27 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

DOI: 10.22034/jaco.2020.225997.1156

Persian translation of this paper entitled: عوامل تقویت و تهدید کارکردهای امنیتی سکههای دورۀ هخامنشیان )559-330ق.م( is also published in this issue of journal.

Original Research Article

Factors Strengthening and Threatening the Security Functions of the Achaemenid (559-330 BC)

Reza Ebadi Jamkhaneh*1, Sina Foroozesh2, Mohammad Farhadi3

1. Department of History, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, . 2. Ph.D. in history, Department of History, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 3. Ph.D. in history, Department of History, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.

Received; 07/04/2020 accepted; 08/09/2020 available online; 01/01/2021

Abstract Coins are illustrative and credible sources of ancient times whose study can shed light on the darker parts of history. Coins had security, commercial, and role in the past. The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that enhance and threaten the security functions of the Achaemenids period coins (559-330 BC) using a historical research method and a descriptive-analytical writing approach, library sources, and museum archives and documents. Trade and trading tools have always been one of the most important components of a society’s social life. The present study attempts to investigate this aspect of socio-economic history by proposing the hypothesis the political and economic factors can affect the Achaemenid security functions. The findings indicated that the Achaemenid coins have to be reinforced by Darius’s efforts to pay attention to economic (royal road), administrative (Divine Road), and political management practices (Satrapies). The threatening effects of the Achaemenid coins must also be found in the political, social, and economic mismanagement of Darius’s successors, such as the policy of coinage in the Peloponnesian Wars, the recruitment of mercenary soldiers, corruption of the court, the rise of the , and the increase in interest rates and taxes.

Keywords: Coins; Achaemenids; Reinforcement; Threats; Security Functions.

Introduction always been influenced by reinforcing Minting the coins had many religious, or threatening factors. Coins have long economic, and political functions and had been a symbol of ethnicity, sovereignty,

* Corresponding Author: [email protected] +989112522719 28 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

independence, and freedom. Another advantage of Feizi, Montashari & Mohammadi Loron (2017), minting the coins for people was that coins were Avarzamani (2001) and Malekzadeh Bayani (2009) a sign of the progress of civilization and paying have focused on Iranian coins and have written a attention to culture, that is, the people minting coins book titled “The History of coins”. However, none were certainly more advanced and civilized than of the above- mentioned studies and other research others. Coins were minted in more beautiful and conducted in this regard have investigated the artistic forms as the state of affairs became more security functions of Achaemenid-era coins. regular and governments became richer. Coin’s history and its functions in Iran date back to the Methodology Achaemenid period. (522-486 BC) This study is conducted using a library research was the first one who minted coins in Iran. He minted method and the data were collected by referring to both gold and coins, which came to be known the museum’s documents, books, existing literature, as the Daric which was a high-purity gold piece of inscriptions, and coins from the . 8.41 grams, and Siglos or with 5.6 grams of silver. The front of the coin had the image of the Achaemenid-era coins king of the Achaemenid Empire armed with a bow Coins not only were a valuable trading instrument and arrow and on the back of the coin, there were but also had played a political, security function. some depressions. Coins of Darius III showed the The kings promoted a harmonious and one-sided archer holding a dagger. Coinage is minted during belief system in the society by placing their image as the Achaemenid Persian imperial period as needed, well as the images of religious, ritual, and political but when the war broke out, satraps and local rulers symbols on the coins. Achaemenid-era coins were received the lion’s share of the accumulated Persian characterized by the fact that only one side was royal treasury to the coins. The main question minted. The front face of the coins showed a figure of addressed in this paper is: what were the security the king, standing upright and holding a bow in one function of coins of the Achaemenid Persian period hand and an arrow, dagger, or spear in the other hand. and its strengthening and threatening factors? The back of the coins showed a bezel in irregular rectangular shape resulting from a tool minting the The Significance of the study coin. The Achaemenid Empire mostly minted gold The significance of this study refers to examining and silver coins. Achaemenid gold coins of daric the coins, especially their security function, with a (8.42 grams) and double daric (16.65 grams) were different approach to find new innovative points. minted (Gershevitch, 2006). During the Achaemenid Empire, royal coins, satrapies, or provinces were Research background minted with the king’s image in the conquered lands. The pre-Islamic coins received attention from many Darius I commonly known as Darius the Great historians and researchers of Iran. For example, introduced an identical currency for the Achaemenid Gershevitch was among those who attributed the Empire after 517 B.C. This currency was chosen minting of the coins in Iran to Cyrus Achaemenid based on the Achaemenid monetary system and King (Gershevitch, 2006) and also Babelon who was consisted of a new thick that had a standard the curator of the coins in Paris Museum, Pope in the weight of 8.4 g. Only the Royal Mint could mint the book titled “A Survey of Persian Art”, and Iranian gold. The grade of this gold was 3%, and this standard researchers including Dadvar & Makvandi (2012), was considered as the basis for the prevalence of gold Reza Ebadi Jamkhaneh, et al. 29

coins in world trade for several centuries (Babelon, led to an unprecedented concentration of power. It 2009). The most common medium of exchange was was considered one of the most important factors a silver coin weighing 5.6 grams equal to 1.20 gold contributing to economic growth. Besides, Darius’s coins in value. During the Achaemenid Empire, the economic policy and his efforts to build the road ratio of gold and silver with equal weights was 1: to facilitate rapid communication, introduce new 131.3. Precious metals that belonged to the treasury scales of weights and measures, spread the coins and were minted and converted into coins only with the an identical currency in the imperial diameter, and discretion from the emperor (Grantovskiĭ, 2010); control the government over economic affairs had (Table 1). exerted unprecedented effects on business. According to Ghirshman (1933), the growth of world trade led Reinforcing factors affecting the security to achieving higher living standards in Achaemenid function of Achaemenid-era coins Iran, and a standard of living in Babylon was The Achaemenid Empire ruled over West Asia and considerably higher than that in Greece (Ghirshman, prevented the rulers of this region from power, which 1993). Olmstead believed that rarely among the

Table 1. The types of coins of the Achaemenid Empire. Source: Rezaei bagh bidi, 2012, 5 &6; Babylon, 2009, 8-26 .

No The features of the Achaemenid coins The images of the coin 1 Torso of bearded archer wearing the crenelated crown and sleeved chiton. This archer holds the bow in his left hand and two arrows in his right hand. This image is found on only some Siglos.

2 The archer who had no pointed beard is depicted on coins.

3 Unlike the previous two images, the lower part of the sleeved chiton is not folded over the left knee but extends as a half-circle from the left knee to the right foot ankle.

4 Archer is in full-length view with the appearance similar to the type 1 Archer coin, holding quiver over his back, a bow in his left hand and a dagger in his right hand, and is in a kneeling or running position. 30 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

ancient monarchs do we find rulers like Darius “who roads, establishing the organization of the eyes and so thoroughly understood that the prosperity of the ears of the king, minting coins by Great Satraps, nation must rest on a sound economic foundation”. adopting Darius I’s policy of religious tolerance, He also introduced a new weight, the “Karsha”, in bow and arrows and imperial crown exhibited on the the shape of a pyramidion for the standardization of coins, using the unit of weight and currency in trade, weights and measures (Olmstead, 2014). According permitting the internal independence of the satraps, to some historians, Darius I ordered the minting of paying the attention to water roads, providing darics in the middle of the first month of winter in 504 political and economic security and most importantly BC Egypt, and India used the gold coins or darics building the imperial roads. To maintain a connection and the difficulties in trade between the various ethnic between the various imperial cities and the capital groups and regions of Iran were resolved. The darics cities, Darius I built a network of roads that remained were minted by the king himself, but not the silver stable for a long time and was used primarily for coins. Darius’ satrapies were allowed to mint the administrative purposes and made trade easier. These required silver coins. Daric coins were very popular roads provided access to safe, affordable, accessible, in all adjacent countries, especially Greece in a way and sustainable transport. Throughout these roads, that foreign banks eagerly accepted Achaemenid which branched off from Shush, the administrative coins and conducted an important part of their capital of the country, trade and the expansion of banking transactions using them. The new gold coins cultural ties and the exchange of ideas perform under were called the Daric and the silver coins were called the shadow of the imperial flag (Frye, 2014, 17). the Sigloi. The Darics and Sigloi were trade coins. According to Frye, two salt deserts, the Kavīr and Darics weighed 8.42 grams and Sigloi weighed Lūt deserts, which separated the east from west, led 10.75 grams. The grade of the gold coins or darics to an increase in the number of immigrants heading was very high which contained only 3% of the alloy. toward India or Mesopotamia. However, a trade route The high purity of gold darics led to their popularity was built near passing from , and made Achaemenid gold coins which were always Hamadan, and Tehran to Herat. Then, one road valid. At the end of the Achaemenid Empire, double ahead the northeast connected to Marv, Bukhara, and darics were also minted. The quality of gold coins Samarkand. Another road crossed from the south to remained the same throughout the Achaemenid Sistan and the east to Kandahar and the mountains to period. Darics and Sigloi carried the images of the Indus plain. Other roads going through Tehran or Persian archers. These images changed during the Hamedan were bordered to the north by Azerbaijan two centuries of Achaemenids’ monarchy. Since the and Armenia and Caspian and Black seas or to date of the minting of Achaemenid coins is unknown, the south by Isfahan and Fars. However, the main images displaying on the coins during the rule of historical road was the Great Khorasan Road that each king are determined based on other pieces of later came to be known as the Silk Road, crossing evidence. Achaemenid coins, except for exceptional central Iran from east to west (ibid., 18). cases, have an image on one side only, and, usually, square depressions and unevenness are seen in their The continuation of bow and arrows exhibited back (Bayani, 2002). Other reinforcing factors on Achaemenid coins as a symbol of the whole contributing to the security function of Achaemenid- empire era coins refer to its effective relationship with The image of the royal crown on the coins was measures such as establishing post offices and post considered a symbol of power, legitimacy, and socio- Reza Ebadi Jamkhaneh, et al. 31

political security was. The front of Achaemenid coins power from the Persian people, but as monarchy bear the image of the king and the back of the coins, established, the source of their power was the vast in general, there is no special image. Only irregular estates that existed throughout the Achaemenid rectangular depressions, which may represent a Empire. With the decay of the Achaemenid Empire, particular image, display on the back of the coins. chief of police headquarters became virtually The Darics, Double darics, and Shekel and some independent, especially after, contrary to the main silver coins minted by satraps and subordinates, rule, it became customary to appoint them as the generally displayed the image of a Persian archer or generals of their city. Alexander who defeated Darius the image of a king fighting a lion or riding on his III in 330 BC and also continued the basic customs and horse. Also, some types of coins exhibited images traditions of the Achaemenids (Lambton, 1960). All similar to different Achaemenid kings from the time the kings of the Persian Achaemenid Empire did not of Darius I to Darius III. follow the wise method of Cyrus and Darius, rather According to Charles Lenorman (1949), the heads they were immersed in wealth, bliss, corruption, of the people displaying on these coins (darics) are greed, and selfishness. The minting of coins in the divided into two distinct types: a straight nose that is time of Darius marked the beginning of a stable exhibited on the coins and must belong to the image government with peace, security, and prosperity, but of Xerxes or Darius I (Babelon, 2009); (Fig. 1). soon the profiteers threatened the power and security of the Achaemenid Empire by raising interest rates at Threatening factors affecting the security banks. The emergence of a private banking system is function of Achaemenid-era coins one of the interesting economical phenomena during The Achaemenid Empire came to power and gained the Achaemenid period. According to Olmstead

Permitting the internal independenc e of the satraps Maintaining Building the the political imperial and economic roadsg security

Minting the Religious coins by tolerance subordinates Reinforcing factors affecting the security function of Achaemenid-era coins

The Establishing continuity of Post Offices minting gold and post coins (200 Roads years)

Bow and The invention arrows and of with a imperial single weight crown throughout exhibited on the empire the coins

Fig. 1. Reinforcing factors affecting the security function of Achaemenid-era coins. Source: authors. 32 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

(2014), temples as major economic units offered and paved the way for the victory of Alexander’s the loans. Agricultural loans were interest-free, but policy. Darius III at the Battle of Gogmel said that let they stipulated that if the loan did not repay, a 25 this greedy nation (Macedonians and Greek), which -percent interest would be added to the loan. The rate has long been thirsty for my treasures, immersed to of interest on non-agricultural loans was 20 percent. the neck in gold (ibid., 80). If Darius III and the kings If the borrower was not a reliable person or if he did before him had followed the benevolent policy of not repay on time, a heavy penalty would be added Cyrus instead of collecting gold bars and oppressing to the loan. Regarding unreliable persons, the lender the subordinate nations, Alexander would not have usually took a house, a piece of land, or a slave as thought of invading Iran. The king and his courtiers a pawn. In these cases, there was no rent for the were extravagant. As can be seen in the cuneiform pawn and no interest in the . If the borrower inscriptions, the Achaemenid Empire from the time failed to repay the loan, the lender would have taken of Darius onwards, handed over different parts of the pawn. Other loans demanded both pawn and the country to contractors such as Ajibi and Sons interest and stipulated that everything in the city and and Morasho and Sons, and others to provide their outside the city belonging to him was considered as comfort and convenience and collect taxes. These a pawn (Sami, 1964, 2, 78). Other threatening factors contractors would collect taxes and deliver them to contributing to the security function of Achaemenid the royal treasury. Also, they not only received tax coins with high-interest rates on bank loans include from the people but also ruthlessly plundered the the king’s courtiers accepting bribes, increasing people. Cuneiform inscriptions of the fifth century tax rates in the subordinate nations, forgetting the showed that one of the Iranian officers complained religion and ideology of Cyrus II, known as “Cyrus about the actions of these tax collectors, leading to the Great”, excessive indulgence and lazy military his conviction, but Morasho and Sons paid large commanders, weakness of organization of the king’s bribes to the Iranian officers and did not convict eye and ear and the subordinate nations’ successive (Petrushevsky et al., 1974 ). Olmstead thought that revolt. From Darius the Great time onwards, the because they collected heavy taxes and received silver Achaemenid kings only were thought of collecting and gold as tax coins, many landlords who could not taxes and accumulating gold and silver bars in their pay the ransom were forced to give their property treasures (ibid., 79). While the cost of food, clothing, as a pawn to wicked lenders to provide silver and housing, and other necessities of life had been rising gold coins. According to Olmstead, the continuation since the end of Darius’s reign and the income and of this oppressive policy by the king and rulers of wages of the active classes of the society were still the Achaemenid Empire caused inflation and rising constant, and thus for the majority of people the prices for people (Olmstead, 2014); (Fig. 2). purchasing power was decreasing day by day. Undoubtedly, if the Achaemenid kings had used the The policy of the allotment of the gold darics large sums of money that they had forcibly taken from and the Peloponnesian War the Middle Eastern nations as taxation to develop and Following Themistocles’ death and the expulsion of aid the active classes of society, the taxpayers would Simon from the country, the relationship between not have been forced to receive the bank loans with Sparta and Athens gradually became colder. Athens a forty-percent interest rate. The continuation of this emerged as the supreme naval power at the time economic policy led to the revolts or rebellions of of Pericles 461 BC. There were several causes for Babylon, Egypt, and other Middle Eastern countries the Peloponnesian War: after the Delian league, Reza Ebadi Jamkhaneh, et al. 33

Hiring mercenaries

The spread of corruption Raising bank and bribery interest rates for the king's courtiers

The disregard Threatening factors of Darius I's affecting the Increasing the successors for security function of excess burden the principles Achaemenid-era of a tax of property coins

Granting Independence Egyptian and the independence increasing of Ian power of satraps A sharp drop in tax tax revenue

Fig. 2. Threatening factors affecting the security function of Achaemenid-era coins. Source: Khodadadian, 2007; Hinz, 2010; Koch, 2007. the Athenian government built long walls and large could withstand for a long time against the forces buildings there and emerged as the naval power. It of the Greek governments that enjoyed the help of didn’t take long until this Athenian power disturbs its Persian coins (Pirnia, 2009, 1211; Sami, 2010, 208). neighbors such as Thebes and Carnet, and as Sparta During the Peloponnesian War, mercenary forces was hostile to the Athenian power and the walls built made up the bulk of Iranian armies. Mercenaries fight on it, the Thebes and Carnet naturally followed for money and often joined the military service by Sparta and made a pact with it to prevent the growth forces. The presence of mercenaries weakened and of Athenian power. Thus the Peloponnesian War degraded the army. Successive revolts or rebellions began in 431 BC between Athens and Sparta until of subordinated nations, military defeats, and police Sparta finally assigned the administration of the war uprisings with the help of Greek mercenaries caused to Lysander as the Spartan commander. Lysander to fundamentally reconsider his policy defeated the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War toward Greece. He realized that divided Greece leading to the fall of Athens. Most of the cities and would pose no threat to the Persian government. islands of Athens were conquered by the Spartans. Thus, paying bribes to discredit Greek political The treasury of Athens was empty, and Athenian leaders was on Ardeshir’s agenda. Ardashir selected aristocrats wanted to go peace and the alliance with the the policy of the Achaemenid Empire (446 to 646 Spartans. In 404 BC, Athenians accepted the Spartans’ BC) based on ‘divide and rule’, by inciting Sparta offer of peace, destroyed its fences, renounced all its against Athens and vice versa using the greedy possessions, left the democratic government, and strategy (Sami, 2010). Using the policy of “ influence agreed to transport Spartan forces to the Acropolis. of Iran’s gold on the Athenian rulers”, Ardashir This defeat led to Athenian surrender. As a result, I tried to attract them towards the Persians, and the Peloponnesian War was ended; however, Athens built a creepy atmosphere of fear of Iran over all of 34 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

Greece and inform that a new army of Persians led of Persia, ( 2) It was decided that the Achaemenid’s by Xerxes’s son will not come to Greece. Iran was king and the Spartans would join their forces to pouring its gold towards Greece so that each side prevent the Athenians from collecting taxes in these that was weakened, Iran tended to the other side and areas, (3) they outlined a set of mutually agreed with helped to continue these wars and the Achaemenids rules of war with Athens, (4) Any city or region that could maintain their interests in the region, without rebelled against the king was considered an enemy war and bloodshed. There was no need for a sword of Sparta, and( 5) The king, in turn, considered the for Ardashir anymore because the gold and his golden rebels against the Lasdemons as his enemies. The promises prevented the Greeks from sedition in the Persians took the financial supporting responsibility western borders of the country even before the Peace of the Spartan. The articles of this treaty were not of Kallias and the Peloponnesian War, and the Greeks very pleasant to Sparta (Pirnia, 2009); (Table 2). were tempted by gold. The method used by Ardeshir was a new strategy that had not been employed in Conclusion the diplomatic relations of the countries theretofore, Throughout history, coins not only played a major or if it was effective, it was not known (Pirnia, 2009; role in facilitating trade and exchange of goods but Sami, 2010). Ardashir I died in December 424 BC. also considered as security and propaganda tools On February 13, 423 BC, the son of Ardashir I, for the kings. During the Achaemenid period, the proclaimed himself as the king of Persia under the most important coins minted had played a security name of Darius II. Greece’s internal strife provided function, namely “ Royal Gold Coins “ and “ Satrapy an opportunity for the king to use Iranian gold as a Coins “. During the Achaemenid Persian Empire, decisive weapon in Greece and weaken both Athens the number of satraps and their political position and Sparta by increasing their conflict. During that witnessed frequent changes. However, in many cases, time, when the Peloponnesian War began, Sparta these changes can be seen in the study of coins and sought to use Darius I’s gold coins to destroy its inscriptions. The policy of the allotment of the gold powerful rival, Athens. Transporting Iranian gold coins, in addition to the separation of Egypt from Iran coins instead of Iranian soldiers to the border and and a rise in the prices of basic goods, was considered enticing both sides of the war made things difficult as one of the most important factors threatening the for the Greeks and easy for the Iranians. Without security functions of Achaemenid coins. war occurring between Iran and Greece, Persian gold From the time of Ardashir I and the beginning of was used to seduce Athens against Sparta. The war the Peloponnesian War, the Iranian government was continued soliciting or offering bribes. Sparta pursued a policy of ‘divide and rule’ by displaying lost its privilege based on the diplomatic style of the its gold coins and using this new diplomatic strategy. Persian emperor but received a large amount of gold. The king of Iran not only intervened in the internal The king became responsible for the international affairs of Greece but also prevented the Greeks banking system. Tissaphern and Farnabaz, two from invading the borders of the countries under his Persian politicians, used a separate policy to weaken control. However, this policy continued until the time Greece, which achieved a common goal. Finally, the of Darius II, who also played the role of international Spartans concluded a treaty with Tissaphern in 414 banker through his policies and created conflict BC which specified the following articles: ( 1) All the between Athens and Sparta. According to historical cities and lands that were previously placed under the sources, these wars not only began with the support of control of Persians came under the control of the king the Iranian government but also ended by the order of Reza Ebadi Jamkhaneh, et al. 35

Table 2. Consequences of the allotment policy of the gold coins of the Achaemenid during the Peloponnesian War. Source: authors.

No Positive consequences Negative consequences

1 Creating peace for the subordinating nations in the region of Asia Neglecting the training administrative and Minor financial affairs in the region of Asia Minor

2 The conflict between the government and Greek cities An alliance of government with Greek cities at the time of Alexander’s invasion of Iran and the ineffectiveness of the policy of the allotment of the gold coins 3 Control of the subordinating nations by the kings, including the revolts or rebellions of nations and the Ardashir I, Darius II, Ardashir II, and Ardashir III by hiring weakness of the Achaemenids as a result of mercenaries the policy of hiring mercenaries 4 The expansion of trade in the Achaemenid Empire The expansion of trade in the Achaemenid Empire 5 The effectiveness of the policy of gold coins in political tactics The ineffectiveness of the policy of the allotment of the gold coins at the time of Darius III and the fall of the Achaemenids 6 Organizing tax collection Inability to collect taxes due to the revolt of the subordinate nations, especially Egypt the Iranian government and the policy of the allotment Achaemenid Empire]. Research in Arts and Humanities, 2(4), of Persian coins. In conclusion, Persian coins were 121-134. sharper than the swords of military soldiers. In other • Frye, R. N. (2014). The heritage of Persia (M. Rajabnia, Trans.). Tehran: Centre for Scientific & Cultural Publications. words, minting the coins was effective in providing • Gershevitch, I. (2006). The median and achaemenian periods internal security, but caused insecurity between rival (M. Saghebfar, Trans.). Tehran: Jami Publications. and hostile governments. • Ghirshman, R. (1993). Iran from the Beginning till the Advent of Islam, (Moin, M. trans.) Tehran: Centre for Scientific & Reference list Cultural Publications. • Avarzamani, F. (2001). Negareshi bar pishine-ye nahavand ba • Grantovskiĭ, D. (2010). Istoriia Irana (K. Keshavarzi, Trans.). estenad-e sekke neveshte-ha [A View on Nahavand’s History Tehran: Morvarid Publications. Based on Coins], Farhangan, 3(9), 68-81. • Khodadadian, A. (2010). Tarikh-e iran-e bastan [History of • Avarzamani, F. & Sarfaraz, A. A. (2001). Iranian coins from the ancient Iran]. Tehran: Sokhan Publishing. early beginning to Zand dynasty. Tehran: SAMT Publications. • Koch, H. M. (2007). Es kundet dareios dar konig (P. Rajabi, • Babelon, E. (2009). Coins of the Achaemenid Period (M. Trans.). Tehran: Karang Publishing Bayani & Kh. Bayani, Trans.). Tehran: Pazineh Publications. • Lambton, A.K.S. (1960). Landlord and peasant in Persia: a • Bayani, Sh. (2002). The history of ancient Iran from the Arians study of land tenure and land revenue administration (M. Amiri, entry till the end of Achaemenids, Tehran: SAMT Publications. Trans.). Tehran: Book publication and Translation Agency. Community Verified icon • Malekzadeh Bayani, M. (2009). Tarikh-e sekk-e az ghadimtarin • Dadvar, A. & Makvandi, L. (2012). A study of Kings Crown ayam ta dor-ye sasaniyan [the history of the coin from the Design in Iran’s Coins from Achaemenid to Sassanid Period, earliest to the Sassanid period], Tehran: University of Tehran. HONAR-HA-YE ZIBA, (50), 5-14. • Olmstead, A. T. (2014). The history of the Persian empire: • Feizi, F., Montashari, M. & Mohammadi Loron, M. (2017). Achaemenid period (M. Moghaddam, Trans.). Tehran: Amirkabir Motale va barrasi-ye noghosh-e seke-ha-ye -ha-ye dore- Publications. ye hakhamaneshi [A study of images satrapal coins of the • Petrushevsky, E.P., Pigulovskaya, N.V., Yakubovskiev I.V.o., 36 quarterly, No. 30| Winter 2021

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HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE

Ebadi Jamkhaneh, R.; Foroozesh, S. & Farhadi, M. (2020). Factors Strengthening and Threatening the Security Functions of the Achaemenid Coins (559-330 BC). Journal of Art & Civilization of the Orient,8 (30), 27-36.

DOI: 10.22034/jaco.2020.225997.1156 URL: http://www.jaco-sj.com/article_105134_en.html