s Education 27 Dramatic Increase in Years of Schooling and Literacy 29 Progress in Reducing Gender Gaps in School Enrollment 30 Completion Rates That Reflect Continued Discouragement for Girls 32 Educating Women for Empowerment 35 Greater Emphasis Needed to Create Demand for Schooling 38 Enrollment of Girls from Remote and Poor Families 43 Making Progress in Health and Fertility 43 Life Expectancy That Has Increased 43 Infant and Maternal Mortality Rates That Have Fallen 44 Fertility That Has Fallen Dramatically 46 Challenging the Health Sector: Social Health and Second-Generation Issues 49 Reduction in Early Pregnancies 50 Increase in Reproductive Health Knowledge 51 Improvement in Women’s Access to Health Services 51 Notes 53 3. Women in the Economy 55 Women’s Participation in Economic Activity Has Increased at an Accelerating Rate . 57 . But Participation of Women in the Labor Force Remains Low 61 Economic Impact of Low Participation by Women in the Labor Force 64 The Burden of High Economic Dependency 65 Forgone Return on Investments in Girls’ Education 67 High Costs for Households Headed by Women 69 The Costs of Low Female Participation Compared with Family and National Income 69 Unemployment and Female Participation in the Labor Force 74 Women Face Higher Unemployment than Men Do . 75 . But Higher Female Labor Force Participation Is Not Associated with Higher Unemployment 77 Mixed Effect on Female Employment from Old Patterns of Growth 79 Women Have Tended to Work More in the Public Sector 79 Women and Men Are in Informal and Unregulated Categories of Work 81 Women Remain in Agriculture Longer than Men Do 83 Contents vii The Challenge of Inclusion in the Private Sector 84 Appendix: Labor Force Participation Rates That Vary with the Data Source 86 Notes 89 4. Constraints on Women’s Work 93 The Traditional Gender Paradigm in MENA 94 Key Elements of the Traditional Gender Paradigm 94 Traditional Norms That Affect Labor Market Behavior 98 Discrimination in Wages, Benefits, and Job Segregation 100 Gender Gaps in Wages 101 Family Benefits and Other Nonwage Compensation That Favor Men 104 Gender-Based Job Segregation That Reduces Economic Efficiency 108 Restrictions on Women’s Flexibility as Workers 111 Constraints on Women Originating from the “Code of Modesty” 111 Other Factors Limiting Women’s Work 116 Combining Work and Family Responsibilities 118 Government-Mandated Maternity Leave Policies 118 Support for Working Mothers 120 Notes 124 5. The Gender Policy Agenda to Meet Demographic and Economic Needs 129 A Definition of the Agenda for Change 131 Harmonizing Legal Structures 132 Building an Infrastructure to Support Women and the Family

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