Chatzopoulou E, Gorton M, Kuznesof S. Quality Conventions Theory and the Communication of Authenticity: Evidence from Greek Restaurants in the UK and Greece

Chatzopoulou E, Gorton M, Kuznesof S. Quality Conventions Theory and the Communication of Authenticity: evidence from Greek restaurants in the UK and Greece. In: Radical Marketing Academy of Marketing Annual Conference 2016. 2016, Newcastle Upon Tyne: Academy of Marketing.

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Quality Conventions Theory and the Communication of Authenticity: evidence from Greek restaurants in the UK and Greece

Introduction Authenticity and quality are important characteristics for marketers seeking to foster customer loyalty (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). However, both quality and authenticity are complex constructs, depending not only on objective product features but also the perceptions of consumers and reference groups (Migliore, Schifani, & Cembalo, 2015). Quality Conventions Theory (QCT) provides a framework for understanding the plurality of interpretations of quality and how judgements depend on contrasting “worlds of production” and related, broader normative frameworks invoked in justifying evaluations and actions (Ponte & Gibbon, 2005; Storper & Salais, 1997). While several authors apply QCT to studies of food production (Climent-López et al., 2014; Fonte, 2008; Migliore et al., 2015; Murdoch, Marsden, & Banks, 2000; Ponte, 2009), little attention has been paid to the relationship between particular conventions and the meaning and construction of authenticity. This is surprising given the salience of product authenticity in consumer evaluations of food quality (Kuznesof, Tregear, & Moxey, 1997). In this paper QCT provides a framework for identifying a typology of ethnic restaurants, understanding the quality conventions of each type and their relationship to specific forms of authenticity. In developing the typology the study draws on a qualitative, interpretive examination of restaurants serving mainly, or partially, Greek food in both the UK and Greece. As far as we are aware QCT has been applied previously neither to restaurants nor in a specific cross-national setting. Literature Review Storper and Salais (1997, p.25) define conventions as “practices, routines, agreements and their associated informal or institutional forms which bind acts together through mutual expectations”. Conventions are thus heuristics that co-ordinate activities and provide criteria by which to judge and justify actions (Climent-López et al., 2014). In introducing the concept, Boltanski and Thévenot (1991) note the existence of multiple, archetypal orders of worth which can be utilised to justify stances and actions. Specifically, they discern six categories of conventions: market, industrial, domestic, civic, inspirational and opinion. Each is linked to a particular “world of production” (Storper and Salais, 1997), where actors operate and interconnect according to distinct principles for judging quality. For instance, in the “industrial” world, characterised by standardised, mass production, quality is assessed according to the degree of reliability and level of efficiency, manifest through codified standards and technical specifications (Tregear, Török, & Gorton, 2016). In contrast, in the “civic” realm quality is evaluated in terms of contribution to social benefits and societal welfare. In presenting their typology, Boltanski and Thévenot (1991) are, however, careful to note that it is not intended to be exhaustive, rather it derives specifically from the culture they studied so that in other domains, alternative orders of worth may exist (Climent-López et al., 2014). QCT lacks a specific focus on authenticity despite the latter often being integral to the definition and location of worth. Marketers acknowledge authenticity as a social and commercial construction for differentiation and positioning (Becut, 2011; Bryla, 2015; Ebster & Guist, 2005; Lu, Gursoy, & Lu, 2015; Wood & Lego Muñoz, 2007) with the search for it being ‘‘one of the cornerstones of contemporary marketing’’ (Brown, Kozinets, & Sherry, 2003, p. 21). As a fundamental element informing judgements of product quality, authenticity is central to brands’ identity and positioning (Alexander, 2009; Beverland, 2005; Lu et al., 2015). Authenticity can be discerned in three forms: objective, constructivist and postmodern (Lu et al., 2015):

Objective authenticity. This type of authenticity exists if only there can be tangible, absolute and objective criteria so as to compare a product with (Ebster & Guist, 2005; Grayson & Martinec, 2004; Leigh, Peters, & Shelton, 2006; Lu et al., 2015; Mkono, 2013). It concerns objects which may be examined by an expert who is aware of the tradition and able to determine their true and honest nature (Leite & Graburn, 2009; Lu et al., 2015). An example of objective authenticity are the EU-sponsored labels which are awarded to consortiums of “traditional” food producers, mostly associated with place of origin (DeSoucey, 2010). The main labels are: Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and Traditional Specialty Guaranteed (TSG). Social constructivist approach to authenticity (indexical). Actors judge authenticity according to their own experiences (Belhassen, Caton, & Stewart, 2008). This type of authenticity is not objectively defined but symbolically and personally constructed (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006). Authenticity for constructivists is a perception of cultures which includes deeper meanings and varying personal interpretations (Lu et al., 2015). Indexical authenticity can be negotiated, interpreted and agreed by actors (Hughes, 1995) as its meaning has a pluralistic nature (Zhu, 2012), influenced by a social discourse (Belhassen et al., 2008), a priori expectations and stereotypes (Wang, 1999). Postmodern authenticity (existential). Existential authenticity is an activity-based approach (Leigh et al., 2006; Rickly-Boyd, 2013; Wang, 1999) which goes beyond “object-oriented” perspectives as it relies on experiences and perceptions about whether an object is conceived as real or not (Rickly-Boyd, 2013). It takes into consideration the need for hedonistic fun and shared experiences as well as the eclecticism of lived experiences (Kim & Jamal, 2007; Leigh et al., 2006; Mkono, 2013; Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). Regarding ethnic restaurants, postmodernists suggest that consumers perceive them as authentic if only their desired emotions or experiences emerge from what they eat or see (Lu et al., 2015). As people tend to believe not only what they taste but also what they see; ethnic costumes and the roles of cooks and waiters may define an ethnic restaurant as authentic or not (Mkono, 2013; Peterson, 2005). This type of authenticity tends to appeal to those who are unfamiliar with the current culture (Lu et al., 2015), perceiving authenticity as an interaction between the world and their identity (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). Methodology To explore and interpret personal and constructed meanings of food quality and authenticity, a qualitative research approach was chosen; studying the phenomena directly, with the participation of both restaurateurs and consumers (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). More specifically, by conducting long interviews a clear view of respondents’ experiences, identity and personal opinions was gained (Kvale, 1996). The semi-structured interview guide explored two main topics: 1) perceptual questions relating to authenticity and 2) methods for promoting ethnic restaurants. Interviews were conducted with consumers and restaurant owners in Greece and Britain. As the participants were located in different countries a cross-cultural comparison was undertaken so as to analyse the social environment of restaurants in and outside of the Mediterranean region. A projective technique was embedded within the interviews. Two sample Greek ethnic restaurant menus (see Appendix) were presented to participants to prompt elaboration and clarification of authenticity concepts and facilitate thr comparison of data within and between the interviews. Sampling of participants followed a theoretical approach (Glaser, 1992). Theoretical saturation was achieved with n=19 interviews of restaurant owners (11 and 8 interviews in the UK and Greece respectively) and n=23 consumers’ interviews (of a variety of identities and locations). The first author conducted all interviews, which were audio-recorded and transcribed. Permission for recording was sought prior to the commencement of each

2 interview (Rubin & Rubin, 1995) and all respondents signed an informed consent form. Data collection was fully in accordance with the Market Research Society (2014) Code of Conduct. The application of grounded theory enabled us to conceptualise the perceptions of participants as it is a method for studying processes and actions, rather than individuals. Grounded theory was also appropriate due to its ability to provide a basis for interpreting the different, often implicit, meanings that food has for varying social groups (Gephart, 2004). Data analysis followed the grounded theory approach of Charmaz (2010). This involved open coding and code categorisation within individual transcripts, and comparative analysis of codes and categories across participants. NVivo 10 was used for data storage, coding, categorization, memo-writing and data retrieval in an iterative process (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013). The emerging themes guided us to theorise from our data and construct a new typology of ethnic restaurants with each type possessing distinctive conventions and modes for evaluating quality. This is presented in the next section. Findings Applying Charmaz’s (2010) approach to grounded theory and drawing on QCT, we identify three main types of ethnic restaurants: 1. Market oriented ethnic restaurants (criteria: type of customers, prices, profits and adaptation to customers’ requests) 2. Domestic oriented ethnic restaurants (criteria: type of customers, indexical authenticity, originality, high quality and tradition) 3. Inspirational oriented ethnic restaurants (criteria: type of customers, existential authenticity, distinction, trends and innovation)

Table 1 summarises the typology and the characteristics of each type is discussed below.

Table 1: Typology of ethnic restaurants Market Domestic Inspirational Cuisine Multiple Staple, Greek Fusion cuisine origins, household globalised recipes Measure of product quality Price Indexical Innovation, authenticity, creating trends, social ties and existential honesty authenticity Customers Mainly tourists Mainly loyal Mainly loyal and non-Greeks customers, customers, in the UK locals locals Probability to recommend Low High Medium the restaurant

Market oriented ethnic restaurants These restaurants focus on price and value for money, adapting their menus to fit the tastes and price points of their customers. Their customers are largely non-Greeks and their menus have a

3 globalised feel, for instance by including burgers, sandwiches and paninis (see Menu 2 in the Appendix). The geographical origin of ingredients and recipes is of secondary or minimal importance. Such restaurants are perceived as inauthentic regardless of the owner’s ethnic origins because of the mixed geographical origins of the food:

“… A little Italian, a little Mexican, a little American, a little Greek. O.K... American. We don’t have burgers here (laughter)… Club sandwich? Sorry, but this isn’t … A Greek menu?” (Female, Greek restaurant owner, Greece). “… This is a factory not a restaurant, it reminds me of a pub, and he even has sandwiches. It reminds me of a hotel… So, I would never eat at this restaurant because it doesn’t have specific tastes… I am not sure how Greek the tastes are…” (Male, Greek restaurant owner, UK).

Given the mixed origins of the menu, restaurateurs and consumers perceived such offerings as lacking rather than having a mixed identity:

“… Is this from a Greek restaurant?.. I believe that this particular restaurant does not have an identity…” (Male, Greek restaurant owner, Greece). “… What kind of a restaurant is this?.. There’s no identity, it’s a little of everything… The gastronomy is certainly not highlighted…” (Male, Greek restaurant owner, Greece).

Authenticity was perceived not just in terms of the food served but the wines and beverages offered as well:

“… Is this really a restaurant? Could I also see the wine list? Here we are, Australian, African, Italian. You are not a Greek restaurant after all!..” (Female, Greek restaurant owner, Greece).

Restaurateurs following this approach justified their actions on the need to serve customers profitably, so that quality matched consumers’ willingness to pay and preferences. However, restauranteurs from other orders of worth believed that adaptation to the market in this manner is counterproductive as it lacks a role for exploration and enhancement of consumer tastes and education:

“… A big mistake is that... What happens is that a restaurant adapts let's say to the customers but, you want the customers to adapt to you, in a way… If you want Japanese for me, you go to Japanese. If you want Greek you go to Greek. I can't please everyone. If someone doesn't like Greek food don't come here...” (Male, Greek restaurant owner, UK). “… This is supposed to be Greek?.. We are known for these in Europe, with mousaka and stuffed tomatoes. They don’t know us for the lamb chops which they should…” (Male, Greek restaurant owner, Greece).

The market oriented restaurants are not recommended by customers because they are conceived as inauthentic and not of high quality. Price is not a stated influencing factor:

“… If the quality is better, I wouldn't care if I pay like 5 more pounds, you know what I mean...” (Male, Greek consumer who has lived in the UK for 4 years, commenting on the ethnic restaurants abroad).

Domestic oriented ethnic restaurants

According to the restaurateurs, an ethnic restaurant is expected to be successful if it is faithful to tradition and that is by having an authentic menu, made with original ingredients. Authenticity in this context is associated with domestic, home cooking:

“… The menu 1 is more authentic Greek. It includes all the Greek food that a mother can cook in the house…” (Female, Greek consumer comparing menus 1 and 2, see appendix). “… This is totally Greek (laughter)! A list of my favourite dishes frankly (laughter). This is mom and dad's restaurant and probably really good frankly by looking at it right now…” (Female, American-Greek consumer, living in London comparing menus 1 and 2, see appendix).

Generally, domestic restaurants are preferred over market oriented or inspirational ones. Moreover, consumers who feel nostalgic for their home country or past holidays prefer traditional places to modern ones. These customers tend to believe more in indexical authenticity:

“… Em, the music when you first walk into the restaurant. I always love it. Always makes you feel that you are on holiday. And very friendly reception…” “Is it because you miss holiday”? “It is definitely, yes. I think everybody is the same. I go to a lot of Turkish restaurants now and I wanna see the Turkish lights, the shish pipe there so, yeah...” (Female, English consumer who has been on holiday in Greece and Turkey describing her experience in a Greek ethnic restaurant located in the UK).

“Do you believe that nostalgia was the motivation factor of visiting that restaurant? “Definitely. It was pretty much a few months after I had come to the UK so we were a big group I would say about 15 Cypriot students and I think we all missed home so, I would say it was pretty much a big factor…” (Female, Greek-Cypriot consumer who has been living in the UK for 4 years).

Inspirational restaurants Inspirational restaurants focus on a niche market by offering innovative recipes and experiences which go beyond the specific traditions of Greek cuisine. Such restaurants are preferred by customers who are widely travelled and those without strong links with Greek culture. These customers tend to believe more in existential authenticity:

“…I think maybe that's an issue with Greek restaurants abroad. They are stuck with the taverna style for too long... It is just that people get not to see anything else, they immediately associate Greek cuisine with just taverns, mousaka dish… which is fine to have and I think is important to keep this but, at the same time, enrich it with some different offerings I think that would be really nice to see…” (Female, Greek consumer who has lived in several countries, now living in the UK and has lived outside of Greece for more than 20 years).

Inspiration is attributed to the personal abilities of the chef, with an emphasis on innovation and the ability to surprise and delight consumers. In this regard, inspirational restaurants resembled the art world, with the chef as artist.

Where a restaurant is perceived as being stuck between two categories, both restaurateurs and customers perceived it as lacking a clear identity, resulting in minimal positive word of mouth.

If a restaurant does not belong to a specific quality conventions category (Table 1), it is also unlikely to be recommended by customers. Conclusion Informed by QCT, this paper explores understandings of food quality and authenticity, considering the perceptions of restaurateurs as well as consumers. Through the lens of restaurateurs’ and consumers’ identities, specific aspects are judged in order to define a restaurant’s quality, specifically: the menu and its degree of adaptation from ethnic origin, price, social ties, ingredients and the ethnicity of the staff. Concerning the ethnic food sector, restaurateurs and consumers judge authenticity according to a constructed, domestic ideal. In this realm, authenticity is indexical - not objectively defined but symbolically and personally constructed. However, those who lack strong ties with the origin of the cuisine, in this case Greece, are more likely to believe in the inspirational category. Social identity is thus instrumental in the creation of meaning and understanding of authenticity. Objective authenticity, linked to concrete criteria (standards) is absent from all of the realms identified (market, domestic and inspirational). From a theoretical perspective, our basic contribution is the typology presented in Table 1. Concerning the relevance of findings for practitioners, we offer restaurateurs the knowledge of how to promote their ethnic restaurants better and by having a clear identity focusing either on the domestic or the inspirational category. Limitations This study draws on qualitative data generated from interviews with the owner / managers of Greek ethnic restaurants and their customers. In future, a comparison with restaurants linked to different ethnicities would be beneficial to verify and potentially extend the typology introduced in this paper. References Alexander, N. (2009). Brand authentication: creating and maintaining brand auras. European Journal of Marketing, 43(3/4), 551-562. doi: 10.1108/03090560910935578 Bazeley, P., & Jackson, K. (2013). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo (2nd edition ed.). London: SAGE. Becut, A. (2011). Apples, quality signs and trademarks for local products. International Review of Social Research, 1(2), 65-83. Belhassen, Y., Caton, K., & Stewart, W. P. (2008). The search for authenticity in the pilgrim experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(3), 668-689. doi: 10.1016/j.annals.2008.03.007 Beverland, M. B. (2005). Crafting brand authenticity: The case of luxury wines. Journal of Management Studies, 42(5), 1003-1029. doi: DOI 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00530.x Boltanski, L., & Thévenot, L. (1991). De La Justification: les économies de la grandeur. Paris: Gallimard Brown, S., Kozinets, R. V., & Sherry, J. F. (2003). Teaching old brands new tricks: Retro branding and the revival of brand meaning. Journal of Marketing, 67(3), 19-33. doi: DOI 10.1509/jmkg.67.3.19.18657 Bryla, P. (2015). The role of appeals to tradition in origin food marketing. A survey among Polish consumers. Appetite, 91, 302-310. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.056 Charmaz, K. (2010). Constructing Grounded Theory. London: Sage Publications. Climent-López, E., Sánchez-Hernández, J. L., Canto-Fresno, C., Alonso-Santos, J. L., Ramírez- García, S., Rodero-González, V., & Ruiz-Budría, E. (2014). Measuring quality conventions in the food industry: Applications to the wine sector in Spain. Geoforum, 56, 148-160. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.07.004

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Appendix Menu 1 – Black font Starters -Mezedakia Humus Chickpeas with tahini, olive oil, garlic and lemon. Tzatziki Greek yoghurt with cucumber, mint and garlic Taramosalata Rich natural-cured cod’s roe dip Olives All above are served with warm bread Choose your favourite: Fresh herbs and peppers (green & black), Lemon and dill, Kalamata. Dolmades 6 Vine leaves stuffed with rice and herbs. Falafel 3 Fried balls of spiced chickpeas served with humus. Tabbouleh Couscous with parsley, red peppers, lemon juice and olive oil. Chickpea salad Chickpeas with parsley, peppers, lemon juice, olive oil. Greek salad Tomatoes, cucumber, onion, feta cheese, fresh herbs and olive oil. Mezze Plate Spicy red peppers stuffed with feta (slightly spicy) Stuffed with Greek feta & spices. Choice of any four starters from above, served with warm pitta bread. 'Nick’s' Soup Delicious, home-made fresh soup of the day served with olives and warm pitta bread... (The soup is vegan & gluten free unless otherwise specified) Anchovies Basket of warm pitta bread Fresh anchovy fillets in olive oil, served with toasted pitta bread Main Courses Gigantes Plaki (gluten free)

Greek butter beans in a tomato and herb sauce with carrots and celery, baked in the oven, served with salad & humus. Fasolakia Ladera (gluten free) Fine green beans cooked in tomato, carrots and fresh herbs, served with salad & humus. Imam Bayeldi (gluten free) Aubergine, tomatoes and onion baked slowly with herbs and garlic, served on a bed of rice & salad. Spanakopitta ( vegetarian ) Athenian style:Spinach, Greek feta cheese & fresh herbs in filo pastry, served with houmous & salad. Tiropitta ( vegetarian ) Greek feta baked in filo pastry, served with salad & houmous. Chicken Souvlaki / Falafel Souvlaki (wrap) Large flat bread filled with marinated grilled chicken breast or falafel (veggie option), houmous, tzatziki & salad. Served with olives. Papoutsakia ( gluten free ) Slipper of aubergine stuffed with rice, tomato sauce and herbs, topped with Greek feta cheese, served with tzatziki & salad. Kotopoulo Lemonato Chicken breast baked in lemon juice, olive oil & herbs, served with rice, salad & houmous. Kimadopitta Lean mince beef in tomato & herbs with a layer of Greek Feta cheese baked in the oven wraped in fillo pastry, served with salad & tzatziki. Beef Stifado (Gluten free ) Tender beef cooked slowly with red wine, tomato, onions, and bay leaves, served with rice, tzatziki and salad. Keftedes Fournou (NOT gluten free ) Minced beef and herb meatballs baked in the oven, served with rice, salad and tzatziki. Spetsofai (NOT gluten free ) Greek Trikala pork sausage, cooked in a wine, red pepper and tomato, served with rice and salad. Mousaka Manos’s traditional Greek Moussaka – layers of potatoes, aubergine, minced beef and tomato sauce topped with creamy béchamel sauce. Please order at the counter. Thank you.

Menu 2 – Blue font